Scribd Logo
Upload

Welcome to Scribd!

  • Glass Construction Manual - (Malestrom)

    Uploaded by

    Raluca Gilceava
    12 views326 pages
    construction

    Copyright

    © © All Rights Reserved

    Available Formats

    PDF or read online from Scribd

    Did you find this document useful?

    Is this content inappropriate?

    Report this Document
    construction

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    12 views326 pages

    Glass Construction Manual - (Malestrom)

    Uploaded by

    Raluca Gilceava
    construction

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 326
    Glass Construction Manual BALKOW SCHITTICH SCHULER STAIB SOBEK BIRKHAUSER — PUBLISHERS FOR ARCHITECTURE BASEL « BOSTON - BERLIN EDITION DETAIL MUNCHEN “The orginal German ection ef this book was concelved and developed by DETAIL, Revew of Architecture. Authors: (Christian Sohiticn Dipleing, archtect, Chief Eeitor of tho journal DETAIL Gerda Prof pling. freelance architect. Chair of Bulling Structures and Design, Dresden Technical Unversity Dieter Salow Dipl.-Ing, publicly appointed Independent expert for glass in buildings and dayllontng Director oF the Swiss Institute for Glass in Building, Zurich Matthias Schuler Dipl-Ing, Managing Partner of Tranesolar Energictechnik, Stutgart Wamer Sobek Prot Dring Head of the incttute for Lightweight Sructures, Stitgat University Assistants: Eckhard Holtich, Dip-Ing; Mathias Kutterer, Dip!-ings Anja Wits Sike Brumm, Ospina: Frademam Kk, Dpi-Ina; Filedrch Sick, Dipl.-Ing. Peter Vor, Dip-Ing Published by: Institut fir intemationals Arcitel¢u-Dokurmentation GmbH, Munich Editoval services: Christian Scntich, Dip-ing.; Songe Grandi, Dip. -ng. Susanne Funk M.A, Comet Hirt M.A, Drawings: Sabine Drey, Dpl-lng Translators (German/Engish! Peter Groon, Dil. Ach., MunichiLondon (Part $) Gerd Softer, Pip Tit, Hanover (Pans 1-3) [AGP catalogue record for this books avalable tom the Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., USA Deutsche Biblithek — Cataloging: in-Pubication Data Gass Construction Merual /[Hrea: Insti fr intemationals Arcttekiur-Dosurrentetion Grol Minehen alow. [Red.: Chistian Schitich .. Transl (GermervEng.) Peter Green (part 4); Gerd Sitter, Phil Tht pars t-3) Zeichn: Sabine Drey]. ~ Basel: Boston; Berin : Birkhauser, 1998 By, Ausg. ud 7: Glasbau-Atas ISBN 3-7645.0077-1 Basel.) ISBN 0-8178.6077-1 [Bosten) “This vexcie eublect to copyright Allrights ara reserved, whether the whole or pat ofthe mate rials concerne, specifically the righ'so! transtaten, reriting,re-uee efillusttions,resilation, ‘broadcasting. renreducton on microfims or n other ways, and storage in data banks. For any kn of use, permission ofthe copyright mut te obtaired. “This bookie also availabe in a Garman language edition #SBN 8-7643-5644-7) © 1989. Brknauser— Publishers for Archtecturs, P.O. Box, 199, CH-4010 Basel, Switzerland Printed on eci-tree parr produced from chicrine-tree pulp. TOF = Printed in Germany ISBN3-7643-0077-1 ISBNO-8!76-6077- 987054321 Contents Pest 1 Glass in architecture ‘From the origins to classical modernism Gerad Stib he main stages inthe manufacture of ass ‘The wactional house The Gomi cathedral The town house ‘= Seattonal vapaness house fen —reacting for tne light Fem wallto skin Ths destruction o the box eesing visions with glass Soh ar. sunstine ‘Glass architecture in the second ‘bait of the 20th contury rsten Scnitich Tensparency and ranstucency The cream ofthe glass house Sess skyscrapers and curtain walls Savicht end darkness - aless and licht The now transparency — lass as a symbol Trersusoncy and reflection yrs tacace a5 cisolay Devetopments n glass construction fain walls Suspended glazing and point fixings Gaszed nets (Gisss construction subjected to tension ‘and compression ~ a-giass butlaings Gessand energy The daveloprant of passive solar architecture oiwelent wals and intelligent facades Tre doubleveaf fagade Geodesic shells a 14 7 18 2 26 2 a a6 36 4 42 4a 46 8 8 6 58 56 58 Part 2. Principles Glass as a building material Distor Ballow aes - a detirivon ‘Types of glass Coatings for gass ‘Surface rearrenis Boge works: Thermally treated glass Chemically strenathened glass Laminated glase Laminated safety glass Insulating glace Lowe gas Centalling solar radiation Scattering the light Rediestng the lgit Photovollaie modules and! elements Fire-resistant lass Comoinctions of special function glaceos Appications Glass unrier foot Physccal phienomene: Advice on alazina Cleaning and maintenance Infuence on functional cata Designing with glass — strength and loadboaring behavicur Werner Sobek and Mathias Kulterer Buluing with gas The material Gonetruction deta Solely ana design Structural eysters Glass and energy construction physics Mattias Schuler Gless properties relevant to energy issues and construction physics Gaining energy throug glass ~ soler radiation, lignt Glsee ae thermal irsulstion Glazing polcationsin buildings and systems: 8 BAIIVeAssAees 83 95 90 118 128 180 140 Part 3 + Construction details, Fxngs for glass poring Architeotural details Part 4 - Built example: Cistian Schitteh, Gerald Staio But examples in dtail Examples 1-34 ‘Appendix Standards References Subject Incex Prciue credits 12 153 184 186 187 320 22 ane 27 Preface Hardly any othar bullcing material can fraich the currant immense populaity of glace among architecis and engineers, Glass has witnessed 2 long patiod of evolu- tion in arcritecture ~ from the soli. plein veal to the see-through and light-permeable outer skin, ‘A material that gives us the chenee to eract transparent. open and seeminaly weantess buildings clters the cerraiaton between in terlor and exterior, the relationship between humankind, space, ight and nature. itis not Gifficul to understand why glass has such a high priority as an architectural medium. ‘The property of being able to “capture” the warmth of the gun within the bulging was sill a major problem at the beginning of tho 20th century as new structurel solutions ‘were boing explored and tho dosire arose te reach beyond the confining walls of our con. structions. Today we have many diferent ‘options available forthe inteligent control ‘and admission ofthe right amount of ight ‘and heat ito our buildings. And glace io being increasinaly usec 2s a Icadbearng element oy the structural angineer ~ consid erably reducing the proportion of bulky sup- porting construction. Glass has very recenty been given en enor- mous Innovative boos:, We are now in tha ppasition fo comply with the stringant ‘demands of fire protection and safety. The latest thin-im coatings render possible low- emission and solar-contral glasses which at tho same time parmt optimum transparency, ‘nd yet other echnologies can make glass alternately translucent cr transparent, oF — by way of holograms or liguic erysials ~ turn itinto an information medium These diverse innovations lead to an enor: ‘mous thirs! for information among architects and onginesre. ‘This book is intended to quench that thirst. The sim of the Glass Construction Marual is to present the mulifarious aesthetic and engineering possibilities presented by glass ‘a3 a building meterial, Following on in the tradiion of such "construction manuals” from Esition Detail, thi book algo takos an ‘overall [cok at the subject. Basics suon as the properties of glass, its lbadbearing behaviour, thermal, acoustic and firs aspects, glass as en eneroy provider and e systemnatia selection of fixing detalls and construction forms are all covers hate, The first part deals with the history of glass, and illustatee all tho applicetions of the material from its earliest beginnings ight up tothe present day. ‘The tinal seoton contains examples intend ‘230/to show, above al, tha inleraation of aas- ‘hatios and engineering, The projects selected are not ust those where vest ‘expanses of glazing and technical innova~ ‘ions are rominent but also everyday sols- signs, aueh ag the integration of slamentary windows in a wall of timber or exo0se3 clay ‘acing bricks. It remaing to nope that this book wil con- tribute to a beter practical and theoretical ungerstaning of thls multjpurpose material perhans evan to inspiring architects and engineers in shoir cally cuties, The Authore \ Nery \i hf ps Uy i LA , \ v\ le) Bs IO Hf ep. EA , oN Ss PER ee 2 aS INS Gp OE ES Ce Part 1 - Glass in architecture From the origins to clessicel modernism Gerald Stab ‘Theman stages fr the manufacture of glass ~ a historical perspective The traditional houss The Gothic cathedral -“God i light” Baroque -attermpting to admit the lant ‘Tha town house - the extarnal wail becomes a permeable sructure The traditional Japanese nouse Jron—reashing for the ight From wal to skin releasing the extemal wall from ts loedbearing function ‘The destruction of the box - the fluent tran- ‘ition between inside and outeids (Geeating visions wit glass ~ ‘Without a glass palacs, life becomes a pucn Light, a, sunshine ~ “the house machine’ Glass architecture in the socond half of the 20th century (Chrietian Sehitich ‘Transparency and translucency the glazed skin comes ave “The dream of the glass house Giags skyscrapers and outain walls Deviant anc darkness ~ olass end lignt The new transparency — Gassas a symbol Translucency and reflection ‘Tha fagede as a dsplay— ‘tha glazed alen comes ale Davalopmants in glass consiructcn Curain walls Suspended glazing and point fixings Glazed nets | Glass construction suojected to tension anc ‘compression ~al-glase buildings lass and eneray ‘Tre daveloparent of passive solar architecture Pelwelent walls and inteligan: facades The double leat facade Geodesic shells - man-made spaces under olass From the origins to classical modernism Gerald Stal ‘The main stagos in the manufacture of lass ~ a historical perspective “The word lass is derived trom Germanic term meaning “amber “shimmer”. The gless jewellery the Romans impotted closely resembled amber anciwas consequartly named as auch. In Latin, amber is glesum or glaesum. The Romans, on the othar hand, referred to glass ae virur, pro- viaing the root for the French expressions vitre for window pane ard vere for glass. Origins in Mesopotanis ané Eaypt tis ail uncertain where the manufecture of lass criginated, An ash discovered by change when copper wes amelted or when Clay vasses were free was used 10 gaze aramios from eary times. Articos showing guidence of ts and dating back io the Sth contury BC have been found in Mesopotamia, while olhars from the early 4th century BO were excavated in Egypt, When the tems of Egyptian pharaohs were onered, gresrien glass beacs that stemmed from around 3500 BBC came to ight, This marks the beginning of what could be referred 10 as interticnal glass manufacture, From the midle of fha 2nd century BC, rings and simall igures, which had besn produced using bowls as casting moulds, began to appesr. The core wound ‘echnigue also alowad the production of ‘omall glaeees, vase, ete from the vieoous, ‘opaque melt, A sand core containing clay wae fxee © 8 10d, dpaed in tha moltan glass and tamed around its own axis ‘9 create a thick “class thraadt that adhered ‘oi, This, ‘was subsequenty rolled into @ sutable shape (ona fle surface and the core removed after ‘opeling, The oldest blueprint for glass appears on clay tablets nthe great library of tho Assyrian king Ashurbaninel (638-826 BO) in Nineven. the inscriptions in cunetferm read “Take 60 paris o! sand, 160 paris of ash ‘rom marine plants, 5 peris of chak anc! you will obtain glass", In principle, this is stil cr- rect today (s0¢ “Composition”, p. 81) ‘The Syrian blowing ron ‘Onyy ater the invention of the blowing iron ‘round 200 BC by Syrian erafiomen in tre ‘Sidon region did it become possible to pro: ‘duce thin-valled hollow vessels in a wide variety of stapas. The gate’ (blower) gathers ‘molten glass on tne end of a 1.5m hotow roa and blows this nic a thinwalled vessel, ‘Tho Reman age Excavations have revealed that glass was first used as part ofthe bulding envelope in vilas at Pompeii snd Horoulenoum, and at public bains, These panes were installed Sitar without a frame or were given a bronze tr 09d surround; they measured approx, 300 x 500 mm and were between 30 and 60 mim theck. Although cylinder sheet glass was known at this time, these panes were cast and drawn: a viscous paste was frst oured onto @ amed table sprinkled wrth end and then strotohed by drawing it with iron hooks. 4s far as the weathered (ag; ‘ants ciscavarad oan indicate this Roman wadew glass seems to have been a bluish ‘reen and not particularly transparent The Mdcle Ages \With the Romane, this taohniqua of glass pro: uction aiso spread to northern alpine regians. After the patie of migration, the Floman traction was frst revwed by the Merovingian Frarks. Objects preserved from the early Middle Ages nicluds inastos ves: sels, drinking hams and cla beakers. Thase beaver, tote Francona, 6h ean: feeischeshism, Wir, ‘Ma ‘mating eee, engrving om Dera meta, 2 beats onmining and motlurgy, Georse gona (iat 1880) Basel 160? Utensils continued to be produced right into the high Middle Ages, elthough glass pro= ‘uston now revolved more and mere eraund the bulging of churshes and monasteries, ‘he largest alassworks were iovated in forested areas end along rivere, Le. wherever there was an abundancs of wae, ‘o provide snargy end potesh, ane water, fer cooing and transporting tne sand. Wnen the supply cof wood in the vietnty was depleted, the glessworks moved on. Deferestation became Critical, and glass-making was prohibited in many arees. Coal did not replace viood as @ fuel until the 18tn century, fay marking the ‘end af forest gleaaworls. Blewn eynder shee nd erown glace “The !wo most important production tec riquse since the early Midala Ages, the blown oylinder sheet and crown glass processes, remained the basis of class pro- ‘cuotion until the late 12h and early 20th cen- tury. While flat class had been produces TIS] Fiom the origins to classiea! modsrismm Using @ blowing iron in the eylinder proses Inthe 1st century AD, the metnod of procuc- ing crown glaos wae not slecovorod unt the 4in century AD. tt wes again Syrian crarts- men who developed bot processes and ois seminated these during thelr tevels in he och In both the Grown glass and! blown cylinder Gass processes. ¢ blob of melten glass is avn off with a blowing iron, preformed into ‘around shape and blown into a "balloon, \whih i centinually roneated to keep it duc- tik for shaping In the blown oylincar sheet glass process, primary applied in Lorraine and along the River Rina, tha oallocn was shaped inio a 0 oylinder, as long and thin-walles as possi bie, by Slowing, swinging and roling ton @ taolo. A dampened iron pin, later a diamond, Was Used to cut off both ends and sit open the stress-relleved, caoled cylinder Iongth- wise betore il was reveated in the flattening furrace and bent into a flat pane. The cimen- sions of the cylinder, and consequent of the pane, were limited only by the power of the blower's lungs! Cylinders measures a maximum cf 2 mong witha dameter oF 200 mim, To produce crown glass, the bubble of glass was “stuck’ tothe iron plate on the glass- ‘maker's pont lion rod) and the élowng ron ccrackod off; the hole was enlarged to form a rim. This bell-shaped object was again feheated anc rotated at speed 12 fom a die, As i wes uneven, the glass-maker cut this “crown” glass into smaller rectangles, rhombuses or hexagons, depending an its quality. The thick centre, the bul’seeys, anc smaller panes were scid as bulls-aye panes without being cut egain, In contrast to cylin dar glass, the crown gass process pro- duced more avon, pursr and mare lustrous Surfaces as the less did) not come into can tect with the rough, hat floor of the furnace, This method was still applied until the rid= 1th century, particularly in Normandy - pre- sumably the ‘eason itis celled verre de France ~ andl in Englane. venice Botioon tho 1th and 17th eanturios, the city Of Venice was he major producer of glass ‘bows, drinking vassals and minors (panes of fiat glass backed with an amalgam of tn land mercury), which were primarly exported le Germany and France. The suscess of Venetian alass was dus to its extraordinary purty and absence of colour, achioved by adding the ash of a marine plant as well 2s manganese and white arsoric as decstouriz. ing agents. {719/10 century ‘The glass 000M In tne 17% century ~ ‘yas ne longer sold sclely to churches anct monasteries but a'so io dzelers In the cites for glazing ralaces and housas - and ine ‘less monopoly held by Venice motivates class-makers 1o seek new metnods of ‘custion. In 1987 the Frenorrran Bernard Perrot developed a vital innovation, ne cast gles process, in which the glaze melt was ourec anio a smacth, ofeheated copp= table and praseed inte a pana by a water ‘cooled metal oer. The thickness of the pane depended an the height ofthe sur- round. The pane, far more even in compar son to previous arocesses, was Sub- saquontly ground with eand and water and polsned witn a paste made trom iron ox “These so-called grandes giaces or “pate” glass panes measured up fo 1.20 x2 mand vere able to be produced in better quality vith fess manpower, leading fo a reduction In costs, The true breakthrough, however, came wih the invention of a casting and rolling method, ine Bicheroux proce: Max Bichorcux in 1919 (220 "Early tury p12). Daaspite this, window glass continued t be en expensive material, perty because bath sides had to be polished. Glass wes so cious atthe end of the 18th century thst coach dhivers, for instanca, replaced the gloss panes in their carriages by wickorwork at ine and o! tne cay. in Englang, tenants removad the window glass wen they house as it dio not constituie part oft fFxed furnishings, Industratstion Gonsigerabie progrese wae made in realms of glass production in the 137 tury In 1886 Friedrich Siemans patented ar Improved version of the melting furnace: th rationalized operations and halved the riount of fuel required. It boosted eificiency In production and prices declined. Tre bblown cylinder sheet glaas process similarly experienced major develeament:in 1999 the ‘Chanos brotiers succeeded in adapting the cutting, grinding and pclishing of tho blown cyinder to reduce breakage and improve the Surface finish. With the advant ofthis process 2 1850-51 it became possible 1o produce ‘he enormous number of glass penes for the ‘construction oj the Crystal Palace in just 2 few months. Around the turn of the century, the American, John H. Lubbers, developed a mechanical otacess to comone blowing anc Commsis Dhalepur, Neos te The tracitional house Frontheailgins class ‘The Gothie cathedral ~ “God is light” the medieval town the bishop tne sovereign, t played on entience tas something sp bby a new light interior end oxteriar, bot Ittransformed the rays ofthe al modium. i able to eon) Denis int Architecture and light oe sprivalzetion and derra 1” Baroque — attempting to admit the light rogue architecture wae essentially coe red wath the rythrric movement an vivid immediacy of space. focussed and extended tointiniy. ht layed a special role in this respect 2 difuse, mystic ight of the Gothic cathed: .ad been superseded by tright sunlight steaming in through ample window and door openings. Light to create space, but elsa ‘a means of dissclung tha limits of ace. in the interaction with painting anc plasterwerk, with fight church walls ~ the abbey church by Balthasar Neuman in Norasheim (begun in 1745) deserves special mention here — and mivrers in palaces, space loses its material characier; t axpands into infinity, the walls begin to dissolve and dena: terialze, The soli outer wall separating inter- i and exterior faces inte the oackarcunc, Architecture and nature, inside and outside, merge to become ona, The achievemanis ‘nanlifested In the baroque bulédings oF this were to gain more and more signit- The increasing trond tewarde opening up architecture prompted a huge demand for lass. The mushrooming glaae industry in the north was stl working wan traditional metn- 3 his time and with the inherent disad- 12 crown glass and blown cylln- der sheet olass processes. With the casting land rolling methed, whicn frst appeared ia 1688, lerger and almost pure panes of glass became possible, heraicing tha ora of tha grandes gfaces. These viete combined ina Fomarkable way wih mirrors, familiar since antigulty, but sill made of bronze and copper with a polished surlace and coated with siver slatinum. Convex mrrors tad been por duced sinca the 13th century and backed by lead or terne metal, Venetian mira, coated wth an amalgam, had been knowin since the ‘ate 15th century an continued to be pro: Guced inthis way ito the 1St» century, The Galario das Glacas (1678-84) at tho Palace of Verseilles by Jules Hardouie-Mansert ang Cherles Le Brun is an exemplary display of how class can be combined with mirors, The facade ofthe long iransverse wing cveriook- ing the gardone comprieae a long ropotitive series cf arched windows which almost dis solve the wall, transforming it into a mers ‘rame. These openings reappear cn the opposite internal wall as mierars (civided inta individual ements measuring 020 » 900 mm). The reflections of nature, the tress and the clouds are continued inthe white and coloured marble walls. In tne ight streaming through the large openings, the reflections in the mirrors and the indescant materials, the room itself seems almost to y completely. Baroque —attemting o admit the light From the erigins to classical rogernism ‘The town house the external wall fecomes a permeable structure house generally vy, 20d anvelope, The epen- vent tiny, and were note sections: an upper part nt permanently closed by thin, hides and other materials that ter, ane a lower part with at could ba opened. The yas ofton closed by tho shutters id by gratings in the sum- with round panes mounted on to appear only very grad- wet, remained rare and pr ployed, apart from n pale clusivey in the constuction of tries. The Gothic era saw 39 In size with pointed arch fed in groups, not only evident ile, tvs lificultto fo produce large open rehitcture a the proper "ead brick reed on carty- ly in compression, Itwas ee tin the case of timberframe cone 2 distinctionin the struc- .Sbearing and non-joacbear made ine arses between te eSers available for aperings. Within this nd vertcaltnes, it now 3+ tring together 2 series of weocows separated by the timber 9 an early style of cantrucus stip “This generous broakclown and oom. 1088 14 town halls, uid smeatis houses became (of the flourishing ‘ouns of the > century Instone architecture too, #5 were made to open up the wall as far is houses were built very close Dutch towns ilustate this feeture ter val could be reduced io ut afew loacbearing ae. ‘led in with large windows Cespite ry siya, The generous openings to lotved light to penetrate into the rooms. Tha external wall vies ‘hard division between nside itnow became an elemento! the ‘cn; private and public epheres marged. -odelling a! ths Zone looks backon a ‘on, particulary in th Notherlands. es 0n glass and windows In Enganc es the sacly 17h century, and in Franca on 10 windows, led to the development forms forthe outer wal. air, Basra, Amsterdam ‘The town house ~ He external vall becomes a permeable suucture Hisaes ie Tate DOE. y a 0a From the origins to classical magamism ‘The tracitional Japanese house “The climatic conattions prevailing inthis group of islands, the abundance of wood as 2 bulding materiel, the risk of earthquakes and the strong adherence to cultural and religious traditions have produced a typo of house in Japan that has folowed the same. rule for earturias The open plan, the bond with the garden, the lightwalart, opening slements reaching up to the calling and the {ul length of the well hac a greet influence on modamist architects ike Frank Lloyd Wright and Bruno Teut The tractiona’ Japanese ouse is a Neuse made of wood, bamboo, frequently clay for the walls, paper toil in tne sliding elements ‘and otraw tlocre; a skelaton construction with lgntwaight, mostly siding wall units. All parts of the house, the wacdan construc- tions, the wall etements end the sliding doors, the arrangement and dimensions of the rooms, the size ofthe straw mets etc. are all defined exactly. Each part relates to the other ~a very eary form of eimencicnal coordination and standardization, Ae the climate normally requires 8 high ‘degree of permeaballiy, ine skeleton con- struction allows the wails, spanned with paper and vansmiting ign, to become st ing doors, Structure and building envelope arg clearly demarcated. Consequentiy, the ‘openings in this house are not holes in te wll, but pact of tha wall, Combined with the {generous overnang of the roof, providing protection from sun 2nd rain, and the sur~ rounding veranda, the large sliding walls ‘shai cn the inner side of the veranda, the oom side, form & deep zone of tranatio. When thse “walls” are open, garden and ilerier are linked by tha veranda to croato an exienced living space. Sliding stutlers made completely of wood, later win glass pane's ico, and fied tothe puter side of ths veranda form a sort of ‘dauble-lea” external wall providing greater protection from the cold. Sheets and barr ‘00 blinds are hung up to cut out the glare ofthe sun, An “outer wal” ensues that can bbe adapted to a whole range of situations and, inthis way, sable to offer ne most dveree interaction between inside and outsige. 1.1.18 Pan ot a drawn fre Jacanese domestc haus ‘ypiealcondricton coals 119 Ketseaoeral la, Kiso, pan, 170 ctu 1 fron ~ reaching for the light Up unt the 18th century, architecture was hetly defined by the natural resources =raiable. Buildings woro made of stone, Say 2nd wood, Architectural torm wes Sefned by the properties of these materiale 6 te liitea strangih of humans. As Sones and clay could anly accommodate compressive loads, sclid walls and vaults fxedominaied. In contrast, wood appeared = erchtecture elther a8 a skeleton {frame- ork matnod) or as a sclid construction ung logs). © ine quest for new Dulkding mater, iron ss diecovered at an sarly stage, Yet it was fet abie 10 be used as an indepencent ‘=steril for construction until the late 18th setury when coe was recognized as sult- sabi for smelting iton ore, subsequently easing to better quality ron in larger quanti fedustrial production, boosted by technical ecrovements fo the steam engine, the Seschanical [scm em tha ability {2 produce est Fon, now finaly blossomed. Iron, with fs higher load-carrying capacity, its far ‘spotter performance to the materials eeeloyad praviously, and its abilty to ‘e-commadite tensile loads fer beter than sy material used up until then, opened up Seta now horizons fer beth building moth fos and architectural design. Tne forces ereously borne by solid stone walls were Sow concentiaied ina slender skeleton (ist st ron, later mainly wrought iton) of Sous and beema: intoriora now became ecbstructeo, extended and could be shaped in many ways. With this, the wall lost ‘© ‘sedbearing function and could be sepiaced by a glace shin to admit the light Soom, hardly “contined" any longer, became largar and brighter. During the cou'se of the enormous secial, Sectural and industial upheavals of the 2) century, numerous new tacks for erch Secture 31056, ¢.9. markst nals, cepartmant S285, railway statons otc. Tho buildings Ssraled Ne(e are just ¢ few representative examplee. ‘re laige glass dome suited or domed constructions made of Sere 29 well a9 wae flocrs or open rca! constructions wityaristie wood carvings ers matneds af covering large, grand inter ne passage of light through a deme was Sally defined by the inherent character of “s constuction and was only possible ‘Svoush the apex (Penthson) or through smaller openings at the dase of the dome Hagia Sophia). Vaults could now be oroken exygen (0) (SiO; tetrahedra) with estons contained inthe interstices. It glass peated to 800 ~ 1100°C and this tempara- see maintained fr a while, then a proves seoun as devitrfcation hagins. Tais pra- 8 silicon crystals which ere leached out ‘om the glass mass. en effect which leads so milky, opaque glass. Natural glass, e.9. obsidian. is produced as sult ef volcaric ectivity. ti formed by niense heat in the Earth's core and is, ected by ths energy of voloanic erations, Searier times, natural glass was used as sewellery, for vessele cr for other everyday stots of manvtastare About 5000 years ago the Mescpotamians, Sscovered that whon heated together 900°C), siligon, Ime, sodium cerbonate, #ossium carbonate end metal oxides coud be worked into e glessy mass. But this, Sethod was extremely complicated and so ess remained a coveted, rare commodity ‘The first written record of a recipe is found en 8 clay tablet from tha Assyrian king Ashurbanipal, dated c, 850 EC, Flat glass panas were already osing pro- cused by casting during the tine of the Romans, as wall as blown cylinder sheet lass. By the 14th century the erovin class method allowed bul’s-eye glasses to be produced forthe first time withaut a rim ‘around the circumference. Improvements in ne 18th century lad to the Irst large panes produced by the blown ovlinder sheat glass process The Englisiimen Alastair Pilkington dever oped the fost glass meitvad in the 18508 The viscous glass melt is pessed over a bath of matten tin, floating on the level sur- face. Owing fo the suriace tensions together ‘uth the viscosities of the glass melt and the motion tin tho quid glee forme a layor 6 mmihick. The temperature of the moten tin on tha ilet sida is 1090°C, en the autlat side €00°C. Alter leaving the bath the glass is slowly cooled in a carefully controlled process to ensure no recicual streeaes — before being cut to size, (See “The main stagos i the manufacture of glass", p. 9.) Composition “The glass produced these days Is made up as shown in Tab, 21.2, Besides those Iistad here, smail propsrtions of other substances ‘may be introcuced in order to influence propertise end selaur. Tha manufacture of bogy-tited glass requires the adalton of ‘minimal amounts of evtabla adestives: these do not however alter the mechanical strength urabitty Sode-lime-slice glass is generally resistant toacids and alkaline solutions. Likewise, the surface is suticlontly hard (coraien nerd- ness 6 - 7 on the Wions scale}. This property ‘ascribes the soratch resistance of the glass surface. Therefore, sharp, Nard objects. ¢9, small sand particles in claan- ing water, can cause hailline crecks on the surfece if adequate care is not taken when cleaning. 11 fim of water remains stanciing on @ glass surface for a long time, leachings form, The bond between the silicon and the ‘exygen in tha watar is stronger than thai to the components in the lattice interstices in 2.1.4 Gantt pha properties of glass abe Prope Symbol Deneve pCa Harness 6 uns onthe Mohs eos acute of osteiy E 7x 10°Pa Poisson's rato ry 02 6 OTHE TIX) Chern expanse a 94108" ‘Thormal eoractuiy a 1 Wire varage rtactive nex fvhavblerange of sareerahs 212 Conrestionst ass tear doi 10) Ta Calcium ond (Gad) 18 Sadun oxae 0) ia i0% Nagnesim odo (lg0)—O%- OX ‘Aan do Gh oR 8 This conpestion Fas bee stanearazee fo ope NEN S72 Fan 243. Race pate! afcst iss pare 214 Factus patanot ‘aie gasspane 61 215 Fou less carat now nists us nase Tern 23.85.60m iam i25nm The properiasol cand Foayiinied bal gavsoro ‘Stout in Burgeo eondlard EN S72 Port 28 Ughiwanimusnee vaues oat ah argon snoatalass Biase hiewrose am com nm ven 088 ‘097 sen nm 24,7 Brann shoe! gat is naiibie ese thio Gass hickness: Taerance 020m == 20d Yom = 200m Diawn stent lassi coverod W Euopeby EWSTE Pans 218 Patered dassisavalabe m ese frases Gasihones S48 6mm inm ator lass covere i Eioba by ENT? Pa 5 219 Bocacate gas fe avnabie h Nes Iicenesses the glass, to sodium, ealsium and mag- nasium ions. This means that these ‘orm solutions with the water more quickly. In tho minute quantity of weter inthe frm the alka- ling concentration risae andl attacks the residual acigic lattice, leading to corrosion of tha glass surface Such atiacks on the glass surface do not ‘nermally occur on windows and fecaces unless water cenaot drain from a horizontal surface. Leachings from glaes aro also caused by ‘contact with mineral plasters, wet concrele or extromely alkaline cleaning agents. Types of glass Foo! ass Today float lass is the most widely used type of glage and is procuced by way of the float procass described above (Fig. 2.1.11) The induetral process rrakes it possible to produce large quantiles of nigt-quatty loa glase with virualy flat suriaces in thicknesses from 2 to 181mm (Tab. 2.1.5). Mosern faat glass plants turn out anprox. 1900 tof glass @ mm thick each dey. Max mum ribbon sizes of 82 x 60m are then avallabie fer further processing (coe EN 672 Part 2) Float glace can be coloured during the man Ulacturing process; the ight tansrittance values aller accerdingly By choosing the raw materials caretuly, lower amaunts 0 Fa;Os, itis possible to reduce of even virtually olminate the natural ‘teen tint of tloat glass, in such cases ine (giaee ie clmost colourless anc is designated low-lron or clear-nnite glass. The thermal tigue resistance is about 40°C (max 420°O). It terrparature zones are present across the glass surface, the differences botwoon which lie in this range, the glass ‘can fracture. The warm zone tries to expand but is prevanted from doing so by tha calc one, Siesses bulld up which can lead to breakage, especially # this diference is to a covered edge. The tracture pattern of float Glass can be sean in Fig. 21.3 (p. 61). Drawn sheet glass “There are sti a few drawn sheet glass plants producing very thin to (in some cases) thick glass, These use either the ver: tical mathod (Fwvented by Emile Fourcaut in 1902) or the horizontal method (Libby Owens, 1805) Orawn sheet class and float glass have tne ‘same chomicel aomposition as wall as the ‘same general physical properties. Never- theless, in comparieon fo float glaes, crawn sheet glass sxhiois slignt waves and “pattar" in the surtace porpandicular to the iraction of drawing, These are sometimes \isible when looking through the glass, 9 teny case in the distorted reflection. ‘The cht teansmittance values for drawn heet and flast glacs aro chown in Tab, 216. “Tho iraciure pattorn of drawn sheet glass is Iemmical vith that of foal glass (Fig. 2.1.9, p. 51), The thicknesses available are given InTeb, 2.17. Patterned or rolled gles In the manufacture of patterned or rolled gloas (Fig. 2.1.12), tha liquid glass melt, Ike an overfiawung bath, '$ fed between one cr ‘mere pairs of rllers fo Ove ita character's tic surface texture as required. Therofore, the glass o€n ba given bvo smooth surfaces, ‘one smooth and one textured surface or two textured sidas depending on tne design ct the roll’ or tebio eurfaces, ellec classes are translucent ~ they cannot Optend eine coulng J q sus anecton lasathicinese Taeance a4 5, 85. 75mm 16 smn 04/05 2140 Main corsttunt of Bos ‘Seon cove a Baron ORG fe Fotassimonide ‘ures oie nck @ ey] woking Separate Hot bangiquasire U lo —1 uss ‘aresivgiche 21.11 The prinopal stepsinite ma facture oat lass Patemed less °|| ating ari Fotecs to ae ‘gass ispaten ‘reainglott Pao Tech gaan sees reproduce the transparency of float or drawn sheet, The various surface textures scatter the light to varying dagrees. This ‘abies interiors to be provided with natural lighting while maintaining privacy. Certain surface texlures can direct the ight in a seecitic direction, 2.9. to brianten the cei- ing of a room, The thermal fatgue resistence for patterned orralied glass 's, ike for float glaes, about 30°C (max, 40°C), The fracture patiern of iis type of glass is Identical with that of toa! gless (Fig. 2.1.8, p. 61). Itis possible to insert a wire mesh into the glass while itis stil liquid, This is then krown as wired pattemed olass or, with two smooth surfaces, simply as wired glass, The ‘hormal fatigue resistance of this glass is about 20K, The fracture patiem of wired glass is snown in Fig. 2.7.4 (p. 61). The thicknesses available are given in Teb. 2.1.8. ‘The physical properties of patternad and lical glass are identical, The ultimate bend ing strength lies slightly oelow that of oat glass because of the surface pattern, Boreoicatesleoe ‘This glass contains approx, 7 - 18% boron oxide, In comparison to drayin sheet andl oat glass, the coefficient of thermal exoan- sion is lower and so the thermal fatioue resistence is considerably higher. Ithas & high resistance to alkaline solutions and ‘ese days, porosticate glass can ne man: lfactured like drawn shast and feat glass or Fhe rolled and cast gass. tis used where high thermal fatique resistance is neces- sary, ¢.g. for fire protection, The relevant processing and installation clrectives must be atriotly adhered to, ‘The fracture pattern of borosilicate glass is ‘dentica! with that of float glase (Fig. 2.1.3, 9.61). The thicknesses avallable, main con stituents and light transrritianca valuas of borcslicate glass ere given intebies 2.1. 2.4.10, 2.1.18 and 2.1.14, Glass coranies| Modern mathads alse rendor it possible to procuce materials with cortrated crystal- Ization. These are no longer glasses ac ‘such Dut Instead can exhibit a pantie! or complete microcrystalline structure, while ‘remaining peitectly wansparent Glass ceramics are produced just like float. of glass that can he tasted with the mpact ‘body faling from a lower height. A crcp height of 700 men has esiablished itset 9 practice, Neverthalsss, cletinetions must be ‘mad between the individual applications. ‘A drop he'gat of 1200 mm may algo be usec for testing alustrade constructions anc thoir clasees. ‘The sack of lead shot is veplaced in Euro pean standard prEN 12600 by two smaller ‘ear tyres, one on top of the other. The mass ff the impact badly may yet be increased by about § kg in order to take aacount of the inereesing average weight of the Euopsen pepulation. PVE (polyvinyl butyral oll, suitable casting rosing or other organic or inorganic mater Fished laminae salty lass 2192 ‘Te propa tens nthe mentctré nine slaty sage wih PVB lrayer lals may be used as the intermesiate layer provided that, in conjunction with the lass, the necosaary safety roquiromante aro eats: ties, ‘The olese units musi be stable with respect {0 solar radiation. Their macnanical and ‘optical pronertias should not alter during er alter being subjected lo raciation or a defined moisture load. When using a PB interlayer, the fois placed between the panes and the whole unit pressed together in-an autoclave under the action of hast and pressure (Fig. 2.1.32), The bond at the adga of a laminated safely gaass with a PVB interlayer can suler I sub- Jecied to moisture permanently. As the fail is initially very dry, itcan absorb hurilty end hence weaken the bond at the edge. There- fre, ike wth Insulating glass, the edges must be set ina glass rebate which permits vapour-preacure equalization and provente permanent humidity. Neverteless, his Stfect cannot be entiely rulae aut in the long term, Even during transport and sior- age, care must he takan to ensure that he edges are protected from excess moisture However. this is only an optical defect and whole. The bonding of the gloee reamente ta the \nterlayar in lamineted (safery) glass is tested using the matnods laid dawn in EN 12937 Part Casting resin can be introduced between the panes in several ways. Mult-ply compe- nents cure by themselves or under the action of UV radiation. Special caro is required at the exiges wnen using casting resin, The soiteners in sealing rmaterials can penetrate the edge cover stips, seep into tha resin and attack this chemically Antivendal, antlniruder and bullat-esistnt ola wing tots ability to bond glass iraoments logethor and its stueturs comprising ind vidua! panes with fol In between, laminated safety glass is ideal for provicing protection against altacks with blunt objects 01 projec- tlas fora eartain length of time. Throwing stones at glass or sriking it with an axe isa combination of large mass and ‘ow velecity, whereas a bullet from a gun ie 2 combination of small mass and high velo ¥y, acting on a small area af glass. Those concepts must be considered when choos: ‘9g beth lass and fall When specitying Such pens itis essemial fo remember that ine actual olass prapertias of the window cen only be reclized ifthe construction com: lies with the requirements and is maicned tothe glass. To provide effective protection against intruders, a window must be designed in such a way that ii canno! be levered out ent Laminates safety glass blo6 oF the panes eemoved without demag- ing the olaes. External Glazing bars should rt bs Used. Tho recommendations of craft German standara DIN V 19054 and drait European standards prEN 1522 and 1523 should be observed, Ant-vandat glazing These class units, classified as tyne “A’, are Intended to prevent stones thrown at ther ‘rom penetrating the glass, Ins property is tasted by dropping a 4.11 kg stoo! ball threo limes in succession onto the glass trem var ‘ous heights. DIN 52290 Part 4 dascribes the lest. The classifications Ai, AZ and Aa refer {othe drop heights of 25, 5 and &.6m respectively and are awarded depending on ‘whether or not the ball penetrates the glass What this means in practice is that glazing at ground floor level should be chosen to provide a high arti-vardal protection level, indesd evan anti-inirucer protection, while for upper floors a lowor lovel of protaction is sufficient, wing to the diminisning impect energy of a stone which thrown. Laminat- ec safety glass, including several layers of foll or a suitable resin, can give the glass unit an appropriate degree of resistance. Antiintruder glazing ‘Ihase giass nits, classiied as type "3", are intended fo prevent an opening larger than 409 x 400 min being smesiied in the gless with an axe in a short space of time, This property is tested in accordance with DIN 52290 Part or prEN 358. ‘The olacsiication dopende on the time taken {9 produce an opsning 400 x 409 mm A long-nancled axe fitad ta a machina simulates the attack conditions end provides objective, comparable test results. In tha gless/ll or glsssiresin combinations ths elastic intermeciate layers are held together and protected by the glass, The elasticity of the whole system allows the glass unit to absorb the ehack o! the impacts. 69 Glass as ¢ buiding material ax, overreasice Duration Diretace siaok ofover Gave bir 33) Bresre pha rs) a aT ras 20 a 1 itarpane 2 toro pane 3 Metal apacer 4 seairgiee! fpuylsest 5 Descent © Soalngiovol polis soa / Q 2.1.96 Beige sealer nung glass = i= 21.38. Tro etectot altering ana cust gass nck nesses en nouitirg lass uns 2. osltof Srpreceine ustons Builer-resistant glazing ‘These glass units are classilied as type °C”. A bullt fired from 8 pistol or rife produces fa very small mass acting with 2 high velocity (ona small impact area, Crucial tothe pro: fective function of the class in ins instance. is ite mace and not its elasticty. Conse- ‘quant, bullet-rasistant glazing units con tain 4 high proportion of glass. DIN 52280 Fait 2 and prEN 259 stipulate the test pro ‘cedures which provice comparable results, ‘The classification is based on the type of vweapen and ammunition used. Maximum security is achiavad whan tho pro~ Jectle does not panetrate the glass and no ‘plintere cf glace are flung olf irom the rear face of te glass unit, According to tne the- ‘ory of alaetic mpact, the impact energy is, ‘ransmities through the material anc rlassec at the ofner end, Additional layers, cf glass, preferably thermally or chercally strengthened. as Well as orotective films or plastic layers can prevert this psling of fraamerts, Such glass Is dasignated “Zero spall; glaaces in waish fragments are eject: ‘9d from tne rear of the unit by the force of projectile are callad “imitediunlimited spall” as appropriate, For euch a window or fagade to offer effeo- tiva resistance, the frame must also comply ‘wilh the same or a higher specitication Explosionresistant glazing Those glass unte are classified as type “D and ate Irtenied to protect against attacks from cusida using explosive devices. Lam nated safely glass can be used in euch cir cumstances. Testing the propertiaa of the glazing ie cov. ered by DIN 6220 Fart 8. which assumes a aphorical proscure wave acting perpendic: las to the glass. The new European standard rEN 1099 with is thrae classas £1, E2 and 3 is comparable with DIN 2290 Part 6 The oassifications D1, D2 and 03 to DIN 52280 Part § depend on the moximum overpressure of He rellected shock wave for 1 presoribed duration of the overpressure phase (Tab. 2.1.33). The elastic propery of glaze, copecially lerrinatod safety olase, makes isafnoticsable fete, OF course, He Frame holding the glass must De suitebly designed and fixed to the masonry or fagade, During the test the olass is held at tha edges by the test rig with a presaure of 1423 Nom? Alarm glass Fine silver wires can be placed within the make-up o the laminated safety glass. Ifthe glass is peretrated or even subjected 10 Sevare deformations, breaking one of thes= vires vill cause a clroul ib be intemupied ‘and an alarm signal to be triggered. The “Ohmic resistance of a pane” depends on its dimensions, The same effact can be achieves vihon thermally toughonod glass is provided with a conductive loop in one cor nor, If the glass ig damaged, than the can- ductive pane Is mieirupied, The position of the connacting cable must be carefully planned and Incorporated so thai the eainage of tha rebate Is act hindered and the connection to the glass cannot become ‘wel, Therefore, fis best to incorporate the leap at the top. Hosted Heated glass cen be produced by applying ‘a conductive coating to the surface of the glass cr by placing a fine wire within the make-up of the laminated (safety) glass. ‘With the coating method the size of the pane eterminas the electrical resistance anc hence the heating capacity. With the wirs method the heating capacity can be deter- mined through appropriate dacign ai tho Serles/parallel Grcut ‘oF the elecirical con ctor Insulating gless coneral Insulating glass consists of at least two seperate panes kept apart by spacers fited around the edge. These deys, the first sea {s located batween the spacers and the panes of gless; this prevents moisture from entering the cavity between the penes. In ‘edilkion, enother ae! is positionad behind the spacers and between the panes; this serves ab a secondary seal and as an ache. sive, keeping the panes and spacers joined together (Fig. 2.138). Tha spacers contain an adsorbent substance that dehumicii ‘the cavity, which is harmetically sealed against the autsice air. This reduces the dew point oi the enclosed ait to Delow “90°C, Tha sealing aysioms pravent an ‘exchange o! gases between the cavity and the outside air and the ingress of moisture Into the cavity, tthe seals are damaged and moisture enters the cavity, then the relative humidity in the cevity rises as soon as the desiccant is saturated, When the alt cools to below the dew point, thie damp air condone 8: We say the pane 's “fogged or "steamed Up". The cieoimiler moisture contents of the cavity ar and the outside alr give rse to @ high vapour-pressure gracient. Thetefare, i Is necassary (0 febrigate insulating glass. Unite with the utmost care and, once Installed, to make sure that the rebate is not packed full of sealant but instead remains free of sealant and dry, achieved by way of ‘a functioning vapour-atessure equalization ‘and drainage arrangement. Permanent humidity must be avoided at all costs, The edge seal of an insuleting glass unit if rot made trom silicone, must ba protected ‘againe! colar radiation, Panos which aco not ‘ited into a rebete wll need to be given an ‘enamel or other type of coating in order fo provide the necessary shading for ihe seal- ing system. Edge seal eystoms employing silicones should mot be used with cavities filed with, for example. argon, krypton and xenon as Well as OF, because the perme- ability of siicane is 100 high for these dases. ‘Cave in the production and inetatatien oF Insulating glass units, 6.9, rebate tree of sealant, adequate vapcur-pressure equal- {zation (no permanent dampness) and no additional, undefined mechanical losds on tHe edge seal, ill result in service lives of 20 years or even longer. ‘The air pressure in the cavity corespends to the atmosoheric pressure prevailing at the time of manufacture. After installation, whan the stmospheric pressure rises bboyond that in the cavity, both panae aro pressed inwards; when the outside pressure reps. the panes bulpe outwards (Fig 2.4.85). These movements can be readily perceived as distortions. Special attention should be given to this “pumping” action ‘wnen oesigning large panes wit reflective properties, Merely optimizing the giass thicknesses in ine wit structural require- ments is nat encugh to copa with this offact ‘Current methods of calculating the glass thickness distribute the loads aver both ‘pangs. The result ofthis is that the panes ‘can be thinner, and hence the stiinesses lower and the pumping movements greater. Gee wrest ano-festeatremeay ss co make te Gute ano, og. te ona wih the raflactive Seaton. thicker and the ier ane thiener. Pea scsogacyschthn!atteseonatha nied, ‘S eeicsiation. Optimizing the glass thiok- “Sees Snes not simoly maan salecting the = pene but, on tbs contrary, employ” ee Sess thicknesses which are matched to sry different prysical phenomena that be e1pecied. More than ever befcre, seowiedge of specialists, who under 1 te interaction of thase phenomena, is ‘orusial for today’s arplications and combina tions. Hete tco, the rule is that not everything that can be produced may be used every sere witnout restitions, -Eage seals for insutaing glass units Fig, 2.1.34 shows the customary edge seal detail of an insulating glass unit. Otver sys: tems ara also current available: All-gtass edge seat Inthe past the usual way of creating an all. glass edge seal was to weld together the ‘adges of the spaced panes anc fil the cave ity with dty ar. This croated a rigid edge seal. The all-glass edge seal might wall ‘become popular again wits the development of "vacuum insulating glass’, in which 2 cay- ity of just 0.2 mom ie sufisiort Buty! adge seal with sufiening The siitened butyl edge seal nes been round fer over 20 years. The spacer hare is ot a tubular proille but stead a thin metal stip placad perpendicuiar to the glass. The butyl seal with integral adso:bent is post tions ground the strip to scak up the meist- ture in the cavity. The metel strip too sois as 2 caulty seal. Another sealant is added to provide meshanioal strength (Fig. 2.1.26). Butyl edae seal without stifening The solid butyl edge s2el, in use for over 25 veats, has been undergoing something oF 3 cemeback af Iste. The butyl with intogral adsorbent is injected hot into tne sage, A second vanqur basrier is applied ‘othe out: side of ihe seal. This edge seal Is aivays black (Fig. 2.1.37). The sealant on its own provides a stable edge. Physical propertos The physical oropertics of insulating glass are cierermined rrom measurements ana car cculatione snd are subject to the customsry fluctuations encountered in production. The mralensio.cl tha nlpsa.oadithetbialnnas. pte haps with coatings, have a decisive influ ‘ance, The figuras specified should always be lreated with a eertain amount af aaution, Thermal ineulation The thermal Insulaton effect ot nsulating glass comprising float glass panes is mainly Uependent on bie cavity anc its fling, anc in the case of enated float glass on the tyoe of costing. Thermal tranemittance value (U-valuo}* ‘Tre thermal transmittance value (U-value) of an insulating glass unit consisting of two oat glass panes and a 12 mm cavity is 3.0 Winek. Ifthe cavity is enlarged to 20 mim, then the value drops to 2.8 Wir Inauatng glass 2137 Buty cope sea! 2.195 Sut adge sea yee va sien ‘ath sifenee Insteung gues wn soredge ass oene cavty [Bi eoscer nt ess) wth rere adsorbent 2rclaeolordachecie etal sets coreg (Gass ote: | Ceomvetin 23 2 eaviwe and | ius Het coi Hee sanateten a Heat ater, Heat wanstr, enemnal ey vier a 2189 Pysicalattorsbpsct te Uaskeitran Pulating glass wrth oo cai: 1) The herr raranitance aa U bran irsuatng pssisiaunninad yt folowing raha yScal Pranorora: *"oanooton the cat (VU ‘Pamalcencucten mush te aes * fat ange boteor tha toast pos nV —depandanton the missy tthe oats wea) + ama venemsser batvenn gs anaouisaw dear fn a iceliaedt= UL = Vay i cain, 14. and bec ager vale omnale, Teiterma heulaon bet, n Glass as # building material 229 Usa varus insu ls units Doscestion ay wth Trae rderg gies ri ets fot ss ae Emm serv mm at 2ply(teaviy) Ammecaviye Gen 32 Ziyi cauiy) Jomm-

    You might also like