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Transformers thermal strength

Transformer heating
Unless otherwise specified by the customer, the transformer is
sized for nominal operating conditions, in which it will not heat up
to the extent that equipment is likely to be damaged.
For "abnormal" operating conditions, however, it is important to
draw up precise design specifications, so that the overheating
caused by abnormal situations does not shorten the transformers
service life.
It is also possible to adjust the transformer to the load used during
periods of normal operation.
These specific operating conditions, as well as the different
solutions to overheating, are discussed in this document.

Ambient temperature
If the transformer is designed to withstand a "maximum ambient
temperature of 40C", the cooling air, therefore the ambient
temperature, must not, under any circumstances whatsoever,
exceed :
- 30C (daily average),
- 20C (annual average),
- 40C (maximum acceptable temperature).
So, if the maximum acceptable temperature is 50 C, the
applicable daily and annual averages will be 40C and 30C
respectively.
1,2

load factors

Note : not only must the ambient temperature specifications

be complied with, but the transformer room must also be
suitably designed. Special attention should be paid to the
vents in the walls, which are used to evacuate the heat
generated by the transformer !

1,15
1,1
1,05
1
0,95
0,9
0,85
0,8
-5

-15

annual ambient temperature in C

5

15

25

35

45

e.g.: for a transformer designed to withstand a maximum

ambient temperature of 40 C:
-

Standard CEI 905 defines acceptable load factors for different

ambient temperatures, in continuous operation mode.
So, even if a transformer is designed for a specific ambient
temperature, its load can be increased if the temperature drops,
without affecting its service life. On the other hand, if the ambient
temperature rises, the load must be reduced.

If the ambient temperature exceeds the maximum

value by 5C, the standard de-rating rate for a

transformer in continuous operation mode is 0.97. This

The ambient temperature must not be below :

- 25C for outdoor transformers,
- 5C for indoor transformers.

will preserve the transformers service life. Therefore a

1000 kVA transformer should be de-rated to 970 kVA.
-

If the ambient temperature is 10C less than

expected, a 1000 kVA transformer may operate at 1040

kVA.

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Operating overload
Current overloads
Start-up / blocking of electric motors :
For a few seconds on start-up, the transformers electric motors
require a much stronger current than the rated current.
As the start-up process is often repeated several times, an
undersized transformer will be subjected to overload.
Similarly, a blocked motor requires a stronger current, and the
transformer undergoes overload for as long as the motor is
blocked.
Harmonics
Inductive loads, rectifiers and most converters generate harmonics
and cause relatively high distortion rates.
This phenomenon is often observed in paper mills (chopped
voltage for paper cutting).
This reduces the power of the transformer.
Short circuit
Transformers are sized to withstand a 2-second short circuit (see
standard IEC 60076-5).
If the short circuit lasts for longer than the standard 2 seconds, it
can cause significant overheating.
Tripping
Transformers are also sized to withstand occasional tripping.
More frequent tripping, however, can cause overheating.

Voltage overloads
Over-induction
The transformers tapping point may not be properly adjusted to
the network voltage.
This invariably leads to over-induction : the losses generated by
the magnetic core increase, causing overheating.
Frequency
Over-induction also occurs if the transformer is sized for a
frequency above the network frequency. Again, the result is
overheating. However, this is not a common occurrence.
Harmonics
Voltage harmonics cause an increase in the losses generated by
the magnetic core. As a result, the magnetic core and the low
voltage winding overheat.

Overheating due to the ambient temperature and

inadequate ventilation
If the ambient temperature in the transformer room rises
excessively and / or the installation instructions (particularly those
concerning the design of the room) are not followed, the
transformer overheats.

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Overheating :
consequences, solutions
Thermal phenomena in transformers
The transformer consists of a magnetic core, which generates iron
loss and contains low and high voltage windings that cause joule
loss : these losses ultimately lead to an increase in the
temperature of the transformer.
The resulting heat is dispelled into the air by convection and by
radiation : these phenomena occur in the various channels
between the magnetic core and the low voltage part, in the low
voltage part, between the low and high voltage parts, and outside
the high voltage part.
Ageing / compensating overheating
The heating time constant is, on average, around 2 hours, but it
always differs from one transformer to another.
The consequences of overheating
the expansion, even cracking, of materials,
a reduction in the dielectric strength of the insulating materials,
the premature ageing of components, and especially of the
insulating materials used in the windings. In fact, every time
the transformer is subjected to overload (the ambient
temperature, current or voltage exceeds that observed in
nominal operating conditions), the transformer overheats and,
as a result, its service life is shortened.
However, if the transfo is under loaded for a long period of time
(ambient temperature, current, etc. below nominal values), it is
subsequently possible to significantly overload it (with hot spots
of up to 190 C).

Cyclical overload that does not shorten the transformers service life:
14

time (hours)

annual ambient temp. = 20 C

Usual
at 100%
usualload
load
at 100 %
Usual
at 80%
usualload
load
at 80 %
Usual
at 60%
usualload
load
at 60 %

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
100
14

110

120

time (hours)

130

140

% In 150

annual ambient temp. = 10 C

Usual load
at at 100
usual
load
Usual load
at at 80 %
100%
usual
load
Usual load
at at 60 %
80%
usual
load
60%

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
100
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110

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120

130

140

% In 150

Standardised heating limits

Standard IEC 726 sets a limit to the average heating of
transformers in stabilised nominal operating conditions, whereas
standard IEC 905 specifies a maximum temperature for winding
hot spots during periods of overload. The acceptable temperatures
according to these standards are:
For windings :
- 145C in stabilised operation mode, with an average annual
temperature of 20C (which means a daily temperature of
155C that must not, in any event, exceed 165C). The
average increase in winding temperature is therefore limited to
100 K in assigned operation mode.
- 190C maximum in periods of overload. This temperature
must never be exceeded.
As far as the magnetic core, metal components and other
materials adjacent to the windings are concerned, the standard
stipulates, the temperature must not, in any circumstances,
increase to the extent that it damages the magnetic core itself,
or the components and materials adjacent to it.
Thermal protection
An optional thermal protection system is available, which
permanently and automatically monitors the transformers
temperature. It is sized for continuous operation in nominal
operating conditions.
It is based on sensors, which protect the transfo and measure the
temperature at the winding hot spot: as standards IEC 726 and 905
are very specific regarding winding temperatures, these sensors
are situated at the very centre of the LV coil, in order to track the
temperature of the inner winding. Their thresholds are determined
accordingly, and they are relayed by an electronic converter that
triggers the appropriate alarm whenever one of the temperature
thresholds is crossed.
Here is a theoretical temperature graph for a sensor in the LV
channel : it concerns a transformer that actually exists. These
values are valid for an ambient temperature of 30C (for a
transformer sized for 40C maximum), and for equipment fitted with
an optimum cooling system.
240 C
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
0,0
0.0

temprature de sonde dans le canal BT

dmarrage
Fan
start-updes ventilos

puissance
AN
power AN
puissance
AF
power AF

ratio
In
ratio
In
0,2
0.2

0,4
0.4

0,6
0.6

0,8
0.8

1,0
1.0

Temprature
PTC dans
le LV
canal
d'enroulem
Temperature
of de
thesonde
PTC sensor
in the
winding

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1,2
1.2

1,4
1.4

1,6
1.6

Conclusion
The thermal phenomena caused by overheating have a strong
impact on the operation and service life of the transformer,
whatever the reasons for this overheating.
They must be taken into account when designing the transformer,
and the following related measures should be taken :
- The transformer room should be suitably designed (height,
breathing space around the transformer, size and position of
vents).
- A system should be installed for permanently supervising the
temperature of the windings. This system should trigger the
appropriate alarms, according to the temperature reached.
- A ventilation system, specially developed by the transformer
manufacturer, should be installed. This system should reduce
the impact of accidental overloads, but allow for intentional,
carefully controlled overloads.
It is therefore important that the future user meet with the
manufacturer to discuss the characteristics of the transformer, and
hence prevent thermal incidents during the transformers service
life, and the possibly disastrous consequences mentioned above.

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