Matematisk Institut

Mat 3AL 4.1

Chapter IV. Cyclotomic

elds and applications
ROOTS OF UNITY AND CYCLOTOMIC POLYNOMIALS.
In this chapter we shall consider an important class of normal extensions of the
rational number eld Q. Historically these were the rst algebraic extensions of Q
which were the subject of thorough investigations.
First some remarks about roots of unity.
2i
The complex solutions of the equation xn = 1, i.e. the numbers e n k , 0  k < n,
are called the n-th roots of unity. They form a multiplicative cyclic group of order
n. An n-th root of unity is called a primitive n-th root of unity, if it generates the
group of n-th roots of unity. Therefore an n-th root of unity is a primitive n-th root
of unity if and only if k = 1 , 0 < k < n. The following lemma is quite elementary
Lemma 4.1. Let be a primitive n-th root of unity. The following conditions are
equivalent
1) k is a primitive n-th root of unity.
2) (k, n) = 1 ( i.e. k and n are relatively prime).
Proof. Just an easy exercise in group theory.(Cf. Remark 1.82)
In particular e
of unity.

2i
n k

, 1 k < n, (k, n) = 1, are exactly all the primitive n-th roots

Definition 4.2. The polynomial Fn (x) =

1kn
(k,n)=1



2i
x e n k is called the n-th

cyclotomic polynomial.
The roots of Fn (x) are exactly the primitive n-th roots of unity. The degree of
Fn (x) is (n), where (n) is the so-called Eulers -function, dened as the number
of residue classes modulo n prime to n.
A priori it is only clear that Fn (x) has coecients in C. However, as we shall see
in the following theorem, Fn (x) has integer coecients.
Theorem 4.3. Fn (x) is a polynomial in Z[x].
To prove this we need the following

Lemma 4.4. xn 1 = d|n Fd (x), where d runs through the positive divisors of n.

Proof. The monic polynomials xn 1 and d|n Fd (x) have no multiple roots (note
that Fd1 (x) and Fd2 (x) have no common roots
 if d1 = d2 ). Therefore it suces to
show that the two polynomials xn 1 and d|n Fd (x) have exactly the same roots.

Matematisk Institut

Mat 3AL 4.2

Indeed, an n-th root of unity is a primitive d-th root of unity for exactly one divisor
d of n. Conversely, if is a primitive d-th root of unity for a divisor d of n, then is
certainly an n-th root of unity.

Proof of Theorem 4.3. By induction on n. Since F1 (x) = x 1 the assertion is clear
for n = 1. Assume it has been proved that Fm (x) Z[x] for all m < n. We must
then prove that Fn (x) lies in Z[x].


By the above lemma we know xn 1 = Fn (x) { d|n Fd (x)}, where d|n Fd (x)
d<n

d<n

by the induction assumption is a monic polynomial with integer coecients. The


division algorithm now shows that Fn (x) has integer coecients.
We now give an explicit formula for Fn (x).

n
obius function
Theorem 4.5. Fn (x) = d|n (x d 1)(d) , where denotes the M
introduced in Chap. II.
Proof. By lemma 4.4 and Theorem 2.83 in Chap. II we get:

 n
(x d 1)(d) =
( F (x))(d) =
d|n

d,,d|n

d|n | n
d

F (x)(d) =

F (x)

d| n

(d)

= Fn (x) .

|n


Since Fn (x) has degree (n), where (n) is Eulers -function, by comparison of
degrees we obtain


Corollary 4.6. (n) = d|n nd (d) = n p|n (1 1p ), where p runs through the
distinct prime divisors of n.

n
Proof. By identifying the degrees of Fn (x) and of d|n (x d 1)(d) we see that



(n) = d|n nd (d). It remains then to show that d|n nd (d) = n p|n (1 1p ).
Since (d) = 0 if d is divisible by the square of a prime, it suces to consider
the square-free divisors of n. Let n = pa1 1 par r be the prime decomposition of n
where p1 , . . . , pr are the distinct prime divisors of n. We consider rst the divisor
1, then the prime divisors of n, then all products of two distinct prime divisors,
then
products of
distinct 
prime divisors, etc.For the sum we then nd
 three

 all
n
n
n
n
(d)
=
n

+ ... = n pi |n (1 1p ). where the pi s

d|n d
pi
pi pj
pi pj pk
i
are the distinct prime divisors of n, the pi pj s are the products of two distinct prime

divisors, pi pj pk s are the products of three distinct prime divisors etc.

Matematisk Institut

Mat 3AL 4.3

Some remarks concerning the coecients of the cyclotomic polynomials.

Remark 4.7. For n > 2 the degree of Fn (x) is an even number and the constant
term is 1.
Remark 4.8. The coecient of the next highest term (i.e. the coecient of x(n)1 )
is (n), since the sum of the primitive n-th roots of unity is (n) (this is an exercise
provable by induction).
Remark 4.9. Looking at the rst cyclotomic polynomials one might have the temptation to conjecture that all the coecents of the cyclotomic polynomials were 0 or
1 or 1. This, however, is not true. The rst counterexample is F105 where the
coecient of x7 is -2.But it can be proved that if n is divisible by at most two distinct odd prime numbers, then the coecients of Fn (x) are 0, 1 or 1. (The proof
is elementary, but not trivial.)
Remark 4.10. Fn (x) is reciprocal for n > 1, i.e. if ai is the coecient of xi then
ai = a(n)i for 0 i (n).
Remark 4.11. For a prime number p one has Fp (x) = (xp 1)/(x 1) = xp1 +
+ x + 1.
Numerical examples 4.12. F1 (x) = x 1, F2 (x) = x + 1, F3 (x) = x2 + x +
1, F4 (x) = x2 + 1, F5 (x) = x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1, F6 (x) = x2 x + 1, F8 (x) =
x4 +1, F9 (x) = x6 +x3 +1, F10 (x) = x4 x3 +x2 x+1, F12 (x) = x4 x2 +1, F15 (x) =
x8 x7 + x5 x4 + x3 x + 1.
Explicit computations of some roots of unity.
2i

Let n be the n-th root of unity e n .

It is clear that 1 = 1 and 2 = 1 and 4= i. Similarly it is straightforward to
) + isin( 2
) = (1 + i)/ 2.
check that 8 = cos( 2
8
8
3 isthe root of F3 (x) lying in the upper half complex plane. Therefore 3 =
(1 + i 3)/2.
6 is the
root of F6 (x) lying in the rst quadrant of the complex plane; hence
6 = (1 + i 3)/2.
As for 5 we write
x2 F5 (x) = x2 + x1 + 1 + x1 + x2 = (x + 1/x)2 + (x + 1/x) 1
) = 5 + 1
which implies that 2 cos( 2
5 is the (positive) root of
5
z2 + z 1 = 0

hence 2 cos( 2
) = ( 5 1)/2 and cos( 2
) = ( 5 1)/4.
5
5



2 ( 2 ) = 1
Now sin( 2
)
=
1

cos
10 + 2 5 so that
5
5
4

1
5 =
5 1 + i 10 + 2 5 .
4

Matematisk Institut

Mat 3AL 4.4

CYCLOTOMIC POLYNOMIALS ARE IRREDUCIBLE.

For the proof of the irreducibility of cyclotomic polynomials in Q[x] we need the
following lemmas.
Lemma 4.13.. If f (x) and g(x) are monic polynomials in Q[x] for which f (x)g(x)
Z[x], then f (x) Z[x] and g(x) Z[x].
Proof. There are natural numbers a and b such that af (x) and bg(x) are primitive polynomials in Z[x]. According to Gausss lemma the product af (x)bg(x) =
abf (x)g(x) is also a primitive polynomial in Z[x]. But then ab must be +1, and
therefore a and b must also be 1. This implies that f (x) and g(x) are polynomials in
Z[x].

Lemma 4.14. If p is a prime number and g(x) is a polynomial in Zp [x] = Fp [x]
then g(xp ) = (g(x))p .
Proof. This follows from Freshmans Dream and the fact that p = for every in

the nite eld Zp with p elements.
Theorem 4.15. Fn (x) is irreducible in Q[x].
Proof. Let f (x) be a monic irreducible polynomial in Q[x]. We prove:
1 If is a primitive n-th root of unity and p is a prime number that does not
divide n, then:
f () = 0 f (p ) = 0.
Proof of 1 : Since f (x) = Irr(, Q) the polynomial f (x) must divide xn 1 inside
Q[x]. By lemma 4.13 it follows that f (x) must be a polynomial in Z[x].
We now consider g(x) = Irr(p , Q). As before we see that g(x) Z[x]. The
polynomial g(xp) has as a root. Hence f (x)|g(xp) inside Q[x] and thus as before
inside Z[x]. Therefore
g(xp ) = f (x) k(x) ,
()
where k(x) a priori is in Q[x] and then as before in Z[x]. Assume now f (p ) = 0.
Then f (x) and g(x) would be two non-associate irreducible polynomials in Q[x].
Both of them divide xn 1. Since Q[X] is a UFD, f (x) g(x)|xn 1 inside Q[x] and
thus as before inside Z[x], consequently
xn 1 = f (x) g(x) h(x) ,

()

where h(x) Z[x].

For the polynomials f (x) , g(x) , h(x) and k(x) i Zp [x] obtained by applying the
homomorphism Z[x] Zp [x], we conclude from (),and ()
g(x)p = f (x) k(x) ,

( )

Matematisk Institut

Mat 3AL 4.5

xn
1 = f (x) g(x) h(x) ,

( )

where we have used lemma 4.14 in ( ).

From ( ) we see that every irreducible factor (x) of f (x) also must appear
1 (inside Zp [X]) must be
in g(x), so that the equation ( ) implies that xn
divisible by the square of the polynomial (x) of positive degree:
1 = (x)2 q(x) , (x), q(x) Zp [X] .
xn
By taking formal derivatives we get
n xn1 = (x)[2 (x)q(x) + (x)q  (x)] .
Here
n = 0 in Zp since pn; therefore
n has an inverse
n 1 in Zp and from the above
we get



1 = (x) [2  (x)q(x) + (x)q  (x)] x
n 1 (x)q(x) Zp [X] ,
which gives the desired contradiction since (x) has positive degree.
2 If a monic irreducible polynomial f (x) Q[x] has some primitive n-th root of
unity as a root then all primitive n-th roots of unity will be roots of f (x).
Proof of 2 : Every primitive n-th root of unity has the form k , where (k, n) = 1
(cf. lemma 4.1). k can be written as a product of (not necessarily distinct) prime
numbers. None of these prime factors divides n. The assertion 2 now follows by
successive application of 1 .
3 Fn (x) is irreducible in Q[x].
Proof of 3 : Let be a primitive n-th root of unity and let f (x) = Irr(, Q). Then
f (x) divides Fn (x). By 2 all primitive n-th roots of unity will be roots of f (x). This
implies that degree(f (x))  (n) = degree Fn (x) and hence Fn (x) = f (x), since
these polynomials are monic. But f (x) is by denition irreducible and therefore

Fn (x) is also irreducible.

DIRICHLETS THEOREM ABOUT PRIME NUMBERS IN ARITHMETIC

PROGRESSIONS.
We make a little digression, where we use that Fn (x) Z[X].
Dirichlets famous theorem about prime numbers in arithmetic progressions says
that for every pair (a, n) of relatively prime natural numbers there exist innitely
many prime numbers that are a (mod n). We shall prove this theorem in an
important special case:

Matematisk Institut

Mat 3AL 4.6

Theorem 4.16. Dirichlets Theorem for a = 1. For every natural number n

there are infinitely many prime numbers that are 1 (mod n).
Proof. The statement For every natural number n there exists a prime number that
is 1 (mod n) implies the statement: For every natural number n there exist
infinitely many prime numbers that are 1 (mod n). Indeed, let p1 , . . . , pt be
primes that are 1 (mod n). By assumption there exists a prime number p that is
1 (mod np1 pt ). This prime number p is 1 (mod n) and denitely = pi for
1  i  t.
Therefore it suces to show that for every natural number n there is a prime
number that is 1 (mod n).
We may, of course, assume that n > 2.
The desired theorem is a consequence of the following two assertions:
Assertion 1. |Fn (n)| > 1 for every natural number n > 2 and therefore Fn (n) is
divisible by at least one prime number.
Assertion 2. Every prime divisor p of Fn (n) is 1 (mod n).

2i
(n e n k ) and every factor for n > 2 has
Proof of assertion 1. Since Fn (n) =
1k<n
(k,n)=1

absolute value > 1 the desired inequality follows.

Proof of assertion 2. Let p be a prime divisor of Fn (n), where n > 2. Since Fn (x) has
constant term 1 it follows that Fn (n) 1 (mod n) and therefore p does not divide
n.
From lemma 4.4 we know that xn 1 =

Fd (x) and by setting x = n we see

d|n

that nn 1 is divisible by p.
Therefore the group theoretical order t of the residue class
n modulo p divides n.
We claim that t = n. Indeed, assume that t < n. Then we would have the product
representation

xn 1
=
F
(x)
F (x)
n
xt 1

where runs through those divisors of n for which < n and does not divide t.
n
1
Setting x = n shows that Fn (n) divides nnt 1
. On the other hand the identity
n

n
n
nn 1
(nt ) t 1
=
= (nt ) t 1 + (nt ) t 2 + . . . + nt + 1
t
t
n 1
n 1

shows that

n
nn 1

1
+

+
1
=
 
nt 1
t
n
t

terms

(mod p)

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Mat 3AL 4.7

The above would therefore imply that p should divide nt and thereby also n contradicting our rst observation.
Consequently t = n, and since the group theoretical order of every element in the
multiplicative group (Zp \ {0}, ) is a divisor of p 1 it follows that p 1 (mod n).


CYCLOTOMIC FIELDS.

 2i 
We now consider the eld Qn = Q e n , which is called the n-th cyclotomic

field.1 Qn is the splitting eld for xn 1 over Q. So Qn /Q is a normal extension.

Here is
  2i 
2i
[Qn : Q] = degree Irr e n , Q = degree(Fn (x)) = (n). Let be e n . If is an
automorphism in Gal(Qn /Q) then (by Lemma 3.4) () must be = a , where a is
a root of Fn (x), i.e. a is a primitive n-th root of unity. Hence (a, n) = 1 where a is
determined modulo n. Consequently we get a well dened map:
Gal(Qn /Q)

Zn , (where Zn are the residue classes modulo n prime to n)

by
() =
a (modulo n), if () = a .
Here is injective since is uniquely determined by its value on . Because
| Gal(Qn /Q)| = [Qn : Q] = (n) = |(Zn )| the mapping is also surjective. The
residue classes prime to n modulo n form a multiplicative group (notice that Zn
consists of the invertible elements in Zn ). Furthermore is a homomorphism:
(1 2 ) determined by 1 2 () = (1 2 )


2 () = (2 ) ; 1 (2 ()) = 1 (2 ) = (1 ())(2 ) =
(2 )

(1 )
= (1 )(2 ) i.e.: (1 2 ) = (1 )(2 ) .

Thus we have proved

Theorem 4.17. Gal(Qn /Q)  Zn (= the multiplicative group of the prime residue
classes modulo n).
In particular, Gal(Qn /Q) is abelian.
It is clear [cf. the fundamental theorem of Galois theory 4) and 5)] that every
subeld K Qn is normal over Q with abelian Galois group, namely
Gal(K/Q) ( Gal(Qn /Q)/ Gal(Qn /K)).
1 Beloved

child has many names: There are several notations for the n-th cyclotomic field.
Some authors use Q(n ) or Q(n ), others Q[n] or Q(n) and the list comprises at least 20 other
names. We have chosen Qn since it is the shortest.

Matematisk Institut

Mat 3AL 4.8

A classical (very deep) theorem gives a characterization of the normal extensions

of Q with abelian Galois group.
Theorem 4.18. KroneckerWebers Theorem. Let K/Q be a finite normal
extension. Then: K/Q is normal with abelian Galois group K Qn for a suitable
n.
We have already proved . The other implication is very hard to prove.
We shall just prove (the hard implication of) the theorem in the very special case
where Gal(K/Q) is cyclic of order 2.
First a quite elementary lemma.
Lemma 4.19. Let K be a field of charactistic 0 and L a quadratic extension of K,
i.e. [L : K] = 2.

i) There exists an element a in K such that L = K( a).

ii) If K = Q we can choose a as a rational square-free integer (i.e. a Z and a
is not divisible by the square of any prime number).
Proof. ad i) Any L \ K generates L over K, i.e. L = K(). The polynomial
Irr(, K) can be written x2 + k1 x + k2 , where k1 and k2 belong to K. As a one may
use the discriminant k12 4k2 .
ad ii) The assertion follows from the fact, that for every rational number q = 0
there exists a rational number q1 such that qq12 is a square-free integer.

Proof of Kronecker-Webers theorem for quadratic extensions of Q.

Because of lemma 4.19 it suces to show that Q( a)  Q4|a| for every square-free
integer a. This will be done in 4 steps:

1. We observe that Q( 1) = Q4 og Q( 1, 2) = Q( 1, 2) = Q8 .
splitting eld over Q
2. For a natural number n the cyclotomic eld Qn is the 
n
for the polynomial x 1. By Theorem 2.84 the square root discrim(xn 1) lies
(n1)(n2)
2
.
in Qn . In Theorem 2.88 it was shown that this discriminant is nn (1)
n1
n1
2
When n is odd, the discriminant
can be written (n 2 ) (1) 2 n. Therefore


n1
Q( discrim(xn 1)) = Q( n(1) 2 ) which is

Q(n), if n 1 (mod 4) and

Q( n), if n 3 (mod 4).
3. If n and m are natural numbers and n divides m then obviously Qn  Qm .

4. If a is a is a square-free integer, then Q( a)  Q4|a| .

There are two possibilities: i) a is odd and ii) a is even.

Matematisk Institut

Mat 3AL 4.9

ad i) We distinguish between the case i1), where a is positive and the case i2),
where a er negative.
First case i1): For a 1 mod 4, the above assertions 2. and 3. imply that

Q( a)  Qa  Q4|a| .

For a 3 mod 4, the above assertions 1. 2. and 3. imply that Q( 1, a) 

Q4|a| .


Second case i2): Clearly Q( a)  Q( 1, | a|). By the assertions 1. and 2.

and the above treated case i1) we conclude that Q( a)  Q4|a| .

ad ii) Here a = 2u, where u is odd since a is square-free. Obviously Q( a) 

Q( 2, u) which [according to assertions 1., 3. and the above case i)] is contained
in Q8 Q4|u|  Q4|a| .

Example 4.20. If p is an odd prime number the Galois group Gal(Qp /Q) is cyclic of
order p 1, since the multiplicative group of the non-zero elements in the nite eld
Zp = Fp is cyclic. Therefore Gal(Qp /Q) contains exactly one subgroup of index 2. By
the fundamental theorem of Galois theory Qp thus contains exactly one quadratic

subeld. As the above proof shows, this quadratic subeld is Q( p) when p 1

(mod 4) and Q( p) when p 3 (mod 4).

RELATIONS BETWEEN CYCLOTOMIC FIELDS.
We rst give some useful applications of the formula for (n) from the Corollary
4.6.
Lemma 4.21. Let m and n be positive integers and let d, resp. f , be the greatest
common divisor of m and n, resp. the least common multiple of m and n. Then
i) mn = df
ii) (m)(n) = (d)(f ).
Proof. Consider the prime decompositions of m and n
m=

pmp ,

mp 0 and n =

pnp ,

np 0

where p runs through the primes dividing m or n. Then the prime decompositions
of d and f are


d=
pmin(mp ,np ) and f =
pmax(mp ,np ) .
p

This immediately shows i).

By the formula for Eulers -function we have

Matematisk Institut

Mat 3AL 4.10

(m) =

(pmp ) and

(n) =

(pnp )

as well as
(d) =

(pmin(mp ,np ) ) and (f ) =

(pmax(mp ,np ) ),

where we have dened (1) to be 1.

The above expressions for (m), (n), (d) and (f ) immediately yield ii).

Lemma 4.22. Let m be a positive integer and p a prime number. Then (mp) =
(m) m is odd and p = 2.
Proof. The part is an immediate consequence of the formula for Eulers function.
The part: If p divides m the formula for Eulers -function shows that
(mp) = (m) p which is = (m).
If p does not divide m the formula for Eulers -function shows that (mp) =
(m) (p 1) which is = (m) for p = 2. Hence m must be odd and p must be 2 if
(mp) = (m).


Eulers -function is not multiplicative in the sense that it unconditionally sends

products into products, but it has the weaker property that (m) divides (n) if m
divides n. This follows either from the formula for Eulers -function or from the
fact that the natural homomorphism from (Z/n) to (Z/m) is surjective when m
divides n. We formulate this as
Lemma 4.23. Let m and n be natural numbers. If m divides n, then (m) divides
(n).
Lemma 4.24. Let m and n be natural numbers. If m | n, then (m) = (n), if and
only if either m = n or m is odd and n = 2m.
Proof. The if part is an immediate consequence of the formula for Eulers function.
As for the only if part assume that m < n and m divides n. Then n = mb,
where b > 1. Assume (m) = (n). If p is any prime divisor of b Lemma 4.23 implies
(m) | (mp) | (mb) = (n), hence (m) = (mp). By Lemma 4.22 we see that
m must be odd and p must be 2. Moreover, b/p cannot contain any prime divisor at
all, hence b = p = 2 and n = 2m.


Matematisk Institut

Mat 3AL 4.11

Theorem 4.25. Let m and n be positive integers and let d, resp. f , be the greatest
common divisor of m and n, resp. the least common multiple of m and n. Then the
compositum Qm Qn = Qf and the intersection Qm Qn = Qd .
Proof. By lemma 4.21 the greatest common divisor of m and n is mn/f , hence there
exist integers a and b such that am + bn = mn/f and thus a/n + b/m = 1/f .
Therefore
(e

2i
n

)a (e

2i
m

)b = e

2i
f

which implies that Qf is contained in the compositum Qm Qn . Since clearly Qm and

Qn are contained in Qf it follows that Qm Qn = Qf .
Clearly Qd Qm and Qd Qn , hence Qd Qm Qn .
The translation theorem (Theorem 3.46) applied on
Qm

Qm Qn = Qf

Qm Qn

Qn

Q
yields
[Qm : (Qm Qn )] = [Qf : Qn ] = (f )/(n) = (m)/(d)
where we have used Lemma 4.21 to obtain the last equality.
Therefore [(Qm Qn ) : Q] = (d). Since [Qd : Q] = (d) this together with above

inclusion Qd Qm Qn shows that Qm Qn = Qd .
In view of Theorem 3.48 about the compositum of nite normal extensions Theorem 4.25 implies the following
Corollary 4.26. Let n1 , . . . , nt be pairwise coprime natural numbers. If we set
n = n1 nt then Qn is the compositum of the fields Qn1 , . . . Qnt and Gal(Qn /Q)
is isomorphic to the direct product Gal(Qn1 /Q) Gal(Qnt /Q). Moreover, if
for each i, 1  i  t, Ki is a subfield of Qni then the compositum K1 Kt is
a normal extension of Q whose Galois group is isomorphic to the direct product
Gal(K1 /Q) Gal(Kt /Q).
Theorem 4.27. Let m  n be natural numbers. Then Qm = Qn if and only if either
m = n or m is odd and n = 2m.
Proof. Since (m) = (2m) for any odd natural number m the if part is clear.
Indeed, in this case Qm Qn and [Q2m : Q] = [Qm : Q].

Matematisk Institut

Mat 3AL 4.12

As for the only if part let d, resp. f , be the greatest common divisor of m and n
resp. the least common multiple of m and n. By the preceding theorem we conclude
that Qd = Qm = Qn = Qf . Since d divides f we deduce from [Qd : Q] = (d) and
[Qf : Q] = (f ) that (d) = (f ). If m < n, then d is a proper divisor of f and
Lemma 4.24 implies that d is odd f = 2d. From the equations 2d2 = df = mn =
n
m n
m
n
d2 ( m
d )( d ) it follows that ( d )( d ) = 2, hence d = 1 and d = 2, which implies that m
is odd and n = 2m.

It is now not hard to prove
Theorem 4.28. Let m and n be natural numbers. Then Qm Qn if and only if
either m divides n or m = 2u for some odd divisor u of n.
Proof. The if part follows from the previous theorem since Q2u = Qu for an odd
u and Qu Qn if u divides n.
The only if part: Let as usual d be the greatest common divisor of m and n.
From Theorem 4.25 we get Qd = Qm . Since d divides m the previous theorem implies
that either d = m or d is odd and m = 2d. In the rst case m must divide n and in
the second case d is an odd divisor of n, so that m is 2(an odd divisor of n).


Corollary 4.29. Qn contains the number i (= 1) if and only if 4 divides n.

THE DEGREES OF COS(2/n) AND SIN(2/n).

the degree of cos 2
n .
Since cos 2
n is rational for n = 1 or 2 we may restrict ourselves to the case where
n > 2.
2i
2
Consider the primitive n-th root of unity n = e n = cos 2
n + isin n .
2
1
1
Clearly Q(cos 2
n ) = Q(n + n ), since 2cos n = n + n .
Let be the automorphism (complex conjugation) sending n to 1
n .
Obviously the xed eld F ( ) (= Qn R) contains the eld Q(cos 2
n ). Since Qn contains non-real numbers for n > 2, the automorphism has order 2. The fundamental
theorem of Galois theory implies that [Qn : F ( )] = 2.
2
2
Since n is a root of the polynomial (x n )((x 1
n ) = x 2cos n x + 1 having
) it follows that [Qn : Q(cos 2
)] = [Q(n ) : Q(cos 2
)] 2.
coecients in Q(cos 2
n
n
n
2
2
Because F ( ) Q(cos n ) we conclude that F ( ) = Q(cos n ), hence
) : Q] = (n)/2. In other words cos 2
is an algebraic number of degree
[Q(cos 2
n
n
(n)/2 for n > 2.
the degree of sin 2
n .

Matematisk Institut

Mat 3AL 4.13

As before we may assume that n > 2 since sin 2

n is rational for n = 1 or 2.
2
We rst determine the degree of isin n . With the notations from above we have
1
2isin 2
n = n n .
lies in Qn . To nd the degree of isin 2
we determine the autoClearly isin 2
n
n
morphisms in Gal(Qn /Q) that x n 1
.
n
Every automorphism of Gal(Qn /Q) is of the form a dened by
a (n ) = an , where 1 a < n, (a, n) = 1.
2
2a
1
Here a (n 1
n ) = n n if and only if sin n = sin n .
Now sinx = siny x y is an integral multiple of 2 or x + y = + an integral
multiple of 2.
= sin 2a
if and only if either a = 1 or
In our situation this means that sin 2
n
n
2
2
n a + n = .
The latter condition means that

2(a + 1) = n

()

If n is odd () has no solutions in a.

If n = 2(an odd number) a solution of () in a must be even, so (a, n) > 1.
Therefore, if n is not divisible by 4, 1 is the only automorphism xing n 1
n ,
2
)
=
Q
and
the
degree
of
isin
is
(n).
hence Q(isin 2
n
n
n
)
does
not
contain i when n is not divisible by
By Corollary 4.29 Qn = Q(isin 2
n
4. We conclude from Example 3.50 (Chap. III) that the degree of sin 2
n is (n).

If n is divisible by 4 we rst discard the case n = 4: Here isin 2

= i has the
4
2
degree 2 and sin 4 = 1 has degree 1.
So we now assume n > 4 and n is divisible by 4.
If n is divisible by 4 the equation () has exactly one solution in a, where 1 a <
n, (a, n) = 1, namely a = n2 1. Since n > 4, a = n2 1 = 1. Thus 1 and n2 1 are
2
the only automorphisms xing n 1
n . Hence [Qn : Q(isin n )] = 2, so the degree
of isin 2
n is (n)/2.
Qn contains i when n is divisible by 4. In view of Example 3.50 (Chap. III),
to nd the degree of sin 2
n we have to determine the values of n for which i lies
2
in Q(isin n ). This boils down to nding the ns for which Q(i) Q(isin 2
n ). By
the main theorem of Galois theory this is equivalent to nding the ns for which
2
n
T (Q(i)) T (Q(isin 2
n )). We know that T (Q(isin n )) = {1 , 2 1 }. Since
n

n2 1 (i) = n2 1 (n4 ) = n4

(n
2 1)

= i 2 1
n

the automorphism n2 1 xes i exactly if

n
1 1 (mod 4) n 2 2 (mod 8) n 4 (mod 8).
2

Matematisk Institut

Mat 3AL 4.14

Consequently, if n 4 (mod 8), then i lies in Q(isin 2

n ) and therefore (by Example
2
)/2 = (n)/4.
3.50, Chap. III) the degree of sin n is (degree of isin 2
n
If, however, n 0 (mod 8) then i does not lie in Q(isin 2
n ) and therefore (by
2
2
Example 3.50, Chap III) sin n and isin n have the same degree, namely (n)/2.
Let us summarize the above results in the following
Theorem 4.30. Apart from the degenerate cases n = 1, 2 or 4, then:
cos 2
n has the degree (n)/2 for all n.
2
sin n has the degree (n) if n is not divisible by 4.
sin 2
n has the degree (n)/2 if n 0 (mod 8).
2
sin n has the degree (n)/4 if n 4 (mod 8).
2
Exercise 4.31. Show that Q(sin 2
n ) Q(cos n ) if and only if n = 1, 2 or n 0
(mod 4).
) = Q(cos 2
) if and only if n = 1, 2, 4 or n 0 (mod 8).
Show that Q(sin 2
n
n

Matematisk Institut

Mat 3AL 4.15

CONSTRUCTION OF REGULAR POLYGONS BY COMPASS AND

STRAIGHTEDGE.
In this section we use cyclotomic elds to answer some classical problems dating
back to Euclid.
These problems concern the construction of one geometrical segment from another, using only an (unmarked) straightedge and a (collapsible) compass.
With the straightedge we can draw the line through through two given points and
with the compass we can draw the circle with a given point as centre and a given
radius.
We assume that we have a starting gure in the real Euclidean plane, consisting
of the points (0, 0) and (1, 0). A point is called constructible, if it can be obtained
from the starting gure by successive applications of the following operations:
1) draw the straight line through two given or already constructed points.
2) draw the circle with a given or already constructed point as its centre and
the distance between two given or already constructed points as its radius.
3) Add intersection points between two constructed straight lines, between a
constructed straigth line and a constructed circle or between two constructed
circles.
By straightforward computation one shows
Theorem 4.32. Assume a construction successively give the following points P0 (=
(0, 0)), P1 (= (1, 0)), P2 , P3 , . . . , Pn , Pn+1 , . . . . If the coordinates of P0 , P1 , . . . , Pn
belong to some real number field
K the coordinates of Pn+1 either belong to K or a
number field of the form K( d), where d is a positive real number which is not the
square of a number in K.
Definition 4.33. A complex number a + ib is called constructible, if the point (a, b)
is constructible according to the above denition.
Theorem 4.32 then yields:
Theorem 4.34. For every complex constructiblenumber z there
exists a sequence
of quadratic
extensions K = Q, K1 = Q(i),
(i = 1), K2 = K1 ( d1 ), (d1 K1 ),
K3 = K2 ( d2 ), (d2 K2 ), . . . , Kt = Kt1 ( dt1 ), dt1 Kt1 , such that z Kt .
Since we may assume that K1  K2  K3 etc., the dimension [Kt : Q] (by the
transitivity theorem, Theorem 2.47 in Chap. II) is 2t . This implies (again using the
transitivity theorem, Theorem 2.47 in Chap.II):
z constructible number [Q(z) : Q] is a power of 2 .

Matematisk Institut

Mat 3AL 4.16

Furthermore classical constructions (formerly known from high school mathtematics) show
Theorem 4.35. The set of all constructible
complex number is a field K closed under
formation of square roots (i.e. K K.)
2i

Definition 4.36. The regular n-gon is called constructible, if e n is a constructible

number.
It was known already to Euclid that a regular n-gon is constructable if n is either
a power 2t , t > 1, of 2, a number of the form 3 2t , t 0, a number of the form
5 2t , t 0, or a number of the form 15 2t , t 0.
For more than two thousand years it was an open question whether there are more
regular n-gons than those, which are constructible . In 1796 Gauss (who at that time
was 19 years old) showed that the regular 17-gon is constructible. Later he found a
complete characterization of the ns for which the regular n-gon is constructible.
This was published in his famous Disquisitiones Arithmeticae (called the bible of
number theory).
Theorem 4.37. Gauss Theorem. (Disquisitiones Arithmeticae 1801). The
regular n-gon is constructible n has the form n = 2a p1 pr , where a is a nonnegative integer and p1 , . . . , pr are distinct odd prime numbers which all of them are
of the form:
(a power of 2) +1.
Remark 4.38. If 2k + 1 is a prime number, k is necessarily a power of 2. Indeed,
otherwise k = u s, u = being an odd number > 1, and: 2k + 1 = (2s )u + 1 =
(2s )u (1)u = (2s (1)). ((2s )u1 + (2s )u2 (1) + + (1)u1 ). In other words
2s + 1 divides 2k + 1. Since u > 1 the number s is < k. Hence 2s + 1 is a non-trivial
divisor of 2k + 1, which thus cannot be a prime number.
Proof of Gauss theorem. Since the regular n-gon is constructible if and only if the
regular 2n-gon is constructible (bisection of angles) it suces to show Gauss theorem for an odd number n > 1.
: Every odd number n > 1 can be written n = p1 a1 . . . pr ar , where p1 , . . . , pr
are distinct odd prime numbers and the exponents a1 , . . . , ar are natural numbers.
2i
Now by Theorem 4.17 [Q(e n ) : Q] = (n), where (n) denotes Eulers -function.
By Theorem
 4.34, (n) must be a power of 2. By Corollary 4.6 we know that
(n) = n p|n (1 p1 ) = pa1 1 1 (p1 1) par r 1 (pr 1).
If this number is a power of 2 each of the exponents a1 , . . . , ar must be 1, and the
numbers p1 1, . . . , pr 1 must be powers of 2. But this means exactly that n has
the form indicated in Gausstheorem.
If n has the form indicated in the theorem the computation in the rst half
of the proof shows that [Qn : Q] is a power of 2. The Galois group G = Gal(Qn /Q)
is then an abelian 2-group. In particular, G is solvable so that the factors in a

Matematisk Institut

Mat 3AL 4.17

composition series G G1 G2 Gk = {e} are cyclic of order 2,(a wellknown theorem in group theory): [G : G1 ] = [G1 : G2 ] = = [Gk1 : Gk ] = 2.
We have the following situation:
Gk = {e}
2

Gk1

F (Gk ) = Qn
2

F (Gk1 )

G2
2

G1
2

F (G2 )
2

F (G1 )
2

F (G) = Q

F (G1 ) is a quadratic extension of F (G) and therefore (by Lemma 4.19) obtainable
by adjunction of the square root of a number in F (G). Furthermore F (G2 ) is a
quadratic extension of F (G1 ) and therefore obtainable by adjunction of the square
root of a number in F (G1 ) etc.
Since the eld K of the constructibe numbers is closed under formation of square
roots (Theorem 4.35) and the rational numbers are constructible, it follows that Qn
2i
is contained in K. In particular e n lies in the eld of constructible numbers.

Remark 4.39 concerning the prime numbers appearing in Gauss theorem.
These prime numbers are called the Fermat prime numbers. 21 + 1 = 3, 22 + 1 = 5,
24 + 1 = 17, 28 + 1 = 257, 216 + 1 = 65537 are Fermat prime numbers. More Fermat
n
prime number than those are not known. (A criterion for 22 + 1 to be a prime
number can be found in Chap. VI:)
Remark 4.40 about the trisection of an arbitrary angle. From Gauss
theorem it in particular follows that a regular 9-gon cannot be constructed by compass
and straightedege. This gives a negative solution of the classical problom whether
every angle can be trisected by compass and straightedge.

Matematisk Institut

Mat 3AL 4.18

AN APPLICATION TO THE INVERSE PROBLEM OF GALOIS THEORY.

We conclude this chapter by yet another application of cyclotomic elds. It is a
famous problem (dating back to Hilbert (1892)), whether every nite group can be
realized as the Galois group of a nite normal extension of the rational number eld
Q. This problem, the inverse problem of Galois theory, is still unsolved and has a
central place in current research in Galois theory.
We shall here prove, that every nite abelian group can be realized as a Galois
group over Q.
We rst deal with the cyclic case.
Theorem 4.41. Let Zn be the cyclic group of order n and let p be a prime number
such that p 1 (mod n). Then there exists a subfield of Qp which is normal over Q
with Zn as its Galois group.
Proof. Since Gal(Qp /Q)  Zp  (Zp1 , +) there exists a (uniquely determined) subgroup H of Gal(Qp /Q) of order p1
. The xed eld F (H) is according to the fundan
mental theorem of Galois theory is a normal extension of Q with Gal(Qp /Q)/H  Zn
as its Galois group. 
We are now in a position to prove
Theorem 4.42. Every finite abelian group can be realized as the Galois group for a
finite normal extension of Q.
Proof. Let A be a nite abelian group. By a well-known theorem A is a direct product
of cyclic groups
A  Zn1 Zn2 Znt
By the earlier proved special case of Dirichlets theorem about prime numbers in
arithmetic progressions there exist distinct prime numbers p1 , . . . , pt such that
p1 1

(mod n1 ) , p2 1

(mod n2 ), . . . , pt 1

(mod nt ) .

By Theorem 4.41 there are subelds of K1 Qp1 , K2 Qp2 , . . . , Kt Qpt which

are normal over Q and
Gal(K1 /Q)  Zn1 , Gal(K2 /Q)  Zn2 , . . . , Gal(Kt /Q)  Znt .
Combining the above theorem, Corollary 4.26 and Corollary 3.48 we conclude
that K1 K2 . . . Kt is normal over Q and
Gal(K1 K2 . . . Kt /Q)  Zn1 Zn2 Znt  A.