Chemistry Unit 1 and 2 Revision Notes

Chemistry Unit 2 Revision Notes
Enthalpy
Enthalpy (H) is a type of potential energy (heat).
Breaking bonds requires energy and is an endothermic reaction.
Making bonds releases energy and is an exothermic reaction.
Endothermic = positive enthalpy change
Exothermic = negative enthalpy change
In an exothermic reaction, heat is released. This leaves the products of the reaction with less
potential energy than the reactants.
Enthalpy (H)
This diagram shows the enthalpy of the reactants and

products of a reaction. It shows that the products of the
Reactants
reaction have a lower enthalpy (and are therefore more

stable) than the reactants and so the reaction is
Products
exothermic.
H = HPRODUCTS HREACTANTS
HO: The enthalpy change for a reaction, under standard conditions, with all substances in
their standard states. Conditions: T = 298K, P = 100KPa, Concentration = 1mol/dm 3
Specific Heat Capacity
The specific heat capacity of any substance is the amount of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of 1g of substance by 1K.
q = mcT
q = energy given out (J)
m = mass (g)
T = change in temperature (K)

www.mattsrevision.com
c = specific heat capacity (Jg -1K-1)
4.18 = specific heat capacity of water
Standard Enthalpy of Formation
HfO: The enthalpy change for the formation of one mole of a compound from its elements,
under standard conditions with all substances being in their standard states.
What is the importance of knowing the standard enthalpy of formation?
It tells you the stability of a compound relative to its elements (negative value means
more stable)
If Hf is known for all substances in an equation, H for the reaction can be

O
calculated.
Standard Enthalpy of Combustion
HcO : The enthalpy change for the complete combustion in oxygen of one mole of a
compound under standard conditions, with all substances being in their standard states.
Making and Breaking Bonds
The mean bond enthalpy is the amount of heat energy either required to break or given out
from making a bond, averaged over different environments of that bond.
Making bonds = exothermic
Breaking bonds = endothermic
Hess's Law
Hess's law states that the enthalpy change of a reaction depends only on the initial and final
states of the reaction and is independent of the route by which the reaction may occur.
HA = HB + HC
Hess' law only deals with heat energy.
First Law of Thermodynamics
Energy can neither be created or destroyed but it can be converted from one form in to
another.
Also known as 'The Principle of Conservation of Energy'.
Hess's Law and
HcO
2C + 3H2 C2H6
Combustion of individual reactants and products from reaction above: 2C + 2O 2 2CO2

3H2 +
3
O2
2
C2H6 + 7 O2 2CO2 + 3H2O
3H2O
Back to original equation:
2C
2[Hc(C)]
3H2
3[Hc(H2)]
CO2
C2H6
-[Hc(C2H6)]
3H2O
Hess's Law and Hf
CH4
-[Hf(CH4)]
-2[Hf(O2)]
CO2 + 2H2O
2O2
Hf(CO2)
-2[Hf(O2)]
2H2
2O2
Kinetics
Collision Theory
When a chemical reaction takes place, the reactant particles must collide.
No reaction will occur if:
2 identical molecules collide
Molecules collide too slowly
The collision occurs at the wrong angle
There are 2 definitions for the rate of reaction:
1) Speed reactants are used up i.e. [reactant]

time
2) Speed products are formed i.e. [product]
time
[reactant] = concentration of reactant

[product] = concentration of product
Unit = moldm-3s-1
When all reactants are used up, [reactant] = 0 so rate of reaction (ROR) = 0
Activation Energy
The minimum energy required to start a reaction.
Enthalpy (H)
Reactants
Products
This diagram shows the activation energy of an

Ea
exothermic reaction.
Enthalpy (H)
This diagram shows the activation energy of an

endothermic reaction.
Products
Ea
Reactants
Rate Graph
Volume of product
Red line = 50cm3 1M HCl

Purple line = 50cm3 0.5M HCl
Green line = 25cm3 2M HCl
time
The purple line has half the moles of the red line and so it levels off at a smaller volume (half
the volume of the red line).
The green line has the same number of moles as the red line, so levels off at the same
volume of product. However, the green line has double the concentration of the red line and so
it is steeper.
Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution
This shows the distribution of energy for particles in a
Emp
No of particles
reaction.
Emp = most probably energy
The area under the graph is equal to the number of
Energy
Ea
particles.
Ea = activation energy
Area between curve and x axis to the right of Ea = number of particles that have enough
energy to react when they collide.
The diagram shows the effect of temperature on the
No of particles
distribution of particle energies.

The area under each curve is the same as it
represents the total number of particles.
Blue line = original temperature
Energy
Ea
Red line = higher temperature
Pink line = even higher temperature

Activation energy (Ea) unaffected by temperature.
Higher temperature means the Emp is larger.
At a higher temperature, there are the same number of particles in a given volume. Particles
have more energy so they move faster. This means there are more collisions and therefore
more successful collisions, so rate of reaction increases.
This diagram shows the effect of concentration on the

No of particles
distribution of particle energies.

Blue line = original concentration
Red line = lower concentration
Energy
Ea
The area under the red curve is smaller than the area under the blue curve so there are fewer
particles in the red solution.
The Emp does not change as temperature does not change.
At a higher concentration, there are more particles in a given volume and so there are more
collisions. This means there will be more successful collisions. Particles have the same energy
as before the change in concentration and so rate of reaction increases.
Catalysts
Catalysts provide an alternative 'route' for a reaction, with a lower activation energy. Catalysts
are not used up in a reaction.
Enthalpy (H)
Reactants
The diagram shows curves for 2 separate reactions;

one with a catalyst (shown by the blue line) and one
without a catalyst (shown by the green line).
The reaction with a catalyst has a lower activation
Products
energy than the reaction without a catalyst.

The enthalpy change for both reactions is the same.
A heterogeneous catalyst is a catalyst that is in a different phase to the reactants e.g. a solid
nickel catalyst for the reaction between hydrogen gas and alkene gas.
A homogeneous catalyst is a catalyst that is in the same phase as the reactants e.g. chlorine
gas catalysing the depletion of ozone gas.
No of particles
This diagram shows the effect of using a

catalyst on activation energy.
Eacatalyst Ea
Energy
As the catalyst lowers activation energy, costs of production decrease as less energy is
needed. This also means fewer non-renewable sources of energy are used.
The use of a catalyst also means products are made more quickly.
Equilibria
A dynamic equilibrium is one in which the forward and backward reactions happen at the same
rate.
Concentrations of reactants and products remain constant, but the concentration of the
reactants does not have to be equal to the concentration of products.
When in equilibrium, the extent of a reaction is known as the position of equilibrium e.g. if
there is a larger concentration of products than reactants, we say the equilibrium lies to the
right.
Le Chatelier's Principle
A system at equilibrium will react to oppose any change imposed upon it.
Concentration
Suppose the concentration of reactants increases.
Then the system will move to the right to oppose the change (according to Le Chatelier) and
so the amount of products will increase.
Pressure
Only involves gas molecules.
An increase in total pressure shifts the position of equilibrium to the side with fewer gas
molecules.
E.g.
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g)
Number of gas molecules:
1
=
2NH3 (g)
+ 3
So an increase in pressure would cause an increase in the yield of NH 3 as the system moves
to the side of lower pressure and so moves to the right hand side.
The Haber Process

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g)
2NH3 (g)
Produces ammonia which is used for fertiliser.

Conditions: 200 atmospheres, 450oC, iron catalyst
Higher temperature = lower yield as forward reaction is exothermic.
Lower temperature = higher yield but slow rate of reaction.
Higher pressure = high costs
Lower pressure = lower yield
Redox
Definitions of Oxidation
1) Addition of oxygen
2) Loss of hydrogen
3) Loss of electrons
4) Increase in oxidation number
5) Decrease in electron density
Oxidation States
The number of electrons a species needs to gain or lose to make a neutral atom.
E.g. Fe0 (as atoms by themselves have an oxidation state of 0), Fe 2+3O3-2, Fe+2O-2
Rules for Oxidation State

1) Group 1 is always +1
2) Group 2 is always +2
3) Charge on ion is usually the same as the oxidation state
4) Hydrogen is always +/- 1
5) Fluorine is always -1 as it is the most electronegative element
6) Oxygen is usually -2
7) A group 7 element is -1 if it is more electronegative than the other substance
E.g. Cl2+1O-2 (as oxygen is more electronegative than chlorine), H 2O2, Cl+3F3-1
Reduction is the gaining of electrons

An oxidising agent is an electron acceptor (it gets reduced).
A reducing agent is an electron donor (it gets oxidised).
Rules for Balancing Half Equations

1) Only one element in each half equation should change its oxidation state.
2) The half equation must balance for atoms.
3) The half equation must balance for charges.
4) The full equation must balance for atoms and charges.
5) H+, OH- and H2O are often added to half equation to balance atoms.
Group 7
Diatomic atoms, known as halogens, which form ins called halides.
Fluorine is a pale yellow diatomic gas.
Chlorine is a green diatomic gas.
Bromine is a brown diatomic liquid.
Iodine is a grey diatomic solid.
Boiling Point: Increases down the group. This is because the increased size of the molecules
causes increased Van der Waals forces between the molecules and so more energy is needed
to break the intermolecular forces.
Electronic Configuration: Highest energy electrons in p sub-shell. They are the most reactive
non-metals. They are strong oxidising agents (god at gaining electrons).
Atomic Radius: Increases down the group. Higher atomic number = more electrons. The
electrons fill shells further and further from the nucleus.
Ionic Radius: Increases down the group. Ions are larger than their corresponding atom in group
7 as the extra electron repels the others so radius increases.
Electronegativity: Decreases down the group. Nuclear charge increases, however there are
more shells and more shielding so less pull on electrons. There is a larger atomic radius so
less pull on outer electrons.
Oxidising power: Weaker down the group. This is for the same reasons as electronegativity.
Displacement Reactions
A reaction in which a more reactive element replaces a less reactive element from an aqueous
solution of the latter's ions.
A more reactive halogen will displace a less reactive one. Halides are salts formed from
halogens.
Displacement of halides: KCl with bromine = no change as bromine doesn't displace chlorine.
KCl with iodine = no change.
Precipitation Reaction
The formation of a solid from a solution during a chemical reaction.
Disproportionation Reaction
The oxidation and reduction of the same element in a redox reaction.
E.g. Cl20 (g) + H2O (l)
HCl-1 (aq) + HOCl+1 (aq)
Testing for Halide Ions

There is no precipitate for fluoride
Halide
Colour of Precipitate
Solubility
Chloride
White solid
Soluble in weak ammonia
Bromide
Cream solid
Insoluble in weak ammonia,

soluble in concentrated
ammonia
Iodide
Yellow solid
Insoluble in weak and

concentrated ammonia
Reaction: KX (aq) + AgNO3 (aq) KNO3 (aq) + AgX (s)

Halogen = oxidising agent
Halide = reducing agent
Reactions with Sulfuric Acid

Fluoride: NaF + H2SO4 NaHSO4 + HF
H2SO4 is a proton donor
Not a redox reaction as F- is not very good at reducing.
Chloride: NaCl + H2SO4 NaHSO4 + HCl

Not a redox reaction as chlorine is a bad reducing agent.
Bromide: NaBr + H2SO4 NaHSO4 + HBr

HBr reacts further as it is a good reducing agent:
2HBr + H2SO4 Br2 + SO2 + 2H2O
HBr = white misty fumes
Br2 = red/brown fumes
Iodide: NaI + H2SO4 NaHSO4 + HI

8HI + H2SO4 4I2 + H2S + 4H2O
I2 = black solid
H2S = bad eggs smell
HI = steamy fumes
Iodide is the best reducing agent, fluoride is the worst.
Reaction of Chlorine with Cold, Dilute, Aqueous Sodium Hydroxide and Water
Cl2 + H2O
HCl + HclO
Cl2 + 2NaOH NaCl + NaClO + H2O

NaCl and NaClO are used as a bleach.
Group 2
Alkaline earth metals is their other name. In the s block. Form basic oxides.
Atomic Radius: Increases down the group. There is a new shell for each atom as you go down
the group so an increase in shielding so electrons are further away from the nucleus. Although
nuclear charge also increases, atomic radius still increases.
Ionic Radius: Increases down the group for the same reasons as atomic radius. However, ionic
radius is smaller than corresponding atomic radius as an electron is lost so the outermost
electron is now closer to the nucleus. There is also less shielding if a 2 + ion is formed.
Melting Point: Decreases down the group. Surface charge density decreases; every atom
contributes 2 electrons, but the size of the ion increases so metallic bonding gets weaker. A
larger ion has less binding from its electron cloud. Magnesium does not fit this trend as it has a
crystalline structure which affects melting point.
First Ionisation Energy: Decreases down the group. Atomic radius increases, shielding
increases. Second ionisation energy greater than first as there is an unpaired electron so
stronger attraction to the nucleus. Third ionisation energy significantly greater than second as
there is one less shell so less shielding and smaller ionic radius.
Reactivity with Water: Reactivity increases down the group.
Mg (s) + 2H2O (l) Mg(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Solubility of Hydroxides: Solubility increases down the group. Metal ions are larger so surface
charge density decreases. Lower attraction between OH- and 2+ ions so ions split away more
easily so greater concentration of OH- ions (as they are by themselves).
Solubility of Sulfates: Solubility increases down the group. 2 + ion gets larger so has lower
surface charge density so less attracted to the polar water molecule.
Use of Mg(OH)2 is milk of magnesia which neutralises stomach acid.

Mg(OH)2 (s) + 2HCl (aq) MgCl2 (aq) + 2H2O (l)
Use of Ca(OH)2 is for when farmers 'lime' fields to control soil acidity.
Use of BaSO4 is that it is opaque to x-rays so can be used to x-ray the digestive system.
BaCl2 is used to detect sulfate ions as a white precipitate forms when BaCl 2 is added to a
solution containing sulfite ions.
Extraction of Metals
There are three ways to extract a metal:
1) Use of a more reactive compound
2) Electrolysis
3) Occur as a native metal
Reduction: The removal of oxygen from a compound.

A metal compound is usually an oxide or a sulphide. Roasting turns an oxide in to a sulphide.
One aluminium ore is bauxite = Al2O3 = aluminium oxide
One iron ore is haematite = Fe2O3 = iron oxide
Sulfides
Converted in to oxides by roasting. However this produces sulfur dioxide which causes acid
rain. The sulfur dioxide (SO2) produced is contained and used to make sulfuric acid by the
contact process. Uses include fertilisers, explosives, medicines and plastics.
Step 1: SO2 is oxidised by a vanadium (V) oxidation state = 5 catalyst.
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g)
Vanadium
(V)
2SO3 (g)
Step 2: SO3 (sulfur trioxide) is used to make sulfuric acid:

SO3 + H2O H2SO4
The process of metal extraction depends on the purity required, energy requirements, cost of
the reducing agent and the position of the metal in the reactivity series.
Iron, Manganese and Copper

Reduced by carbon or carbon monoxide.
Iron: Iron (II) oxide Fe2O3 (s) + 3CO (g) 2Fe (l) + 3CO2 (g)
Manganese: Manganese (IV) oxide MnO2 + CO MnO (s) + CO2

However, MnO is not reduced enough, so another reaction occurs MnO + C Mn (l) + CO
Copper: Most commonly Cu2+ CuO (s) + C (s) Cu (l) + Co (g)
Titanium
Titanium (IV) oxides. TiO2 is very common.
Oxide can be reduced by carbon but the titanium produced reacts with carbon to form titanium
carbide which is not good.
Extraction:
The oxide is converted to chloride TiO2 (s) + 2Cl2 (s) + 2C (s) TiCl4 (l) + 2CO (g)
It is then reduced with Na or Mg TiCl4 (l) + 4Na (s) Ti (s) + 4NaCl (s)
The reduction is carried out in an argon atmosphere as the titanium reacts with oxygen at high
temperatures.
Tungsten
Tungsten (VI) oxide WO3
Carbon is not used to reduce tungsten as tungsten carbide is a bi-product which affects the
properties of tungsten. Hydrogen is used as a reducing agent as it is more reactive than
tungsten. Narrow metal tubes are used, furnace is heated to 850 oC.
WO3 (s) + 3H2 (g) W (s) + 3H2O (g) Any unreacted H2 is reused.
However, H2 is a flammable gas. You cannot tell if hydrogen has leaked as it is colourless and
does not smell. It also burns with an invisible flame.
Aluminium
Electrolysis of purified bauxite (Al2O3) dissolved in molten cryolite (Na3AlF6). Melting point of
Al2O3 = 2000oC whereas melting point of bauxite dissolved in molten cryolite = 970 oC so less
energy and therefore electricity is used. Electrodes are made of carbon. Current = 200000A
Reaction at cathode: Al3+ (l) + 3e- Al (l)
Reaction at anode: 2O2- (l) O2 (g) + 4eSome of the O2 reacts with the carbon anodes:
2C (s) + O2 (g) 2CO (g) at high temperatures
C (s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g)
Lots of electricity is used (as the cryolite has to be melted and the Al 2O3 has to be
decomposed) so this process is only economical if electricity is cheap.
There is a potential environmental problem as the waste cryolite causes fluoride pollution.
Haloalkanes
Haloalkanes contain a polar covalent bond as there are differences in electronegativity.
H H
H
H
+
c c c
H H
Br
A nucleophile is an electron pair donor.

Examples of nucleophiles include NH3, H2O, OH- and CN- (cyanide).
Nucleophilic Substitution
There are 3 nucleophilic substitution reactions needed for this module:
Reaction 1
Nucleophile: OH-
Source: NaOH or KOH
Conditions: Reflux, aqueous solvent

Equation: C2H5Br + NaOH C2H5OH + NaBr
H H
H
H H
c c
Br
H H
OH
c c
H H
Alcohol formed
OH
Br-
Reaction 2
Nucleophile: CN-
Source: NaCN or KCN
Condition: Reflux
Equation: C2H5Br + KCN C2H5CN + KBr
H H
c c
H H
+
Br
H H
c c c
H H
Br-
CNNitrile formed.
Reaction 3
Nucleophile: NH3
Source: Excess ammonia (to prevent further substitution)
Condition: Reflux
Equation: C2H5Br + 2NH3 C2H5NH2 + NH4Br
H H
H
c c
Br
H H
NH3
Amine formed
H H
c c
N+
H H
NH3
H
H H
H
c c
H H
Br-
H
N
H
NH4+
Br-
Elimination
Reacting species: OH-
Source: NaOH or KOH
Conditions: Reflux, alcohol solvent

Equation: C3H7Br + NaOH C3H6 + H2O + NaBr
Forms an alkene from a haloalkane.
H H
H
c c c
H H
H
H Br H
c c c
H
H H
H2O
Br-
OH-
Certain haloalkanes will produce more than one product.

E.g. 2-bromopentane
H H
H
H H H
c c c c c
H Br H H H
OH-
H
H
H H H
c c c c c
H H H
pent-1-ene
H H
H
H H H
c c c c c
H
H H
pent-2-ene
The 2 colours show the 2 different mechanisms that could take place.
Structure of Halogeoalkanes
H
c c
c
c
Primary
Secondary
Br
Br
c
c
Br
c
Tertiary
Free Radical Substitution
CH4 + Cl2
UV
CH3Cl + HCl
Light
Chloromethane is formed from methane.

Step 1: INITIATION
Cl-Cl bond breaks. UV light breaks the bond.
Cl2
UV
2Cl
Light
This forms a chlorine free radical.
Step 2: PROPAGATION
radical + reactant product + radical
Cl + CH4
CH3 + Cl2
HCl + CH3
CH3Cl + Cl
This process can carry on and cause a chain reaction.
Step 3: TERMINATION
2Cl Cl2
Cl + CH3 CH3Cl
2CH3
C2H6
However, further substitution can occur:

CH3Cl + Cl2 CH2Cl2 + HCl
CH2Cl + Cl2 CHCl3 + HCl
CHCl3 + Cl2 CCl4 + HCl
And so a mixture of products are formed which can then be separated by fractional distillation.
Alkenes
Alkenes contain a carbon-carbon double bond (shown by C=C) and so are unsaturated.
The C=C bond has a high electron density and so attracts positive ions or + (in a polar bond).
Isomerism in Alkenes
STRUCTURAL
Functional Group: Alkenes on their own don't exhibit functional group isomerism, but
alkenes and cycloalkanes do.
Chaim: but-1-ene and 2-methylpropene are chain isomers of each other so alkenes can
have chain isomers.
STEREOISOMERISM
Geometric: The C=C bond is planar and so rotation about the C=C bond is restricted
which leads to geometric isomers. They have the same chemiscal formula but different
spacial arrangement of atoms.
Cl
Cl
c c
H
Z-dichloroethene
OR
cis-dichloroethene
Cl
c c
Cl
E-dichloroethene
OR
trans-dichloroethene
If the branches with the highest Mr are on the same side, then a 'Z' is placed before the
molecule name.
If the branches with the highest Mr are diagonal to each other, then an 'E' is placed before the
molecule name.
Carbocation Stability
Increased stability
H
c c+
H
Primary
c+
c
c
c+
c
Secondary
Tertiary
Stability depends on the number of carbon atoms attached to the C +.
Electrophilic Addition
Alkenes react with electrophiles. Electrophiles are electron pair acceptors.
There are 2 electrophilic addition reactions needed for this module.
Reaction 1
Electrophile: HBr
Equation: C2H4 + HBr C2H5Br
H
H H
c c
H
H
H
+
c c+
H
H H
H
Br-
c c
H Br
Br
The polar H-Br bond is attracted to the electron density in the C=C bond. A carbocation
intermediate is formed after the first step of the reaction. The final product is a haloalkane.
Reaction 2
Electrophile: Br2
Equation: C2H4 + Br2 C2H4Br2
Bromine can be used to test for unsaturation.
H
c c
c c
H
H
Br
Br
H H
H
H
H
H
Br
Br
c c+
Br
H
Br-
H H
H
c c
Br Br
Initially, the Br-Br bond is non-polar. As the C 2H4 gets closer to Br2, the electron density in the
bond is repelled by the C=C bond, forming an induced dipole.
A haloalkane is formed.
Reaction 3
Electrophile: H2SO4 (sulphuric acid)
Equation: C2H4 + H2SO4 C2H5(OSO3H)
H
H H
c c
H
H
H
+
c c+
H
H H
OSO3H
c c
H
OSO3H
OSO3H
The final product can then react with water to form ethanol and sulphuric acid, so sulphuric
acid is a catalyst in this reaction which is used to produce alcohols.
Electrophilic Addition to a Symmetrical Alkene

H
H H
c c
H
H
H
+
c c+
H
H H
H
Br-
c c
H Br
Br
Regardless of the carbon atom that the hydrogen is added to, the same product will always be
formed.
Electrophilic Addition to an Unsymmetrical Alkene

E.g. propene
H H
c c c
There are 2 different products of this reaction and 2 different mechanisms:

H3C
c c
H
H
c c+
H
H3C
H3C H
c+ c
Br
c c
H Br
H3C H
H
H
1-bromopropane
Br
c c
+
H
Br-
H3C
Br
H3C
H
c c
Br H
2-bromopropane
2-bromopropane is the major product and 1-bromopropane is the minor product. This is
because 2-bromopropane formed the most stable carbocation intermediate (secondary rather
than primary for 1-bromopropane).
Polymers
There are 2 types of polymerisation:
1) ADDITION: All atoms in the monomer are used to form the polymer.
2) CONDENSATION: Monomers join up with the expulsion of small molecules.
H
c c
c c
ethene
polyethene
Alkenes such as ethene are used as monomers in addition polymerisation. When addition
polymerisation occurs, the double bond 'breaks open' so many monomers can add to to the
polymer.
Uses of Polymers
Polyethene is used to make tunnels which protect crops.
Polypropene is used to make fishing nets and ropes.
Problems with Polymers

They are unreactive to most chemicals and bacteria so add to the landfill problem.
They are expensive to recycle (costs of collection re-processing etc).
They release toxic fumes.
On the other hand, burning waste polymers can produce energy and does not take up landfill
space which is an advantage.

Chemistry Unit 1 and 2 Revision Notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chemistry Unit 1 and 2 Revision Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chemistry Unit 2 Revision Notes

This diagram shows the enthalpy of the reactants and

reaction have a lower enthalpy (and are therefore more

T = change in temperature (K)

c = specific heat capacity (Jg -1K-1)

4.18 = specific heat capacity of water

Standard Enthalpy of Formation

If Hf is known for all substances in an equation, H for the reaction can be

Combustion of individual reactants and products from reaction above: 2C + 2O 2 2CO2

C2H6 + 7 O2 2CO2 + 3H2O

Back to original equation:

Hess's Law and Hf

1) Speed reactants are used up i.e. [reactant]

[reactant] = concentration of reactant

This diagram shows the activation energy of an

This diagram shows the activation energy of an

Red line = 50cm3 1M HCl

distribution of particle energies.

Red line = higher temperature

Pink line = even higher temperature

This diagram shows the effect of concentration on the

distribution of particle energies.

The diagram shows curves for 2 separate reactions;

energy than the reaction without a catalyst.

This diagram shows the effect of using a

The Haber Process

Produces ammonia which is used for fertiliser.

Rules for Oxidation State

Reduction is the gaining of electrons

Rules for Balancing Half Equations

HCl-1 (aq) + HOCl+1 (aq)

Testing for Halide Ions

Soluble in weak ammonia

Insoluble in weak ammonia,

Insoluble in weak and

Reaction: KX (aq) + AgNO3 (aq) KNO3 (aq) + AgX (s)

Reactions with Sulfuric Acid

Chloride: NaCl + H2SO4 NaHSO4 + HCl

Bromide: NaBr + H2SO4 NaHSO4 + HBr

Iodide: NaI + H2SO4 NaHSO4 + HI

Iodide is the best reducing agent, fluoride is the worst.

Cl2 + 2NaOH NaCl + NaClO + H2O

Use of Mg(OH)2 is milk of magnesia which neutralises stomach acid.

Reduction: The removal of oxygen from a compound.

Step 2: SO3 (sulfur trioxide) is used to make sulfuric acid:

Iron, Manganese and Copper

Manganese: Manganese (IV) oxide MnO2 + CO MnO (s) + CO2

Copper: Most commonly Cu2+ CuO (s) + C (s) Cu (l) + Co (g)

A nucleophile is an electron pair donor.

Source: NaOH or KOH

Conditions: Reflux, aqueous solvent

Source: NaCN or KCN

Source: Excess ammonia (to prevent further substitution)

Source: NaOH or KOH

Conditions: Reflux, alcohol solvent

Certain haloalkanes will produce more than one product.

Free Radical Substitution

Chloromethane is formed from methane.

This forms a chlorine free radical.

This process can carry on and cause a chain reaction.

However, further substitution can occur:

Stability depends on the number of carbon atoms attached to the C +.

Electrophilic Addition to a Symmetrical Alkene

Electrophilic Addition to an Unsymmetrical Alkene