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Substation Grounding PDF
Substation Grounding PDF
A Project
MASTER OF SCIENCE
in
by
Inna Baleva
SPRING
2012
2012
Inna Baleva
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
ii
SUBSTATION GROUNDING
A Project
by
Inna Baleva
Approved by:
____________________________
Date
iii
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University
format manual, and that this project is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to
be awarded for the project.
iv
___________________
Date
Abstract
of
SUBSTATION GROUNDING
by
Inna Baleva
Statement of Problem
Designing a proper substation grounding system is quite complicating. Many parameters
affect its design. In order for a grounding design to be safe, it needs to provide a way to
carry the electric currents into the ground under both normal and faulted conditions. Also,
it must provide assurance that a person in the vicinity would not be endangered.
The grounding portion of substation design will be explored. In order to properly plan
and design the grounding grid, calculations of the following will be done: maximum fault
current, grid resistance, grid current, safe touch and step voltages, ground potential rise,
as well as expected touch and step voltage levels. Background information and guidelines
to design a substation grounding grid will be provided. A set of equations will be
presented to calculate whether the design is safe, and finally, an example will be provided
that can be used as a template.
Sources of Data
IEEE Std. 80-2000
Conclusions Reached
A safe substation ground grid was designed.
_______________________
Date
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
List of Tables .............................................................................................................. ix
List of Figures ............................................................................................................... x
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION ............ 1
2. LITERATURE SURVEY ....................................................................................... 3
2.1 Substation Grounding Overview................................................................. 3
2.2 Permissible Current Through a Human Body During the Fault ................. 4
2.3 Common Shock Situations ..........................................................................4
2.4 Design of a Substation Grounding System ..................................................5
2.5 Grid Connections ........................................................................................6
2.6 Material Selection .......................................................................................8
2.7 Soil Characteristics .....................................................................................9
2.8 Protective Surface Material .......................................................................10
2.9 Soil Resistivity Measurements ..................................................................12
2.9.1 Wenners Four-Pin Method .......................................................12
2.9.2 Schlumberger-Palmer Four-Pin Arrangement ...........................14
2.10 Ground Resistance ..................................................................................14
2.11 Design Procedures of a Grounding System ............................................15
2.12 Design Modifications ..............................................................................17
2.13 Construction of a Grounding System ......................................................18
2.13.1 Ground Grid Construction-Trench Method .............................18
2.13.2 Ground Grid Construction-Conductor Plowing Method .........19
2.13.3 Installation of Pigtails and Ground Rods .................................19
2.14 Computer Aided Design .........................................................................21
2.15 Special Danger Points .............................................................................21
2.15.1 Substation Fence Grounding ....................................................21
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Tables
Page
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
Figures
Page
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Cs versus hs .........................................................................................................................................................32
11.
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Safety and reliability are the two major concerns in the operation and design of an
electrical power system. These concerns also pertain to the design of substations. To
ensure that substations are safe and reliable, the substation must have a properly designed
grounding system.
The two main design goals to be achieved by any substation ground system under both
normal and fault conditions are:
1. To provide means to dissipate electric currents into the earth without exceeding
any operating and equipment limits
2. To assure that a person in the vicinity of grounded facilities is not exposed to the
danger of critical electric shock [4].
.
This project provides necessary background information for substation ground design. It
provides a set of guidelines that can be used, also it provides some design modification
suggestions that might help to alter the preliminary design if the mesh and step voltages
were greater than the tolerable voltages.
Also grounding system design was done for a transmission station using the IEEE Std.
80-2000 procedure as an example. Actual values from a transmission station were used
2
in the calculations, such as the measured soil resistivity, fault current, etc. Because
copper theft is a major problem, calculations using copper-clad steel were done as well.
3
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
In order for a grounding design to be safe, it needs to provide a way to carry the electric
currents into the ground under both normal and faulted conditions. Also, it must provide
assurance that a person in the vicinity would not be endangered. Because there is no
simple relation between the resistance of the grounding system and the maximum shock
current a person can experience, a complete analysis must be done to consider many
different aspects such as the location of the ground electrodes, soil characteristics, etc [6].
People assume that any grounded object can be safely touched, but that is not always the
case. A low substation ground resistance doesnt not guarantee safety [2-3]. There are no
simple relation between the ground system resistance and the maximum shock current
that a person might be exposed to [4].
4
2.2 Permissible Current Through a Human Body During the Fault
Humans are quite sensitive to AC currents ranging from 50-60 Hz. The effects of the AC
current going through a human body depend on the magnitude, duration, and also
frequency [6]. The threshold of perception for the human body is about 1mA. Currents
between 1-6 mA, often called let-go currents, usually do not impair a person from
controlling his muscles and releasing the energized object they were holding. Higher
currents ranging from 9-25 mA can cause pain and affect the muscle control so that the
energized object is hard if not impossible to release [1]. Still higher currents between 2575 mA can affect breathing and may cause fatality. If current is even higher, it could
result in ventricular fibrillation of the heart, which if not treated quickly, can result in
death [6]. When currents reach 100 mA and higher, above the ventricular fibrillation
level, it can cause burns, heart paralysis, and inhibition of breathing [1-3].
5
or metal-to-metal contact which would be touching something electrified with one hand
and having the current go through the other hand that is touching something else. These
shocks can usually be eliminated by connecting all the objects in the substation to the
grounding grid [4]. The use of a thin layer of surface material such as gravel around the
substation can greatly reduce the chance and strength of electric shocks. The gravel can
increase the resistance between the ground and a person thus making currents less likely
to pass through them. Figure 1 shows the different shock situations.
6
4. Ground rods may be installed at grid corners and junction points along the
perimeter. They may also be installed at major equipment, especially near surge
arresters.
5. The grid should extend over the entire substation and beyond the fence line [1-3].
6. The ratio of the sides of the grid meshes are usually 1:1 to 1:3 [1, 4].
To get started on the preliminary design, the following steps can be taken:
1. Draw the largest square, rectangular, triangular, T-shaped, or L-shaped grid that
will fit on the layout drawing [1].
2. Place grid conductors to produce square meshes, approximately 6.1-12.2 m (2040 ft)
3. Set the grid height equal to 0.4572 m (18 inches)
4. Set thickness of the surface material to 0.1016 m (4 inches)
5. Place ground rods around the perimeter [1].
Ref. IEEE Std. 80-2000 Figure 12. Copyright 2000. IEEE. All rights reserved.
8
All other equipment that could be the source of a fault current must also be connected to
the grid. Copper cable is often used for the connections, but in some cases the equipment
and buildings can be used as the conductor link [4]. Usually the grid connections are
securely welded together to prevent any failure during high fault currents.
Copper is the most commonly used material for grounding. Copper has high conductivity.
Also, it is resistant to most underground corrosion because it is cathodic with respect o
most other metals [4]. It also has good temperature characteristics and thermal capacity.
The disadvantage of copper is that it is expensive and often stolen, leaving the equipment
ungrounded.
Copper-clad steel is usually used for ground rods, and sometimes for grounding grids.
Copper-clad steel has a fraction of the conductivity of copper, but it is adequate for use of
grounding. It combines the strength of steel with the conductivity of copper. Copper-clad
steel is less susceptible to theft than copper because it is a bimetallic product and has
virtually no recycle value.
9
Aluminum has good conductivity, but not as good as copper. Aluminum may corrode in
certain soils [4]. Aluminum costs less than copper, and theft is less of an issue. Its fusing
temperature is about half of copper and its thermal capacity is about two thirds.
Steel can be used for ground grid conductors and rods, but corrosion is an issue. Steel has
good temperature characteristics and thermal capacity as well. Theft is not an issue for
steel.
10
Table 1: Basic Range of Soil Resistivity
Ref. IEEE Std, 80, Table 8. Copyright 2000. IEEE. All rights Reserved
Type of Earth
Average Resistivity (m)
Wet Organic Soil
10
Moist Soil
102
Dry Soil
103
Bedrock
104
Table 1 shows that wet or even moist soil have very small resistances so it is beneficial to
keep the grounding soil as damp as possible. A common practice to help accomplish this
is to use of a surface material layer such as gravel. Not only does a surface material
greatly reduce the amount of soil evaporation, but it typically has a high resistance which
reduces the magnitudes and chances of shock currents occurring [4]. Soil characteristics
and the type of surface layer to be used vary depending on the area in the world in which
the substation is located and what is required by the grounding system.
11
The resistivity values for the surface material layers vary. The range depends on many
factors such as type of stone, size, condition of the stone, amount and type of moisture
content, atmospheric contamination, etc [1]. Table 2 shows typical resistivity values for
different types of surface materials. These values were measured by several different
parties in different regions of the United States. These values are not valid for every type
and size of stone in every region, thus tests need to be done for the resistivity in the
regions substation [1].
Table 2: Typical Surface Material Resistivities.
Ref. IEEE Std, 80, Table 7. Copyright 2000. IEEE. All rights Reserved
Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
a
Resistivity of sample m
Dry
Wet
140 x 106
1300(ground
water, 45 m)
4000
1200(rain water,
100W)
6513(10 min after
45 m water
drained)
1.5 x 106 to 4.5 x 106 5000 (rain water,
100 m)
2.6 x 106 to 3 x 106
10 000 (rain water,
100 m)
7 x 106
2000-3000
(ground water, 45
m)
2 x 106
10 000
40 x 106
5000
190 x 106
8000 (ground
water, 45 m)
10 000 to 6 x 106
21 to 100
2 x 106 to 30 x 106
1 x 106 to 1 x 109 a
Oven dried concrete. Values for air-cured concrete can be much lower due to moisture
content.
12
2.9 Soil Resistivity Measurements
Before the design of the grounding system begins, soil resistivity measurements need to
be taken at the substation[1]. Stations with uniform resistivity throughout the entire area
are rarely found. Thus, measurements should be made at multiple locations within the
site. Usually there are several layers, and each has a different resistivity. If there are large
variations, more readings should be taken at these locations [4]. Lateral changes may
occur as well, but in general the changes are gradual and negligible [4].
13
The resistivity measurement records should include temperature data and information on
the soil moisture conditions at the time that the measurements were done. Also record all
data available on any buried conductors already known or suspected. Buried conductors
in contact with the soil can invalidate readings if they are close enough by altering the
test current flow pattern [4].
The Wenner four-pin method is popular for a number of reasons. This method obtains
soil resistivity data for deeper layers without having to drive the test pins to those layers.
Also, no heavy equipment is needed [1,3]. The results are not greatly affected by the
resistance of the test pins or the holes created by driving the test pins into the soil [1].
A shortcoming of the Wenner method is that the magnitude of the potential between the
two inner electrodes rapidly decreases when their spacing is increased to large values.
And often times commercial instruments cannot measure such low potential values [5].
14
2.9.2 Schlumberger-Palmer Four-Pin Arrangement
The Schlumberger-Palmer arrangement is another four-pin method. It is also called the
Unequally- Spaced Four-Pin method [5]. This method is similar to the Wenners FourPin method. For this method, there is a larger spacing between the current electrodes. The
potential probes are brought closer to the corresponding current electrodes. Doing this
increases the measured potential value. Figure 3 shows the Schlumberger-Palmer
arrangement [5].
15
rods and adding more grid conductors. If it is impossible to reach a desired ground
resistance by adding more grid conductors and/or ground rods, the soil surrounding the
electrode can be modified.
Sodium chloride, magnesium, and copper sulfates, or calcium chloride can be used to
increase the conductivity of the soil immediately surround the electrodes. Another
method is to place a ground enhancement material around the rod. Other methods are
mentioned in IEEE Std. 80-2000 [4].
Step 1: The property map and general location plan of the substation should
provide good estimates of the area to be grounded. A soil resistivity test will
determine the soil resistivity profile and the soil model needed.
Step 2: The conductor size is determined. The fault current 3I0 should be the
maximum expected future fault current that will be conducted by any conductor in
the grounding system, and the time, tc, should reflect the maximum possible
clearing time (including backup).
Step 3: The tolerable touch and step voltages are [to be] determined. The choice
of time, ts, is based on the judgment of the design engineer.
Step 4: The preliminary design should include a conductor loop surrounding the
entire grounded area, plus adequate cross conductors to provide convenient access
for equipment grounds, etc. The initial estimates of conductor spacing and ground
rod locations should be based on the current, IG, and the area being grounded.
16
17
Additional ground rods may be required at the base of surge arresters, transformer
neutrals, etc. The final design should also be reviewed to eliminate hazards due to
transferred potential and hazards associated with special areas of concern [4, pp.
88-89].
The block diagram in Figure 4 illustrates the procedure to design the ground grid.
18
(f) Barring access to limited areas: if practical, can reduce the probability of hazards to
personnel [1,4].
Cross-conductor trenches are then dug, again using markers as guides. Conductors are
installed and any remaining ground rods are driven and connected to the conductors. Also
19
remaining pigtails are connected. Then cross-type connections are made between the
perpendicular conductor runs. Finally the trenches are filled with dirt [4].
20
21
2.14 Computer Aided Design
Computers are frequently used in designing substation grounding systems. Some reasons
to use computer analysis are
1.
22
ground grid. An outer grid conductor should be installed a minimum of 0.91 m (3 feet)
outside the fence. Connections to the outer grid conductor should be made at all corners
posts and at line posts every 12.92-15.24 m (40-50 feet). The gatepost should be bonded
securely to the fence. It is also recommended that all gates swing inward [1,4].
Utilities use different practices to ground the switch operating shaft. About half of the
utilities provide a direct jumper between the switch shaft and the ground mat. The other
half provided a jumper from the switch shaft to the adjacent grounded structural steel and
the steel is used as part of the conducting path. About 90% of utilities use a braid for
grounding the switch shaft [4].
23
2.15.3 Surge Arrestor Grounding
Surge arrestors need to be reliably grounded to ensure protection of the equipment they
are protecting. They should be connected as close as possible to the terminals of the
equipment its protecting and have as short and direct path to the grounding system as
possible and practical [4]. Also arrestor leads should be as free from sharp bends as
practical [1].
24
CHAPTER 3
THE MATHEMATICAL MODEL
3.1 Introduction
In order to design a proper and safe substation grounding system, various safety
parameters must be found such as the touch and step voltage levels. Each grounding
system must be uniquely designed in order to have the mesh and step voltages below the
tolerable touch and step voltages of the personnel that might be working at the site when
a fault occurs. This chapter provides the process and equations to safely design a
substation grounding system.
Dalziels studies show that the no fibrillation current of magnitude, IB, at duration ranging
from 0.03-3.0 s can be simply expressed as:
IB =
k
ts
where k = S B
(3.1)
25
and
IB
ts
SB
: shock energy
k : constant related to electric shock energy
Based on Dalziels studies, 99.5% of people can safely withstand the magnitude of the
current without ventricular fibrillation. Dalziel also found that the shock energy constant
to vary with weight [4]. For a person weighing approximately 50 kg (110 lb) k50 = 0.116,
thus the formula for allowable body current becomes:
I B 50 =
0.116
ts
(3.2)
For a person weighing approximately 70 kg (155 lb) k50 = 0.157, thus the formula for
allowable body current becomes:
I B 70 =
0.157
ts
(3.3)
This equation is not valued for very short or very long duration.
Biegelmeiers curve in Figure 5 shows the body current versus time. This curve has a
500mA limit for times up to 0.2 s, then the limit decreases to 50 mA at 2 s and beyond.
This figure also shows a comparison of the body current for both a 50 kg and a 70 kg
person.
26
In modern operating practices, recourse after a ground fault is common. In circumstances
where there are reclosures, a person might experience the first shock without permanent
injury. But then an automatic reclosure can result in another shock less than 0.33 seconds
of the first shock. This second shock that occurs after a short interval of time before the
person can recover from the initial can cause a serious accident [1,4].
27
3.3 Circuit Equivalents for Common Shock Situations
3.3.1 Resistance of the Human Body
The human body can be approximated as a resistance for DC and 50 Hz or 60 Hz AC
currents. The current path is considered from one had to both feet or from one foot to the
other. The internal resistance of a human body is approximately 300 . The body
resistance including skin ranges from 500-3000 [4]. For simplicity, IEEE Std 80-2000
represents the resistance of a human body from hand-to-feet and also from hand-to-hand,
or from one foot to the other as
=
RB 1000
(3.4)
28
29
where:
VTh
ZTh + RB
(3.5)
30
RB : body Resistance ()
The Thevenin equivalent impedance for the touch voltage accidental circuit is:
ZTh =
Rf
2
(3.6)
The Thevinin equivalent impedance for the step voltage accidental circuit is:
ZTh = 2 R f
(3.7)
where:
R f : ground resistance of one foot
Rf =
where:
4b
(3.8)
Using a circular plate of approximately 0.08m, the equations for Zth are:
For touch voltage accidental circuit
Z th = 1.5
(3.9)
And for step voltage accidental circuit
31
Z th = 6
(3.10)
3.4 Addition of Surface Layer
When possible, substations place a layer of highly resistive material such as crushed rock.
The addition of a surface layer changes the ground resistance, Rf . The new ground
resistance becomes:
R f = s Cs
4b
(3.11)
0.09 1
s
CS = 1
2hs + 0.09
where
(3.12)
Cs can also be approximated by first calculating the reflection factor between the different
materials, K, and then using Table 10.
s
+ s
(3.13)
32
Figure 10 : Cs versus hs
Ref. IEEE Std. 80-2000 Figure 11. Copyright 2000. IEEE. All rights reserved.
3.5 Tolerable Step and Touch Voltage
When designing a substation grounding system, the maximum tolerable voltages must be
calculated in order to create a proper ground grid. These voltages depend on the soil
resistivity, soil layer and the duration of the shock current. The maximum driving voltage
of any accidental circuit shouldnt exceed the step voltage and touch voltage limits.
33
Estep= ( RB + 2 R f ) I B
(3.14)
For a body weighing 50 kg
(1000 + 6 Cs s )
Estep=
50
0.116
ts
(3.15)
0.157
ts
(3.16)
Rf
Etouch = RB +
2
IB
(3.18)
0.116
ts
(3.19)
0.157
ts
(3.20)
If there is metal-to-metal contact, both hand-to-hand and hand-to-feet contact, s=0 since
the ground is not included in this situation. In this case, the touch voltage limit equations
are:
34
For a body weighing 50 kg
Emm touch 50 =
116
ts
(3.21)
157
ts
(3.22)
I = Amm2
TCAP 104 K 0 + Tm
ln
tc r r K 0 + Ta
(3.23)
TCAP K 0 + Tm
I 5.07 103 Akcmil
=
ln
tc r r K 0 + Ta
(3.24)
Where
I
Amm2
Akcmil
Tm
Ta
r
: resistivity of the ground conductor at reference temperature Tr (-cm)
tc
: duration of current (s)
K0
: equals 1/ 0 or (1/ r)- Tr (oC)
TCAP : thermal capacity per unit volume (J/2 )
35
Common values of r, K0, Tm, r, and TCAP values can be found in Table 3.
Table 3-Material Constants
Ref. IEEE Std 80-2000 Table 1. Copyright 2000. IEEE. All rights reserved
Description
Copper,
Material
r factor at
K0 at
Fusinga
Conductivity
20oC
0oC
temperature (-cm)
r 20oC
TCAP
thermal
capacity
[J/(cm3oC)]
(%)
(1/ C )
(0 C )
Tm (oC )
100.0
0.00393
234
1083
1.72
3.42
97.0
0.00381
242
1084
1.78
3.42
40.0
0.00378
245
1084
4.40
3.85
30.0
0.00378
245
1084
5.86
3.85
20.0
0.00378
245
1084
8.62
3.85
64.0
0.00403
228
657
2.86
2.56
0.00353
263
652
3.22
2.60
0.00347
2268
654
3.28
2.60
0.00360
258
657
8.48
3.58
0.00160
605
1510
15.90
3.28
0.00160
605
1400
17.50
4.44
0.00320
293
419
20.10
3.93
0.00130
749
1400
72.00
4.03
annealed softdrawn
Copper,
commercial
hard-drawn
Copper-clad
steel wire
Copper-clad
steel wire
Copper-clad
steel rodb
Aluminum,
EC grade
Aluminum,
5005 alloy
Aluminum,
6201 alloy
Aluminumclad steel
wire
Steel-1020
53.5
52.5
20.3
10.8
Stainless-clad
steel rodc
Zinc-coated
steel rod
9.8
Stainless
steel, 304
2.4
8.6
36
The required area for a conductor given a current can be calculated as:
Amm2 = I
1
TCAP 104 K 0 + Tm
ln
tc r r K 0 + Ta
(3.25)
or
Akcmil = I
197.4
TCAP K 0 + Tm
ln
c
r
r
K 0 + Ta
(3.26)
(3.27)
where
Kf
37
The following equation can be used to convert the conductor size from kcmil to mm2 :
Amm2 =
Akcmil 1000
1973.52
(3.28)
Amm2
(3.29)
(3.30)
(3.31)
where
tf : time duration of the fault (s)
X
Ta =
R
(3.32)
38
Table 5-Typical Values of Df
Ref. IEEE Std 80-2000 Table 10. Copyright 2000. IEEE. All rights reserved
Fault Duration, tf
Decrement factor, Df
Seconds
Cycles at
X/R =10
X/R =20
X/R =30
X/R =40
60 Hz
0.00833
0.5
1.576
1.648
1.675
1.688
0.05
3
1.232
1.378
1.462
1.515
0.10
6
1.125
1.232
1.316
1.378
0.20
12
1.064
1.125
1.181
1.232
0.30
18
1.043
1.085
1.125
1.163
0.40
24
1.033
1.064
1.095
1.125
0.50
30
1.2026
1.052
1.077
1.101
0.75
45
1.018
1.035
1.052
1.068
1.00
60
1.013
1.026
1.039
1.052
=
1+
where
2a
a 2 + 4b 2
(3.33)
a 2 + b2
= 2 aR
(3.34)
For small probe spacing, the current tends to flow near the surface; but for large spacing,
more of the current penetrates deeper soils. Thus it is a reasonable to assume that the
39
resistivity measure for a probe of spacing a represents the apparent soil resistivity of
depth a [1].
Rg =
(3.35)
Where
Rg : substation ground resistance ()
: soil resistivity (-m)
A : area occupied by the ground grid (2 )
Laurent and Niemann proposed a method of calculating the substation ground resistance
by adding a second term. This equation gives an upper limit of the substation ground
resistance. This proposed equation is:
=
Rg
LT
where
LT
(3.36)
40
The total burial length is the combination of the horizontal and vertical conductors in the
grid as well as the ground rods. LT can be calculated as:
L=
LC + LR
T
(3.37)
where
LC : total length of grid conductor (m)
LR : total length of ground rods (m)
A better approximation was determined to include the grid depth
1
1
1
1+
Rg =
+
20 A 1 + h 20 / A
LT
(3.38)
where
h : depth of the grid (m)
This equations shows that a larger the area and the greater the total length of the
grounding conductor used would resulting a lower ground grid resistance.
(3.39)
where
IG : maximum grid current (A)
Df : decrement factor for the duration of the fault (From Table 5)
Ig : rms symmetrical grid current (A)
The symmetrical grid current, Ig, is the portion of the symmetrical ground fault current
that flows between the grid and surrounding earth. It is expressed as:
41
I=
Sf If
g
(3.40)
where
Ig : rms symmetrical grid current (A)
If : rms symmetrical grid fault current (A)
Sf : fault current division factor
In the case of a double line-to-ground fault, the zero-sequence fault current is:
I0 =
E ( R2 + jX 2 )
(3.41)
( R1 + jX 1 ) [( R0 + R1 + 3R f + j ( X 0 + X 2 )] + ( R2 + jX 2 ) ( R0 + 3R f + jX 0 )
where
I0 : symmetrical rms value of zero sequence fault current (A)
E : phase-to-neutral voltage (V)
Rf : estimated resistance of the fault, normally assumed 0 ()
R2 : negative sequence equivalent system resistance ()
R1 : positive sequence equivalent system resistance ()
R0 : zero sequence equivalent system resistance ()
X2 : negative sequence equivalent system reactance ()
X1 : positive sequence equivalent system reactance ()
X0 : zero sequence equivalent system reactance ()
In the case of a single line-to-ground fault, the zero-sequence fault current is:
42
I0 =
E
3R f + R1 + R2 + R0 + j ( X 1 + X 2 + X 0 )
(3.42)
R1, R2, R0, X1, X2, and X0 are computed looking into the system from the point of fault.
In most cases, the resistances are ignored. Thus the zero-sequence fault current equations
are simplified.
E X2
X1 ( X 0 + X 2 ) + ( X 2 + X 0 )
(3.43)
E
X1 + X 2 + X 0
(3.44)
where
Rg
IG
(3.45)
43
3.13 Computing Maximum Step and Mesh Voltages
Computer programs have been developed to determine the grid resistance the mesh and
step voltages. But if for some reason a designer wants to calculate the values of Em and Es
without the assistance of a computer algorithm, or it is not economically feasible to use a
computer program, IEEEE Std. 80-2000 compiled a set of equations that can be used to
calculate maximum step and mesh voltage without the use of a computer [1,4].
IG K m Ki
LM
where
: resistivity of the earth (m)
LM : effective burial length (m)
Km : geometrical spacing factor
Ki : irregularity factor
(3.46)
44
Km =
1
2
D2
h K ii
( D + 2 h)
8
ln
+
ln
+
8 D d
4 d Kh
(2 n 1)
16 h d
(3.47)
where
D : spacing between parallel conductors (m)
d : diameter of grid conductors (m)
h : depth of ground grid conductors (m)
Kii : corrective weighting factor adjusting for the effects of inner conductors on
the corner mesh
Kh : corrective weighting factor adjusting for the effects of grid depth
K=
h
1+
h
h0
(3.48)
where
h0 : grid reference depth (h0 =1)
For ground grids with ground rods along the perimeter and throughout the grid, as well as
in the corners, the corrective weighting factor, Kii, is:
K ii = 1
(3.49)
For grids with no ground rods, or few ground rods scattered throughout the gird, but none
located along the perimeter or in the corners, the corrective weighting factor, Kii, is:
K ii =
1
(2 n)
2
n
(3.50)
where the geometric factor, n, is composed of factors na, nb, nc, and nd. The geometric
factor, n, is:
45
n = na nb nc nd
(3.51)
2 L C
LP
(3.52)
where
na =
(3.53)
(3.54)
(3.55)
Otherwise:
nb =
Lp
(3.56)
4 A
0.7 A
Lx L y Lx L y
nc =
A
nd =
Dm
L + L2y
2
x
(3.57)
(3.58)
where
LC : total length of conductor in the horizontal grid (m)
Lp : peripheral length of grid (m)
D : spacing between parallel conductors (m)
d : diameter of grid conductors (m)
h : depth of ground grid conductors (m)
A : area of grid (m2)
Lx : maximum length of grid in the x-direction (m)
Ly : maximum length of grid in the y-direction (m)
Dm : maximum distance between any two points on the grid (m)
The irregularity factor, Ki, is used in conjunction with n. It is calculated as:
K i = 0.644 + 0.148 n
(3.59)
46
For grids with no ground rods, or few ground rods scattered throughout the gird, but none
located along the perimeter or in the corners, the effective buried length, LM, is:
LM= LC + LR
(3.60)
where
LR : total length of all ground rods (m)
For ground grids with ground rods along the perimeter and throughout the grid, as well as
in the corners, the effective buried length, LM, is:
Lr
LM =
LC + 1.55 + 1.22
2
Lx + L2y
LR
(3.61)
where
Lr : total length of each ground rods (m)
47
ES =
K S Ki IG
LS
(3.62)
LS = 0.75 LC + 0.85 LR
(3.63)
1 1
1
1
+
+ (1 0.5n 2 )
2h D + h D
Where
D : spacing between parallel conductors (m)
h : depth of ground grid conductors (m)
n : geometric factor composed of factors na, nb, nc, and nd
(3.64)
48
CHAPTER 4
APPLICATION OF MATHEMATICAL MODEL
4.1 Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to show the application of the grounding design. In order to
design a safe grounding grid, the 12 step procedure discussed in 3.13 will be used. The
following assumptions and design criteria will be used:
1. Soil was uniform between test point and test locations were out of the influence of
any existing underground utilities
2. Two Layer soil model was utilized, average soil resistivity of 64.84 m was
determined
3. Total clearing time of a line to ground fault is 0.5 seconds.
4. Grid will be buried 18 (0.4572 m)
5. Crushed rock layer inside the substation is 4 (0.1016 m)
6. Ground rods will be 10 (3.05m)
7. Resistivity of the crushed rock layer is 3000 m
8. Switchyard operator is 50kg or heavier
9. 230kV line-to-ground fault currents is utilized
10. X/R ratio is 10
11. Current division factor Sf =0.6
12. Ground fault current is known, If = 12725 85 A
13. Safety/Growth factor is 20%
Mesh and step voltages will be calculated and will be compared to the tolerable touch and
step voltages. If necessary, the preliminary design will be altered until all the
requirements for a safe ground grid are met.
49
4.2 Initial Design
Step 1: Field Data
The property purchased for this substation is oddly shaped. But as stated in the
preliminary design suggestions, the biggest rectangle was drawn to determine the area.
For the initial design a rectangle of 144m x 120m will be assumed. The area occupied is
A = 17280 m 2
(4.1)
Once the property was purchased, field measurements were taken in order to determine
the soil resistivity. The soil resistivity values were obtained utilizing the Wenner Four pin
method. Soil resistivity testing was done at six locations. Table 6 shows the summary of
the soil resistivity data collected.
Table 6
Soil Resistivity Data Summary
Depth
Average
Resistivity
Minimum
Resistivity
Maximum
Resistivity
Layer
Layer Avg
Resistivity
Layer Min
Resistivity
Layer Max
Resistivity
5
10
15
3597
2509
2833
1245
1149
2011
11682
4405
6033
3597
3699
9441
1341
1067
1384
11682
11618
23125
20
6251
1149
16470
4920
503
5362
50
33993
8618
59369
20432
20432
20432
75
48835
17236
80435
147145
17236
277053
100
56496
36387
76605
0-5
5-10
1015
1520
2050
5075
75100
41312
15595
67029
All
13638
1149
80435
Based on the soil resistivity measurements, the average soil resistivity of 64.84 m was
determined.
50
Step 2: Conductor size
The ground fault current was given as
I=
I 0 12725 85 A
3=
f
(4.2)
3=
I=
I 0 15270 85 A
f
(4.3)
Using Table 5 for a fault duration for 0.5 seconds and the X/R ratio of 10, the decrement
factor Df = 1.026.
The effective rms value of approximate asymmetrical current is calculated as follows:
I F= I f D f
= (15270)(1.026)
= 15667 A
(4.4)
Assuming the use of copper wire and an ambient temperature of 40C. Table 4 is used to
obtain the conductor cross-sectional area. For a hard-drawn copper wire with a melting
temperature of 1084C and 0.5 s, Kf = 7.06 and the cross-sectional area in circular mils is:
Akcmil = I K f tc
= 15.667 7.06 0.5
= 78.2125 kcmil
(4.5)
Amm2 =
(4.6)
51
Because Amm2 = d2/4, the conductor diameter is:
d=
=
4 Amm2
4 30.5788
= 6.24mm or 0.00624m
(4.7)
Based on this calculation, according to Table 7, a copper wire as small as #1 AWG can
be used. Due to mechanical strength and ruggedness, a larger 4/0 AWG stranded
conductor will be used.
Looking up a 4/0 AWG stranded conductor in Table 7, it is determined that the area is
107.2mm2. Thus, the diameter of a 4/0 AWG conductor is:
d=
=
4 Amm2
4 107.2
(4.8)
= 11.68mm or 0.01168m
Step 3: Touch and Step Criteria
For a crushed rock surfacing layer of 0.1016 m (4 inches) with resistivity of 3000 m ,
and with the soil resistivity of 64.84 m, the reflection factor K is computed as
52
K=
s
+ s
64.84 3000
64.84 + 3000
= 0.96
=
(4.9)
Using Figure 10, for the value of K= - 0.96, the resistivity of the crushed rock is to be
derated by a reduction factor of approximately Cs = 0.69. The reduction factor can also be
calculated as follows:
0.09 1
s
Cs = 1
2hs + 0.09
64.84
0.09 1
3000
= 1
2(0.1016) + 0.09
= 0.699677
(4.10)
For a 50 kg person, the step and touch voltages are calculated as follows:
(1000 + 6 Cs s )
Estep=
50
0.116
ts
0.116
0.5
(4.11)
53
Etouch 50
= (1000 + 1.5 Cs s )
0.116
ts
0.116
0.5
(4.12)
= 680.581 V
(4.13)
Assume that 22 ground rods, 3.05m (10ft) long are used as shown in Figure 11 below.
=
LR 22(3.05)
= 67.1m
(4.14)
L=
LC + LR
T
= 1704 + 67.1
= 1771.1m
(4.15)
54
1
1
1
1+
Rg =
+
20 A 1 + h 20 / A
LT
1
1
1
1+
= 64.84
+
(4.16)
= 0.2555
Step 6: Maximum grid current IG
In order to calculate IG we must combined Equations 3.39 and 3.40.
I=
If Sf
g
(4.17)
55
and
I=
Df Ig
G
= D f 3 I0 S f
= (1.026) (15270) (0.6)
= 9400.21 A
(4.18)
Step 7: GPR
GPR is calculated in order to compare to the tolerable touch voltage.
GPR
= I G Rg
= 9400.21 0.2555
= 2401.85 V
(4.19)
This far exceeds 680.581 V that was determined in Step 3 as the safe touch voltage.
Thus, further design evaluation is necessary.
na =
2 L C
LP
2 1704
2 144 + 2 120
= 6.4545
=
(4.20)
56
=
nb
LP
=
4 A
528
4 17280
= 1.002
(4.21)
nc = 1
(4.22)
nd = 1
(4.23)
(4.24)
(4.25)
Because the design has ground rods in the corners and around the perimeter, the
corrective weighting factor, Kii and the effective burial length, LM, are:
K ii = 1
Lr
LM =
LC + 1.55 + 1.22
2
Lx + L2y
(4.26)
LR
3.05
=1704 + 1.55 + 1.22
(7 120) 2 + (6 144) 2
= 1808.21m
67.1
(4.27)
The corrective weighted factor , Kh , for a ground grid conductor being buried a depth of
0.4572m is:
57
K=
h
1+
h
h0
0.4572
1
= 1.20715
1+
(4.28)
Plugging everything in, the geometrical spacing factor, Km, for mesh voltage is
D2
h K ii
( D + 2 h)
8
ln
+
ln
+
8 D d
4 d Kh
(2 n 1)
16 h d
1
242
(24 + 2 0.4572)
0.4570
=
ln
+
2
16 0.4572 0.011672 8 24 0.011672 4 0.011672
Km =
1
2
(4.29)
1
1
8
ln
2 1.225 (2 6.46745 1)
= 1.20256
Finally the mesh voltage, Em , is computed as follows:
Em =
IG K m Ki
LM
(4.30)
(4.31)
58
1 1
1
1
+
+ (1 0.5n 2 )
2h D + h D
1
1
1
1
=
+
+ (1 0.56.46745 2 )
2 0.4572 24 + 0.4570 24
= 0.373786
K=
S
(4.32)
ES =
K S Ki IG
LS
(4.33)
Etouch 50 = 680.581 V
Em = 648.98 V
Comparing the results, the mesh voltage is smaller than the tolerable touch voltage.
ES = 206.00 V
Comparing the results, the step voltage is much lower than the tolerable step voltage.
59
Step 11: Modify design. Modification to design is not necessary because the mesh and
step voltages are both below the tolerable touch and step voltages.
Step 12: Detailed design. A safe design is obtained. At this point equipment pigtails,
additional ground rods for surge arrestors, etc should be added to complete the design.
Akcmil = I
197.4
TCAP K 0 + Tm
ln
tc r r K 0 + Ta
197.4
= 15.667
3.85
245 + 1084
ln
(4.34)
Amm2 =
(4.35)
60
d=
=
4 Amm2
4 58.695
= 8.64mm or 0.00864m
(4.36)
Based on this calculation, according to Table 7, a copper-clad wire as small as 2/0 AWG
can be used. Due to mechanical strength and ruggedness, a larger 4/0 AWG stranded
conductor will be used. Thus the calculations would remain the same as done for a 4/0
AWG copper above.
61
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
Substation grounding is a crucial part of substation design. The design has to be both safe
and reliable. There are many steps to design a safe and effective grid. Hand calculations
may be a tedious and difficult. Doing calculations and modifications to the design can be
a long process. Computer programs have been developed to make the substation
grounding design easier, and more accurate.
This project provides an overview of substation n grounding and the most essential
elements of a substation grounding grid design based on the IEEE Std. 80-2000. This
project provides equations that are involved with a grid design. Finally an equation is
provided using real world data. This example was designed to meet the design criteria for
a safe ground grid.
62
APPENDIX
63
Table 7-Conductor Properties
Ref. NFPA-70, NEC-2008, Table 8. Copyright 2008. NEC. All rights Reserved
64
REFERENCES
[1] Design Guide for Rural Substations, Rural Utilities Service. United States
Department of Agriculture. June 2001.
[2] Gonen, Turan. Electric Power Distribution System Engineering. CRC Press.
2008.
[3] Gonen, Turan. Electric Power Transmission System Engineering: Analysis and
Design. CRC Press. 2009.
[4] "IEEE 80-2000 IEEE Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding."
[5] "IEEE 81-1983 IEEE Guide for Measuring Earth Resistivity, Ground Impedance,
and Earth Surface Potentials of a Ground System.