Computer Networks: Goals of Networking

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COMPUTER NETWORKS
Computer Networks is interconnection of many antonomous computers. It
can be connected through copper wires, coaxial cables / fiber optics, IR,
satellite microwave etc.
GOALS OF NETWORKING
1) Resource sharing
2) High relativity
HISTORY OF NETWORK DEVELOPMENT

Historical overview
In 1950s the computer links were use to connect central computers to
remote terminals and other peripherals devices like printers. In 1960s the
number of peripheral devices increased with development of time shared
computer system and with increasing power of central computer.
around 1970s special processor called front end were developed to

control communication to and from all the peripheral. ARPANET and
TYMNET were first large scale general purpose Data networks connecting
Geographically distributed computer system users and peripherals. In
1980s more-n-more networks have been connected via gateways &
bridges. So as to allow users to one Network to send data to users of
other Network LAN and WAN users also developed in 1970s.
NETWORK HARDWARE
Link configuration refers to the way two or more communication devices
attached to a link.
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A link is a physical communication hathway that transfers data from one

device to another for communication to occur two devices must be
connected in some way to the same link at the same time.
Link configuration
Point-to-point
Multipoint
1) Point to Point
A point-to-point line configuration provides a dedicated link between two
devices. The entire capacity of the channel is reversed for transmission
between these two devices. Most point-to-point line configuration use on
an actual length of wires or cable to connect two devices but other options
such as microwave, satellite links are also possible.
2) Multipoint
A Multipoint line configuration is one in which more than two devices share
a single link. In a multipoint invironment the capacity of the channels is
shared either spatically or timely. If several devices can share link
simultaneously it is called spatically sharing line configuration. If users
make turns it is time shared line configuration.
TOPOLOGY
The term topology refers to the way the network is laid out either
physically or locally two or more devices connect to a link. Two or more
link form a topology. Topology defines physical or logical arrangement of
link in a network. Evil basic topology are horrible.
Topology
Mesh
Star
1) Mesh Topology
2)
number of devices = n
numberoflinks
n(n 1)
2
number of ports = n 1
Tree
Bus
Ring
In a Mesh topology every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to

every other device. The term dedicated means that it carrie traffic only
between the 2 devices it connected. A fully connected Mesh Network has
n (n 1) / 2 physical channels to link n devices. To accommodate that
many links, every device or the network must have (n 1), i/p r o/p ports.
ADVANTAGES
1) A dedicated link guarantee that each communication can carry its own
data load, does eliminating traffic problems.
2) Mesh topology is robust i.e. if link becomes unusable it does not
incapacitate the entire system.
3) Privacy or security is more because every message send travels along
a dedicated line & only the intended recipitent see it.
Disadvantages
1) Installation and reconfiguration becomes difficult because of the
cabling involved.
2) Hardware required to connect each link [i/p cable] can be expensive.
STAR TOPOLOGY
In a star topology each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to

the central controllers HUB. The devices are not directly linked to each
other, unlike Mesh topology A Star topology does not allow a direct traffic
between device. If one device wants to send data to another it sends the
data to the controller which then relays the data to the other
communicating devices.
Advantages
1) It is less expensive than Mesh topology. Between each devices it
needs only one link or one input outport port to connect it to any
number of other devices.
2) It is easy to install & reconfigure, less cabling is involved & addition

and deletion involves only one connection i.e. between that device and
HUB
3) If one link fails only that link is affected [Robustness]
Disadvantages
1) Less privacy because is has to pass through HUB.
2) If the HUB is affected whole topology goes down.
TREE TOPOLOGY
A tree Topology is a variation STAR, as in star nodes in a tree are

connected to central HUB that controls the traffic to the Network. However
not every device plugs into the central HUB the majority of the device
connect to secondary HUB that in turn is connected to the central HUB.
The central HUB in the tree is a active HUB. An active HUB contain a
repeater which is a Hardware device which regenerates the received bit
patterns before sending them out. Repeating strengthens the signal and
increasing the distance the signal can travel. The secondary HUB may be
active or passive HUBs. A passive HUB provides a simple physical
connections between the attached devices. The advantage &
disadvantage of Tree topology are generally the some of that of star. The
addition of secondary HUB brings two advantage.
1) It allows more devices to be attached to the central HUB therefore
increases the distance a signal can travel between devices.
2) It allows the Network to isolate an d privatize communication from
different computers.
Eg:- computers attached to one secondary HUB can be given priority
over computers attached to other secondary HUB. In that way the
Network operators can guarantee that time sensitive data will not have
to wait for access to the Network.
BUS TOPOLOGY
1) A Bus topology is a Multipoint configuration, one long cable acts like a

backbone to link all the devices in a n/w. Nodes are connected to the bus
cable by drop line is a connection running between a device and a main
cable. A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or
punctures the of a cable to create a contact with a Metallic core. As the
s/g travels along the backbone some energy is transformed into heat.
Therefore it becomes weaker & weaker the farther it has to travel. For this
reason there is a limit to the no. of taps a bus can support & the distance
between the taps.
Advantages
1) Easy to install
2) Less cabling compared to Mesh Star, tree etc.
Disadvantages
1) Difficult to reconfigure and fault isolation.
2) It is difficult to add new device.
3) S/g reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality. This
degradation can be controlled by limiting the number & spacing up
devices connected to the given length of cable. Therefore adding new
devices require modification or replacement of the backbone.
4) A fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission even between
devices on the same side of the problem. The damaged area reflects
s/g back in the direction of origin creating noise in both directions.
RING TOPOLOGY
In a Ring topology each device has a dedicated point-to-point line

configuration only with 2 devices on the either side of it. A s/g is passed
along the ring from device to device until it reaches the destination. Each
device in the ring incorporates the repeater. When a device receives a s/g
intended for another device its repeater regenerates the bits & passes
them along.
Advantages
1) It is relatively easy to install & reconfigure.
2) Each device is linked only to its immediate neighbours. Through to add
or delete a device require two connections.
3) Fault isolation is simplified.
Disadvantages
1) Unindirectional traffic can be a disadvantages.
2) In a simple ring, a break in a ring can disable the entire n/w. this
weakness can be solved using dual ring. If one device does not
receive a s/g within a specified period it can issue an alarm. The alarm
alerts the m/w operator to the problem & its location.
HYBRID TOPOLOGY
often a n/w combines several topologies as sub network linked together in

a larger topology. For instance one dept of business may have decided to
use the bus topology while another has a ring. The 2 can be connected to
each other via central controller in a star topology.
Transmission Mode
Simplex
Half duplex
Full duplex
The term transmission mode is used to define the direction of s/g flow
between 2 linked devices. There are 3 types of transmission mode.
Simplex
In Simplex mode the communication is unidirection as on the one way
street. Only one of the two stations other can only receive. Keyboards &
monitors are the examples. The keyboard can only introduce i/p, the
monitor can only accept o/p.
Half Duplex
In half duplex mode each station can both transmit & receive but not at a
same time. When one device is sending the other can only receive & viceversa. The entire capacity of the channel is taken over by whichever of the
2 devices is transmitting at that time. Eg. Walky-talky
Full Duplex
Both stations can transmit & receive simultaneously. In Full Duplex mode
s/gs going in either direction share the capacity of the link. Eg telephone
network when two people are communicating both can talk & listen at the
some time.
NETWORK SOFTWARE
Protocol:
1) A protocol is used for communication between entities in different
system.
2) Eg: Entities are users application programs, file transfer package
DBMS, e-mails etc
3) Entity is anything capable of sending and receiving information
4) A system may contain two or more entities.
5) For two entities to communicate successfully they must speak same
language.
6) What is communicated How is communicated and when is
communicated must confirm to some mutually acceptable
communications between the entities.
7) These conventions are referred to as protocol.
8) Protocol is a set of rules. Governing the exchange of data between two
entities
Key Elements of Protocol are:1) Syntax:- It includes data format and signal levels.
2) Symantics:- It includes control of information for coordination and error
handling.
3) Timing: It includes speed matching and sequencing.
9) Thus we can say that a protocol is an agreement betn two
communicating devices on hour communication is to proceed.
DATA TRANSMISSION
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Data Transmission
1) The transmission of binary data across the link can be accomplished
either in parallel or serial mode.
2) In parallel mode multiple bits are sent with each clock pulse.
3) In serial mode only bit is sent with each clock pulse.
Parallel Transmission
1) Binary data consisting of ones & zeros may be organized into graphs
of n bits each.
2) By grouping we can send data n bits at a time instead of one.
3) We use n wires to send n bits at one time.
4) The figure shows how parallel transmission works for n = 8.
5) Typically the 8 wires are bundled in a cable with connector at each
end.
6) The advantage of Parallel Transmission is speed.
7) Parallel transmission can increase the transfer speed by a factor of n
over serial transmission there is a significant disadvantage i.e. cost.
8) Parallel transmission requires n communication lines just to transmit
the data stream because of this it is expensive.
9) Parallel transmission is usually limited to short distances.
Serial Transmission
1) In serial transmission one bit follows another.
2) So we need only one communication channel rather than n to transmit
data between two communicating devices.
3) The advantage of serial over parallel transmission is that with only one
communication channel it reduces the cost of Transmission by a factor
of n
4) Since communication within devices is parallel, convertion devices are
required at the interface between sender and the line [parallel to serial]
and between line and receiver [serial to parallel]. Serial transmission
occurs in one of the two ways: 1) synchronous
2) A synchronous
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Asynchronous Transmission
1) Asynchronous Transmission is so named because the timing of signal
is unimportant. Each group usually 8 bits is sent along the link as a unit.
The sending system handles each group independently relaying it to the
link whenever ready without regard to time up. To alert the receiver to the
arrival of new group. Therefore an extra bit is added at the beginning of
each byte. This bit usually a zero is called as start bit. To let the receiver
know the byte is finished one or more additional bits are added to end of
the byte. These bits usually ones are called stop bits. By this method
each byte is increased in size a at least 10 bits of which eight bits are
information bits and two bits or more are signal to the receiver. In addition
the transmission of each byte may be followed by a Gap of varying
duration. The gap can be represented by either additional stop bits. The
addition of stop and start bits & inserting of Gap into the bit stream makes
the Asynchronous transmission slower than forms of transmission that can
operate without the addition of control information. But it is cheap and
affective, two advantages that make it attractive choice for situation like
low-speed communication.
Synchronous Transmission
In synchronous transmission bits are send in a continuous stream without
start and stop bits into meaning full bytes. It is the responsibility of the
receiver. The advantage of Synchronous transmission is speed. For this
reason it is more useful for high speed application like transmission of
data from one computer to another.
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DTE DCE Interface
There are usually four basic functional units involved in communication of

data. The DTE and DCE at one end and DCE and DTE on the other. The
DTE generates the data and passes them along with the necessary
control characters to the DCE. The DCE converts the signal to a lormat
appropriate to the transmission medium and introduces it on to the
network link. When the signal arise at the receiver and this process in
reversed.
DTE [Data Terminal Equipment]
DTE includes any unit that function either as a source or as a destination
for binary digital data. It can be a terminal micro computer, fax machine or
any other device that generates digital data. DTE do mot communicate
directly with one another. They need an intermediate device to
communicate.
Data circuit terminating Equipment. It includes any functional unit that
transmits or receives data in the form of analog or digital signal through a
network. A DCE takes the data generated by a DTE converts then to a
appropriate signal and then introduces the signal on to the communication
link. Commonly used DCE includes modern [modulation & demodulation].
To make the communication possible both the sending & receiving DCEs
must use the same modulation method. Two DTEs do not need to be
coordinated with each other. But each must be coordinated with its DCEs
& DCEs must be coordinated so that Data translation occurs without loss
in integrity.
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OSI MODEL
SEVEN LAYERS OF OSI
The International Standard Oranization [ISO] was established in 1947

which created a model open system Interconnection which allows diverse
systems to communicate. The OSI mode is a layer architecture or
framework which provides guidelines for development of university
compatable Hardware, software and architecture. With a single machine
each layer calls upon the services of the layer just below it. Eg Layer 3
uses the services provided by layer 2 and provides services for layer 4.
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Each layer in the sending machine adds its own information to the
message it receives from the layer just above it & passes the whole
package to the layer just below it. This information is in the form of
headers or trailors [controls data added to the beginning or end of data
parcel.] Headers are added to the message at layer 6, 5, 4, 3 & 2 and
trailor is added at layer 2. The passing of data & network infon down the
layers of sending machine & back up through layers of receiving machine
is made possible by an interface betn each pair of adjacent layer. The
seven layers can be thought of as belonging to three subgroup. The layer
1, 2, 3 are network support layer they deal with the physical aspect of
moving data from one device to another. The layer 5, 6, 7 are the user
support layers. Layer 4 i.e. Transport layer insures n to n reliable data
transmission & links the network support layer & user support layer.
In this figure L7 data means the data unit at Layer 7. L6 mean the data
unit at layer 6 & soon the process starts from layer 7 & then moves from
layer to layer is decending sequence order. At each layer [except layer 7
&1] a header is added to data unit. At layer 2 a trailor is added as well.
When the formated data units passes through physical layer it is changed
into electromagnetic signal & transported through a physical link. Up
reaching its destination the signal passes into layer & it transformed back
into bits the data unit move up through OSI layer as each block of data
reaches the next higher layer the header & trailors attached to it at the
corresponding sending layer is removed & actions appropriate to that layer
are taken, by the time it reaches layer 7 the message is again in the form
appropriate to the application is made available to the recipitent.
FUNCTIONS OF OSI MODEL LAYERS

I PHYSICAL LAYER
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1) Physical layer co-ordinates the functions required to transmit a bit

stream over a physical medium.
2) It deals with the mechanical & electrical specification of the interface &
transmission medium.
3) It also defines the procedures and functions of that physical devices &
interfaces have to perform for transmission to occur.
The physical layer is concerned with the following:

1) Physical characteristics of interfaces and media:- The physical layer
defines the characteristics of the interface between the device & the
transmission medium. It also defines the type of transmission medium.
2) Representation of bits:- In physical layer data consist of a stream of
bits i.e. sequence of 0s and 1s without any interpretation. To be
transmitted the bits must be encoded into signals i.e. electrical or
optional. The physical layer defines the type of encoding.
3) Data Rate:- The transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent each
second is also defined by the physical layer. In other words it defines
the duration of a bit.
4) Synchronization of bits:- The sender and receiver must be
synchronized at the bit level. In other words, the sender and the
receiver clocks must be synchronized.
5) Line configuration:- The physical layer is concerned with the
connection of devices to the medium. In a point-to-point configuration,
two devices are connected together through dedicated link. In a
multipoint configuration, a link is shared between several devices.
6) Physical topology:- The physical topology defines how devices are
connected to make a network i.e. Device can be connected using a
mesh topology, a star topology, a ring topology or a bus topology.
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7) Transmission mode:- The physical layer also defines the direction of

transmission between 2 devices i.e. simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex.
II DATA LINK LAYER
The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a r our transmission
facility, to a reliable link and is responsible for node to node delivery.
Specific responsibilities of Data link layer includes the following:
1) Framing: The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from
the network layer into manageable data units known as frames.
2) Physical addressing:- 1) If frames are to be distributed to different
systems on the network. 2) The data link layer adds a header to the
frame to define the physical address of the sender [source address] &
destination address of the frame. 3) If the frame is intended for the
system outside the senders network. 4) The receiver address is the
address of the device that connects one network to the next.
3) Flow control:- If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver
is less than the rate produced in the sender. The Data link layer
imposes a flow control mechanism to prevent overwhelming the
receiver.
4) Error control:- The data link layer adds relatively to the physical layer
by adding mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost
frames. It also uses a mechanism to prevent duplication of frames.
Error control is normally achieved through a trailor added to the end of
the frame.
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5) Access control:- When two or more devices are connected to the same
link, data link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device
has control over the link at any given time.
III NETWORK LAYER
Network layer is responsible for sources-to-destination delivery of a packet

across multiple networks. If two systems are connected to the same link
there is usually no need for network layer.
Specific responsibilities of network layer includes following:
1) Logical addressing:- The physical addressing implemented by the data
link layer handles the addressing problem locally. If a packet passes
the network boundary we need another addressing system to help
distinguish the source & destination systems. The network layer adds a
header to the packet coming from the upper layer that includes the
logical addresses of sender & receiver.
2) Routing:- When independent networks or links are connected together
to create an internetwork. The connecting devices called Routers or
gateways route the packets go their final destination. One of the
functions of the network layer is to provide this mechanism.
IV TRANSPORT LAYER
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Transport layer is responsible for source-to-destination delivery of the

entire message. Specific responsibilities of transport layer indicate the
following
1) Service-point addressing:- Computers often run several programs at
the some time for this reason, the source-to destination delivery means
delivery not only from one computer to the next but also from a specific
process or running program to the other.
2) Segmentation and reassembly:- A message is divided into
transmittable segments each segment containing a sequence number.
There numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the message
correctly upon arriving at the destination and to identify and replace
packets that were lost in the transmission.
3) Connection Control:- The transport layer can be either connectionless
or connection-oriented. A connectionless transport layer treats each
segments as an independent packet and delivers it to the transport
layer at the destination machine. A connection-oriented transport layer
makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination machine
first before delivering the packets. After all the data are transferred the
connection is terminated.
4) Flow control:- 1) Like the data link layer the transport layer is
responsible for flow control. 2) however the flow control at this layer is
performed end-to-end rather than across a single link.
5) Error control:- The sending transport layer makes sure that the entire
message arrives at the receiving transport layer without error. Error
correction is usually achieved through retransmission.
V SESSION LAYER
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The services provided by the first three layers i.e. physical, data link and
network are not sufficient for some processes. The session layer is
network dialog controlled. It establishes, maintain and synchronizes the
interaction betn communicating systems.
Specific responsibilities of the session layer includes the following
1) Dialog control:- The session layer allows two systems to enter into a
Dialog. It allows the communicate between two processes either in
Half duplex or full duplex.
2) Synchronization:- The session layer allows the process to add
checkpoints i.e. synchronization points into a stream of data. Eg. if a
system is sending a file of 2000 pages it is advisable to insert
checkpoints after every 100 pages to ensure that each 100 page unit is
received and acknowledged independently.
VI PRESENTATION LAYER
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Presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the

information exchanged between two systems
Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer includes the following
1) Translation:- The processes or running programs in two systems are
usually exchanging information in the form of characters, strings,
numbers and so on. The information should be changed to bit streams
before being transmitted because different computers are different
encoding systems, the presentation layer is responsible for inter
operatively between these different encoding methods.
2) Encryption:- To carry sensitive information a system must be able to
assure privacy. Encryption means sender transforms the original
information to another form & sends the resulting message over the
network. Decryption reverses the original process to transform the
message back to original form.
3) Compression:- Data compression reduces the number of bits to be
transmitted. It is particularly important in the transmission of multimedia
such as text, audio and video.
VII APPLICATION LAYER
The Application layer enables the user to access the network. It provides
user interfaces & support for services such as e-mail, remote file access
and transfer, shared database management and other types of distributed
information. Of the many application services available, the figure shows
X. 500 which is directory services, X. 400 which is message handling
services, FTAM which is File Transfer Access Management.
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Specification services provided by the application layer include the

following.
1) Network virtual terminal:- A network virtual terminal is a software
version of a physical terminal and allows a user to log on to a remote
host.
2) FTAM:- This application allows user to access files in remote
computers to retrive files & to manage or to control files in a remote
computer.
3) Mail Service:- This application provides the bases for e-mail forwarding
& storage.
4) Directory Services:- This application provides distributed Data close
sources & access for global information about various objects &
services.
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Signals are transmitted from one device to another in the form of
electromagnetic energy transmission media are of 2 types:1) Guided Media
2) Unguided Media
1) Guided Media
Guided Media are those that provide a conduct from one device to
another. Signal travelling along the Guided media is directed & conducted
by physical limits of the medium. The include the 1) twisted pair cable 2)
coaxial cable 3) fibre optical cable
Twisted & coaxial cable are metallic conductors [copper] that accepts a
transport signals in the form of electric current optical fibre cable is a glass
or optical fibre cable that accepts & transport signals in the form of light.
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Twisted pair cable:- Twisted pair cable comes in two forms unshielded &
shielded.
USTC:- UPT Cable is the most common type of telecommunication
medium in use today. Its frequency range is suitable for transmitting both
voice & data/
Frequency range of TPC
A TPC consist of 2 conductors usually copper, each with its own coloured
plastic insulation. The plastic insulation is colour banded for identification.
Colours are used both to identify the specific conductors in a cable & to
indicate which wires belong in pairs & hw they relate to other pairs in a
larger bundle.
Advantages of UTP are its cost, ease to use & installation. Disadvantages
of UTP is it is more susceptable to interference or noise. Electronic
industry associates [EIA] has developed to co-grade UTP cable by
quantity. Categories are determined by cable quality 1 with lowest &
second as highest.
(a) Category 1:- The basis TP cabling used in telephone system. This
level of quality is fine for voice but inadequate for low speed data
communication.
(b) Category 2:- The next higher grade suitable for voice & data
transmission upto 4 Mbps.
(c) Category 3:- Required to have at least three twists per foot & used for
data transmission upto 10 Mbps. It is now standard cable for most
telephone systems.
(d) Category 4:- Used data transmission rate upto 16 Mbps
(e) Category 5:- Used for data transmission upto 100 Mbps.
UTP CONNECTOR
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UTP is mostly common connected to n/w via a type of snap in plug like
that use in telephone Jacks. Each wire is attached to one conductor or pin
in the connector the most frequently used of there plug is RJ45 connector
with 8. Conductors are for each wires of 4 twisted pairs.
Three different types of connectors
SHIELDED TWISTED PAIR
STP cable has a metal foil or mesh covering that incases each pair of
insulated conductor. The metal casing prevents the penetration of
electromagnetic noise & eliminates a phenomena called cross talk. STP
uses same connectors as UTP. It is more expensive than UTP but less
susceptble to noise.
COAXIAL CABLE
Coaxial cable carries signals of higher frequency ranges than twisted pair
cable. It has a central core conductor of solid or standard wire enclosed in
an insulating sheath which is in turn encased in an outer conductor of
metal foil. The outer metal wrapping serves both as a shield against noise
& as a second conductor which completes the circuit. This outer conductor
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is enclosed in a insulating sheath & the whole cable is protected by a

plastic cover.
Frequency of coascial Cable
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PHYSICAL LAYER
The Physical Layer Co-ordinates the functions required to transmit a bit
stream over a physical Medium. It deals with the Mechanical & electrical
Specifications such as cables, connectors & signaling options that
Physically Link two nodes on a Network.
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Transmission Media is the Physical path between transmitter & the
receiver signals are transmitted from one device to another device in the
form of electromagnetic energy.
Transmission Media are of Two Types :1) Guided Media
2) Unguided Media
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1) Guided Media
Guided Media are those that provide a conduct from one device to
another. Examples include twisted pair cable, co-axial cable and fiber
optics cable.
Twisted pair cable & co-axial cable use Metallic conductors that accepts &
transports signals in the form of Light. Optical fiber is a glass or plastic
cable that accepts & transports signals in the form of light.
TWISTED PAIR CABLE:

Twisted Pair Cable-Comes in two Forms:
a) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
b) Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
a) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable:
UTP is set of twisted pair with in a plastic sheath. UTP is a ordinary
telephone wire. It consists of two conductors (usually copper), each with
its own colored Plastic insulation
FREQUENCY RANGE OF TWISTED PAIR CABLE:
The Electronic Industry Associate (EIA) has developed Standards to grade

UTP cables by quality. Categories are determined by cable quality, with 1
as lowest and 5 as the highest.
Category 1: The basic twisted Pair Cable used in telephone systems.

This level of quality is fine for voice
Category 2: The next higher grade suitable for voice & for data
transmission of up to 4Mbps.
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Category 3: Required to have at least three twists per foot & can be
used for data transmission up to 10Mbps.
Category 4: Used to data transmission up to 16Mbps.
Category 5: Used to data transmission up to 100Mbps.
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable:

STP cable has a Metal foil or braided Mesh covering that encases each
Pair of insulated conductors. The Metal casing prevents the penetration of
electromagnetic noise. It can also eliminate a phenomenon called
CrossTalk.
COAXIAL CABLE:
Co-axial Cable Carries signals of higher frequency ranges than twisted
pair cable. It has a central core conductor of solid or standard wire
enclosed in an insulating Sheath which is in turn encased in an outer
conductor of Metal foil. The outer metal wrapping serves both as a shield
against noise & as a second conductor which completes the circuits. This
outer conductor is enclosed in a insulating sheath & the whole cable is
protected by a plastic cover.
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Frequency Range of Co-axial Cable:
Advantages of Coaxial Cable:

1) Co-axial cable used for both data transmission i.e. analog & digital
data transmission.
2) It has Bandwidth.
3) Easy to handle & relatively inexpensive as compared to fibre optic
cables.
UTP CONNECTORS:
Unshielded Twisted Pair is most commonly connected to network devices
via a type of snap in plus like that used with telephone Jacks. Each wire in
cable is attached to one conductor (or Pin) in the connector. The most
frequently used of these plugs is an RJ45 connector with eight conductors,
one for each wire of four twisted pairs.
UTP CONNECTION:
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DATA LINK LAYER
LINE DISCIPLINE / ACCESS CONTROL
Access control function of Data Link layer manages the establishment of

tasks & the right of a particular device to transmitt at a given time. Line
discipline can be done in two ways
1) ENQ / ACK
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2) POLL / SELECT
ENQ / ACK
ENQ / ACK is primarily used in Peer to Peer communication. It is used in
systems where there is a dedicated link between two devices. The initiator
first transmitts a frame called ENQ [i.e. enquiry] Asking if the receiver is
available to receive data. The receiver must answer either with an
acknowledge ie ACK frame if it is ready to receive or with negative
acknowledgement ie NAK frame if it is not. If neither an ACK nor NAK is
received within a specified time limit the initiator assumes that ENQ Frame
was lost in transmitt disconnects and sends a replacement. An initiating
system makes 3 such attempts to establish a link before giving up. If the
response to a ENQ frame is negative for three attempts, initiator
disconnects & begins the process again to another time. If the response is
positive initiator is free to send its data once all its data have been
transmitted, the sending system finishes with end of transmission frame ie
EOT.
POLL / SELECT
POLL / SELECT method of Line Discipline works with Topology where
one device is designated as primary station & other as secondary stations.
The primary device controls the line & secondary device follows its
instruction. It is upto the primary to determine which device is allowed to
use the channel at a given time. If the primary wants to receive data it
asks the secondaries if they have anything to send. This function is called
Polling. If the primary wants to send data it tells the targets secondary to
get ready to receive this function is called selecting.
SELECT
30
The select mode is used when the primary device has something to send.
The SEL frame is sent from primary to secondary to tell the secondary to
prepare to receive data. One field of the SEI frame contains the address to
intended secondary. As the frame makes its way down the link each of the
secondary devices checks the address field. Only when a device
recognizes its own address, it opens the frame & reads data. If the
secondary is ready it returns a ACK frame or NAK frame if it is not ready.
POLL
31
When the primary is ready to receive data it must ask or POLL each
device in turn if it has anything to send. When the first secondary is
approached. It responses either with a NAK frame if it has nothing to send
or with data. If the response is NAK frame the primary then POLLs the
next secondary in the same way until it finds one with data to send when
the response is positive the primary reads the frame & returns with an
acknowledgement varying with receit. The secondary may send several
data frames one after other or it may be required to wait for an
acknowledgement before sending each frame depending on the protocol.
There are 2 possibilities for terminating the exchange. Either the
secondary sends all its data finishing with an EOP frame or the primary
sends the time up signal. Once a secondary has finished transmitting the
primary can POLL the remaining devices.
FLOW CONTROL
Flow Control is a set of procedure that tells the senders how much data it
can transmits before it must wait for an acknowledgement from the
receiver. The flow of data must not be allowed to overwhelm the receiver.
Any receiving device has a limited speed at which it can process incoming
data & a limited amount of memory to store a incoming data. The
receiving device must be able to inform the sending device before those
limits are reached & to request that transmitting device to sends fewer
frames or stops transmission temporarily. The rate of process in data is
often slower than the rate of transmission. For this reason each receiving
device has a block of memory called buffer reversed for storing incoming
data until they are process. If the buffer begins to fill up. The receiver must
be able to tell the sender to halt transmission until it is once again able to
receive data.
32
CATEGORIES OF FLOW CONTROL

Flow Control
Stop and wait
Sliding window
STOP AND WAIT FLOW CONTROL

In Stop & Wait method of flow control the sender waits for an
acknowledgement after every frame it sends. Only when a
acknowledgement is received the next frame is send. This process of
alternately sending & waiting repeats until the sender transmits an EOT
frame
The advantage of S & W fc is simplicity ie each frame is checked &

acknowledged before the next frame is send. The disadvantage is
inefficiency S & W is slow. Each frame must travel all the way to the
receiver & an acknowledgement must travel all the way back before the
next frame is send. Here each frame is sent alone i.e. the frame sent &
received used the entire time need to traverse the link.
SLIDING WINDOW FLOW CONTROL
33
1) In sliding window method of flow control the sender can transmit

several frames before needing acknowledgement. 2) The link can carry
several frames at one time & its capacity can be used efficiently. 3) The
Sliding Window refers to imaginary boxes at both the sender & the
receiver. 4) The window can hold frames at either end and these may be
acknowledged at any point without waiting for the window to fill up. 5) To
keep track of which frames have been transmitted & received. 6) SW
introduces an identification scheme based on size of the Window. 7) The
frame are numbered from 0 to n 1 & size of window is also n 1.
Eg./ If n = 8 the frames are number 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 0, 1, 2 & size of
window = 7. Thus receiver sends an acknowledgement which includes the
number of next frame it expects to receive.
SENDER WINDOW
At the beginning of transmission the senders window contains n 1
frames. As the frames are sent out the left boundary of the window moves
inwards shirking the size of the window. Once an acknowledgement
arrives the window expands to allow in a number of new frames equal to
the number of frames acknowledged by ACK frame.
Sender Sliding Window
RECEIVER WINDOW
AT the beginning of transmission receiver window contains n 1 spaces
for frames. As new frames come in the size of the receiver window shrinks
as soon as an acknowledgement is sent. The window expand to include
spaces for a n umber of frames equal to the number of frame
acknowledged.
Receiver Sliding Window
34
Example of Sliding Window
ERROR DETECTION
Data can be corrupted during transmission. For reliable communication,
errors must be detected & corrected whenever an electromagnetic signal
flows from one point to another then it is subjected to interference from
heat, magnetism & other forms of electricity. This interference can change
the shape of timing of the signal. Errors are of 2 types single bit errors &
burst error.
In a single bit error only one bit in the data unit has changed.
A burst error means that 2 or more bits in the data unit have been
change
Redundancy is the conflict of sending extra bits for use in error
detection
35
CRC
1) One of the most common & error detecting codes are CRC [Cyclic
Redundant Check]
2) In CRC a sequence of Redundant bits called CRC remainder is
appended to the end of the data unit.
3) So that the resulting data becomes exactly divisible by a
predetermined binary number.
4) At the destination the incoming data unit is divided by the same
number
5) If at this step there is no remainder the data unit is assumed intacted &
is therefore accepted.
6) A remainder indicates that the data unit has been damaged in transit &
therefore must be rejected.
CRC GENERATOR & CHECKER
The basic steps involved in CRC are:1) A string of n 1 zeros are appended to the data unit. The number n
is the number of bits in the predetermined divisor.
2) The newly elongated data unit is divided by the divisor using a process
called Binary division. The remainder resulting from the divisor is CRC.
3) The CRC of n 1 bits derived in step 2 replaces the zeros at the end
of data unit.
The data unit arrives at the receiver, data first followed by the CRC.
The receiver treats the whole string as a unit & divides it by the same
division that was used to find the CRC remainder. If the string arrives
without error the CRC checker yields a remainder of zero & the data unit
36
passes. If the string has been changed in transit the division gives a
nonzero remainder & data unit does not pass.
BINARY DIVISION IN CRC GENERATOR
predetermined divisor = 1001

i.e n = 4
& the number zeros added are 3 to the Divident 000
Quotient = 11110 1
Remainder ie CRC = 001
Original Divident = 100100
After adding n 1 zeros
Divident = 100100000
Binary division in CRC checker
37
ERROR CONTROL
The term error control refers to the methods of error detection &
retransmission. Any time a error is detected in an exchange. A positive
acknowledgement NAK is return & the specified frames are retransmitted.
This process is called automatic repeat request [ARQ] Retransmission of
data is done in 3 cases:(i)
Damaged Frame
(ii)
Lost frame
(iii)
Lost Acknowledgement
CATEGORIES OF ERROR CONTROL

Error Control
Stop and Wait

ARQ
Sliding Window
Go Back N
Selective
reject
STOP AND WAIT ARQ

Stop and Wait ARQ is a form of stop and wait flow control extended to
include retransmission of data in case of lost or damaged frames. The
sending device keeps a copy of the last frame transmitted until it receives
an acknowledgement for that frame. Keeping a copy allows the sender to
retransmit lost or damaged frames until they are received correctly.
Damaged frames:When a frame is discarded by the receiver to contain an error it returns.
NAK frame & sender retransmitts the lost frame.
38
Lost Data frame:-
The sender is equiped with the timer that starts every time the data frame
is transmitted. If the frame never makes it to the receiver then the receiver
can never Acknowledge it positively or negatively. The sending device
waits for a acknowledgement or NAK frame until the timer goes off. It
retransmitts the last data restarts its timer & waits for an
acknowledgement.
39
Lost acknowledgement frame
In this case the data frame has made it to the receiver & has been found
to be either acceptable or not acceptable but the ACK or NAK frame
returned by the receiver is lost in transit. This sending device waits until its
timer goes off. Then retransmits the data frame. The receiver checks the
number of the new data frame if the lost frame was a NAK the receiver
accepts the new copy & returns the ACK. If the lost frame was ACK the
receiver recognize the new copy as a duplicate acknowledges it receipt &
then discards it & waits for next frame.
Sliding Window ARQ
Go Back n ARQ
In Sliding Window Go back n ARQ method, if one frame is lost or
damaged all the frames sent since the last frame acknowledged are
retransmitted.
Damaged frame:-
40
The figure gives an example where 6 frames have been transmitted

before an error is discovered in frame 3. In this case ACK 3 has been
returned telling the sender that frames 0, 1, 2 all have been accepted. The
ACK 3 is sent before the data 3 is arrived in the Fig. Data 3 is discovered
to be damaged so a NAK 3 is sent immediately & frames 4, 5 are
discarded as they come in. the sending devices retransmits all the three
frames 3, 4 & 5 sent. Since the last Acknowledgement & the process
continues.
Lost data frame
41
Sliding window protocols require that Data frame be transmitted

sequentially. If one or more frames become lost in transmit the next frame
to arrive at the receiver checks the identifying number on each frame
discovers that one or more have been skipped & returns NAK. For the first
missing frame the sending device then transmits the frame indicated by
the NAK as well as any frame that it has transmitted after the lost frame.
Lost ACK frame
The sender is not expecting to receive an ACK frame for every data frame
it send. The sending device can send as many frames as the window
allows before waiting for an acknowledgement. Once that unit is reached
or sender has no more frames to send then it must wait. The sender is
equiped with a timer that being counting whenever the window capacity is
reached. If an acknowledgement has not been received within the time
limit. The sender retransmits every frame transmitted since last ACK.
SELECTIVE REJECT ARQ

Selective reject ARQ only the specific damaged or lost frame is
retransmitted if a frame is corrupted in transit a NAK is returned & the
frame is resend out of sequence. The receiving device must be able to
sort the frames it has & insert the retransmitted frame in to its proper
places in the sequence. The receiving device must contain sorting logic to
enable it to reorder frames received out of sequence. It must also be able
to store frames received after NAK has been sent until the damaged
frames has been replaced. The sending device must contain a searching
mechanism that allows it to find & select only the requested frame for
42
retransmission. A buffer in the receiver must keep all previous received

frame on hold until all retransmission have been sorted & any duplicate
frames have been identified & discarded
Damaged frames
Figure shows a situation in which a damaged frame is received. Frame 0

& 1 are received but Acknowledged. Frame 2 arrives & is found to contain
an error. So a NAK 2 is return. Unlike the receiver in Go back-n system.
The receiver in a selective reject continuous to accept a new frame while
waiting for an error to be corrected. The receiver accepts the data 3, 4 & 5
while waiting for a new copy of data 2. When the new data 2 arrives and
ACK 5 is returned acknowledging the new data 2 & original frames 3, 4 &
5.
Lost Frames
If a frame is lost the next frame will arrive out of sequence when the
receiver tries to record the existing frames to include it, it will discover the
discrepency and return a NAK.
Lost Acknowledgement
Lost acknowledgement & NAK frames are treated by selective reject ARQ
just as they are treated by Go back-n ARQ. When the sending device
reaches the either the capacity of the window or the end of the
transmission it sets a timer. If no acknowledgement arrives in the time
alloted the sender transmits all the frames that remains unacknowledged.
The receiver will recognize any duplication & discard them.
43
DATA LINK PROTOCOL

Data link Protocols
Asynchronous
Eg : X Modem
Y Modem
Z Modem
Synchronous
Character oriented
Bitoriented Eg SDCL
Data Link protocols are a set of specifications used to implement the data
link layer. Data link protocol can be divided into 2 groups
1) Asynchronous Protocols
2) Synchronous Protocols
Asynchronous Protocols
The protocols which support Asynchronous transmission are called
Asynchronous Protocols. In Asynchronous transmission a data unit is
transmitted with no timing co-ordination between sender & the receiver. A
receiver does not need to know exactly when a data unit is sent it only
needs to recognize the beginning & end of data units.
Eg:- X
MODEM
Y
MODEM
Z
MODEM
Asynchronous Protocols are primarily used in Modems.
Synchronous Protocols
The protocols which support synchronous transmission are called
Synchronous Protocols. In case of synchronous protocol timing is very
important.
Synchronous protocol can be divided into 2 classes.
1) Character-oriented protocol
2) Bit oriented protocol
Character Oriented protocol
Character Oriented protocol are also called as byte oriented protocols.
The frame is interpreted as series of characters. Each character is
composed of one byte.
Bit Oriented Protocols
In Bit oriented protocols the frame is interpreted as series of bits. Each bit
or group of bits has meaning depending on their placements in the frame.
44
Eg: SDLC [Synch Data Link Control Protocol], HDLC [high level datalink
control protocol], LAP [link access procedures]
HDLC
HDLC is a bit oriented data link control protocol designed to support both
half duplex & full duplex communication. One point-to-point & multipoint
link HDLC defines three types of stations:1) primary station
2) secondary station
3) combined station
Three Stations of HDLL
Primary
- control of the link
- frames command
Secondary
- controlled by
- primary
- frames response
Combined
Primary Station
(a) Primary has the control of the link.
(b) Frames issued by primary are called commands
(c) Primary sends commands to the secondary station
Secondary Station
(a) Secondary operates under the control of primary
(b) Frames issued by secondary are called responses.
Combined Station
(a) Combined station combines the features of both Primary and
secondary.
(b) It is programmed to behave either as a primary or secondary
depending on the direction of transmission.
HDLC SUPPORTS 3 LINK CONFIGURATION

1) Unbalanced Configuration
45
An Unbalance configuration is also called as master slave configuration in

one in which one device is primary & others are secondary unbalance
configuration can be point-to-point if only 2 device are involved &
multipoint with one primary controlling several secondary stations.
2) Symmetric Configuration
A Symmetric configuration is one in which each physical station on a link

consists of 2 logical stations one a primary & other a secondary separate
lines link the primary aspect of one physical station to the secondary
aspect of another physical station.
46
3) Balance Configuration
A balance configuration is one in which both stations in a point-to-point

topology are of combined type. The stations are linked by a single line that
can be controlled by either stations.
Modes of Communication
A mode in HDLC is the relationship between 2 devices involved ion an
exchange the mode describes who controls the link. The data transfer
modes are:1) Normal response mode [NRM]
(a) NRM is used with unbalance configuration.
(b) Primary initiates data transfer to a secondary & the secondary can only
transmit data in response to a command from primary. In this mode a
secondary device must have permission from the primary device
before transmitting. Once permission has been granted secondary may
begin a response transmission of one or more frames containing data.
2) Asynchronous response mode [ARM]
(a) ARM is used with unbalanced configuration.
(b) The secondary may initiate transmission without permission from the
primary whenever channel is ideal.
(c) The primary still retains the responsibility of the line
3) Asynchronous balanced mode [BRM]
(1) ABM is used with Balanced configuration either the combined station
may initiate transmission without receiving permission from the other
combine station.
47
HDLC defines 3 types of frame

(i)
Information Frame
(ii)
Supervisory Frame
(iii)
Unnumbered Frame
I frames are used to transport the user data & control information
related to user data.
S frames are used only to transport control information
U frames are reserved for system management i.e. for manage the
entire network.
Frame check sequence FCS

1) Each frame in HDLC may contain upto six fields. 2) A beginning flag
field, an address field, an control, information field. 3) In multiple frame
transmission is the ending flag at one frame is the beginning flag of the
next field.
Flag field:- 1) The flag is 8 bits of a fixed pattern it is made up of 6 ones
enclosed in 2 zeros ie 0 111111 0 2) It identifies the beginning & end of
frame & serves as a synchronization pattern for the receiver.
3) To guarantee that a flag does not appear anywhere else in the frames
HDLC uses a processes called bit stuffing.
4) Every time a sender wants to transmit a bit sequence having more than
5 consecutive ones.
5) It inserts or stuffs one redundant zero after the 5th one.
48
6) Its presents tells the receiver that the current sequence is not a flag. 7)
Once the receiver has seen the stuffed zero, it drops the zero from the
data & original bit stream is restored. 8) Thus bit stuffing is the process of
adding one extra zero whenever there are 5 consecutive one in the data.
9) So that the receiver does not mistake the data for a flag.
Address Field:- The address field contains the address of the secondary
station ie either a originator or destination of the frame. If a primary station
creates a frame then it contains to address & if secondary creates a frame
it contain from address.
Control Field:- The control field of a frame is used for extensively used for
flow management infn.
Information Field:- The information field contains the user data in an I
frame & network management information in a U frame.
FCS Field:- Frame Check sequence is the error detection field. It can
contain a 2 byte or 4 byte CRC.
LAN ARCHITECTURE
A Lan is a data communication system that allows a number of
independent devices to communicate directly with each other in a limited
geographical area. LANs are dominated by four architecture
1) Ethernet
2) Token ring
3) Token Bus
4) FDDI [Fibre distributed Data Interface]
TOKEN RING
A LAN using ring topology & token passing access method.
Token passing access method
When the n/w is unoccupied it circulates a simple 3 byte token this token
is passed from station to station in sequence until it encounters a station
with data to send. When a station captures a token it sends one data
frame at a time. When a station captures a token & begins to transmit
there is no other token & hence other stations wishing to transmit must
wait. When the data frame proceeds around the ring each intermediate
station examines the destination address finds that frame is addressed to
another station & sends it to its neighbour. The intended receive
recognizes its own address copies the message checks for errors and
changes the 4 bits in the last byte of the frame to indicate the address
49
recognized the frame copied. The entire frame then continues to travel
around the ring until it reaches the station that had sent it. The sender
receives the frame & recognizes bits if they are set it known that the frame
was received. If then discards the used data frame & realises the token
back.
Token passing mechanism
When the traffic is light the token will spend most of its time ideally
circulating around the ring. Vocationally a station will capture it transmit
the frame & release the token. However if the traffic is heavy there is a
que at each station, as soon as a station finishes its transmission &
releases the token, the next station downstream will see and remove the
token. Each station has a priority code, as a frame passes by a station
waiting to transmit may reserve the token by entering its priority code. A
station with a higher priority may remove a lower priority reservation &
replace it with its own. Among stations of equal priority the process is first
come first serve.
Token Bus
1) This uses a bus topology & token passing access method. 2) It is a
physical bus that operates as a logical ring using tokens. 3) Physically the
50
token is a linear cable into which the stations are attached by logically the
stations are organized into a ring with each station knowing the address of
the station to its left & right. 4) It has no commercial application in the data
communication.
Multiplexing
Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows simultaneously
transmission of signals across single data link. In a Multiplexed system n
number of devices can share the capacity of the link.
Four devices on the left direct their transmission streams to a MOX. Which
combines them into a single stream, at the receiving end that stream is fed
into a DEMUX which separates the stream back into its component
transmission & directs them to their receiving devices. The word path
refers to the physical link & the word channel refers to a portion of a path
that carries transmission betn a given pair of devices. 1 path can have
many number of channels signals are multiplexed using 3 basic
techniques.
1) FDM [Frequency Division multiplexing]
2) TDM [Time Division multiplexing]
3) WDM [Wave Division multiplexing]
FDM
It is an antog technique that can be applied when a bandwidth of a link is
greater than the combine bandwidth of the signals to be transmitted.
Multiplexer
51
In FDM signals generated by each sending device modulate at different

carrier frequencies. This modulated signals are then combined into a
single composite signal that can be transported by the link. In this figure
we show telephone as i/p & o/p devices each telephone generates a
signal of similar frequency range. Inside the multiplexer these similar
signals are modulated on to different carrier frequency f1, f2, f3, the
resulted modulated signals are then combined into signal composite signal
that is send out over a media link that has enough bandwidth to
accommodate it. Although 3 carrier frequency exist at the same time the
bandwidth. The signals are modulated using either AM or FM modulation.
The channels in the link must be separated by strips of unused bandwidth
(guard bands) To prevent signal from overlapping.
TDM
In this type of multiplexing 2 or more channels are transmitted over the
same link by allocating a different time slot or time interval for the
transmission of each channel ie the channels take turns to use the link.
TDM
Sunchronous
Asynchronour
TDM
statistical TDI
The multiplexer allocates exactly the same time slot to each device at all
time whether or not a device has anything to transmit Eg:- time slot y is
assigned to device 1 alone & cannot be used by another device. In
synchronous TDM a frame consists of one complete cycle of time slots.
Thus the number of slots. Thus the number of slots in a frame is equal to
number of inputs.
Synchronous TDM: Multiplexing process
[DIAGRAM]
Demultiplexing process
[DIAGRAM]
52
Asynchronous TDM
In asynchronous TDM each slot in a frame is not dedicated to a fixed
device each slot contains an index field which indicates the device ie
asynchronous TDM adds the address to each slots. Thus number of slots
in a frame need not be equal to number of input device. More than 1 slot
in a frame can be allocated for a i/p device. Hence asynchronous TDM
allows maximum utilization of the link. It allows a lower speed i/p lines to
be multiplexed to a single high speed line.
Asynchronous TDM: Multiplexing process
Demultiplexing process
NETWORK LAYER
The main junction of the n/w layer is source-to-destination delivery of a
packet across multiple n/w links.
1) Switching:- Switching refers to a temporary communication between
physical links resulting in longer links for n/w transmission. A telephone
conversation is an eg of a switched communication. Here 2 lines are
temporarily joined into a single dedicated link for the duration of the
conversation. In this case, each packet is sent by the same route to the
destination.
2) Routing:- Routing means selecting a best path for sending a packet
from one-pt-to-another when more than one path is available. In this
case each packet may take a different route to the destination, where
the packets are collected & reassembled into their original order.
SWITCHING NETWORKS
53
Communication is typically achieved by transmitting data from source to

the destination through a n/w of intermediate switching nodes. The
switching nodes are not concerned with the content of data, rather their
purpose is to provide a switching facility that will move data from node to
node until they reach their destination. These nodes are connected to
each other in some topology by means of transmission links.
A switching n/w contains a series of interconnected switching nodes or
switches. A switch is a device capable of creating temporary comms betn
2 or more devices linked to the switch but not to each other. In the above
eg. data from device A intended for device F are sent first to node 4. That
may then be routed via node 5 & 6 or node 7 & 6 to the destination station
E.
Node to node links are usually multiplexed using FDM or TDM. The 2
main methods of switching are
1) Circuit Switching
2) Packet Switching
1) Circuit Switching Networks
Communication via CKT switching implies that there is a dedicated path
betn 2 stations which is a connected
of physical links betn the
switching nodes. On each physical link a logical communication channel is
dedicated to the communication.
Communication via CKT switching involves 3 phases
1) Circuit establishment:- Before data transfer, an end-to-end or statn-to
statn communications must be established.
2) Data transfer:- After the commn is established the used of the CKT is
exclusive or continuous for the duration of information exchange.
3) Circuit disconnect:- data transfer communication is terminated usually
by one of the 2 stations.
After disconnection the physical link between the nodes are ready for
use by other connections.
Disadvantage:1) Channel capacity is dedicated for the duration of a commn even if no
data are been transferred.
2) A small delay occurs during the communication establishment phase.
3) In CKT switching, the commn provides for transmission at a constant
data rate. Thus each of the connected devices must transmit & receive
at the same data rate. This limits the utility of n/w in interconnecting a
variety of host computer & terminals.
54
Advantages
1) Delivery is guaranteed
2) Comparatively faster than packet switching
Eg:- Public telep n/w, PBX, (private branch exchange)
2) Packet Switching Networks
In packet switching n/w data are transmitted in short packets & the
maximum length of the packet is established by the n/w. Each packet
contains a portion of the users data plus some control infon Control infon is
the infon that the n/w requires in order to be able to route the packets
through the n/w & deliver it to the intended destination. At each node on
the route, the packet is required, stored briefly & passed onto the next
node.
Disadvantage:Since the CKT is not dedicated a sudden surge of i/p traffic may
overwhelm a router, exceeding its storage capacity & causing it to loss
packets.
Advantages:1) Rate conversion is possible i.e. 2 stations of different data rates can
exchange packets
2) A single node to node link can be dynamically shared by many packets
at the same time. Packet switching can be done by following 2
approaches.
1) Data gram approach
2) Virtual circuit switching approach
1) Data gram approach:In datagram approach each pkt is treated independently from one another.
Packets in this technology are referred to as datagrams
Figure shows how the datagram approach can be used to deliver 4 pkts
from station A to station D. here all 4 pkts belong to the same message
but may go by different paths to reach their destination it is the
55
responsibility of the transport layer to reorder the data gram before

passing them to the final destination. If a packet is lost it is again upto the
destination station to detect the lost pkt & figure out how to recover them.
2) Virtual Circuit switching approach

The VCPS approach appears quit similar to circuit switching. But a
preplanned route is established before any pkts are send.
Suppose A has one or more messages to be sent to E. it first sends a

control pkt referred to as call request pkt to node 4 requesting a logical
connection to E. N ode 4 then routes the request to node 5 then to node 6
which finally delivers the call request pkt to E. if E is prepared to accept
the connection it sends a call accept pkt 6 5 4 A Station A & E
may now exchange data over the root that has been established.
Here each node on the pre-established root known were to direct each pkt
and Hence no routing discussions are requested. One of the stations
terminates the connections with a clear-request pkt. At each time each
statn may have more than one virtual circuit to any other station & can also
have Virtual circuits to more than one statn Virtual circuit path is not a
dedicated path like circuit switching. A pkt is still buffered at each node
queued for output.
* Advantages of Virtual approach Over Data gram approach
1) Packets arrive in original order
2) Packets are transmitted more readily as no routing discussions are
involved at each node
* Advantage of Data gram over Virtual approach
56
1) If a node fails all pkts that pass through that node are lost. But in the
case of data gram approach delivery may find an alternate route that
by pass thate note.
2) Call set up face is avoided hence for fewer pkts data gram approach is
quicker.
ROUTING
Routing means selecting the best path from the source to the destination
for residing a pkt. In Routing the term best path can mean the combination
of many factors including shortest, cheapest, fastest, most reliable & soon.
A router uses a certain routing algorithm to choose the optimum path for
sending pkts.
TYPES OF ROUTING
1) Static or Fixed routing:- In this method the routing algorithm do not
base their routing decessions on measurements or current traffic and
topology. Instead the choice of the route to be used is computed in
advance before transmitting the pkts & all the pkts for that destination
are sent along one route.
2) Adaptive Routing:- In this method the routing algorithm on the other
hand attempt to change their routing decession to reflect changes in
topology & the current traffic.
In this a central controller is used to find the best path depending on
the conjection in the n/w. The central controller collects status data
from each switch in the n/w to determine the preferred routes. If a
direct link exists betn the source & the destination it is attempted first
else an alternate route is selected.
3) Alternate Routing:- In alternate routing all the possible routes to be
used betn source & destination is predefined. It is the responsibility of
the originating switch to select the appropriate route for each call. Each
switch is given a set of preplanned routes for each destination in order
of preference.
Eg:-
57
As shown in the figure the originating switch X has 4 possible routes to

destination switch y. The direct route a will always tried first. If this is
unavailable then the other routes will be tried in a particular order.
Flooding:- 1) Saturation of a n/w with packets is called flooding. 2) In this
each router sends its information to every other router on the inter
network. 3) A router sends its information to its immediate neighbours. 4)
Each neighbour then sends the packet to all its neighbours & so on. Ie
Each node that receives the packet sends copies to all its neighbour. 5)
Thus every router has as many copies of the same information as the
number of neighbour.
Congestion Control
The objective of the conjection control is to maintain the number of pkts
within the n/w below the level at which performance falls of dramatically.
On each link pkts arrives & depart. Consider there are 2 buffers at each
link one to accept arriving pkts & one to hold pkts that are waiting to
depart. When the pkts arrive they are started in the input buffer of the
corresponding link. The node examines each incoming pkt to make a
routing decession & then moves the pkt to the appropriate o/p buffer.
Packets queued up for o/p are transmitted as rapidly as possible.
Now if pkts arrive too fast for the node to process them or faster than pkts
can be cleared from the outgoing buffers then eventually pkts will arrive for
which no memory is available. When such a saturation point is reached
the simplest way is to discard any incoming pkt for which there is no
available buffer space. The other alternative for the node is to exercise
some sort of flow control over its neighbours so that traffic flow remains
manageable.
When the buffers are full it must discard pkts thus the source stations
must retransmit the discarded pkts in addition to the new pkt. Even
successful deliver packet may be retransmitted because it takes so long to
acknowledge them.
The objective of all conjection control technique is to limit que lengths at
the nodes so as to avoid collapse.
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The following examples can be tried to keep the conjection level low.
1) Send a control pkt from conjection node to some or all source nodes to
stop or low the rate of transmission from sources & hence limit the total
number of pkts in the network.
2) Allow pkt switching nodes to add conjection information to the pkts as
they go by.
Introduction to networking & Internetworking devices:Two or more devices connected for the purpose of sharing data on
resources can form a n/w.
When 2 or more separate n/w are connected for exchanging data or
resources they become an inter network.
Connecting Devices
Networking devices
Repeaters
Internetworking
devices
Bridges
Router
Gateway
1) Repeater:- A Repeater is an electronic device that operates only on the

physical layer of the OSI model. Signals that carry infon within a n/w can
travel a fixed distance before atteniation endangers or causes the loss of
data. A repeater installed on a link receives the signal before it becomes
too weak or corrupted, it regenerates the original bit pattern & puts the
refreshed copy back on the link. A repeater is a regenerator & not an
amplifier ie when it receives weak signal it creates a copy bit for bit at
original strength. The location of a repeater in a link is vital. It must be
placed so that a signal reaches it before any noise changes the meaning
of any of its bits.
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Bridge:Bridge is an intermediate system or device used to connect 2 LANs ie it

can divide a large n/w into smaller segments. They are used for extending
the range of LAN coverage.
Bridges operate in both the physical & data link layers of OSI model &
hence it can access the physical address of all station connected to it.
When a frame enters a bridge, the bridge not only regenerates the signal,
but checks the address of the destination & forwards the new coy to the
segment to which the address belongs. It does so by comparing the
address with a table of all the stations on both segments.
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A packet from Station A addressed to station D arrives at the bridge. Since

statn A is on the same segment as statn B the packet is block from
crossing in to the low segment. If pkt generated by statn A intended for
statn G the bridge allows the packet to cross & relays it to the lower
segments where it is by statn G.
Router:-
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1) Routers work at physical Data link & N/W layers of OSI.

2) They have access to the n/w address & contains s/w that enable them
to determine which of the several possible paths betn those addresses
is best for particular transmissions.
3) Routers relay packets among multiple interconnected n/ws
4) A packet sent from a station on one n/w to a station on a neighbouring
n/w goes 1st to jointly held router which switches it over to the
destination n/w. 5) If there is no one router connected to both the
sending & receiving n/w 6) The sending router transfers the packet
across the one of its connected n/ws to the next router in the direction
of the ultimate destination. 7) That router forwards the pkt to the next
router on the path & soon until the destination is reached.
Gateways:1) A Gateway is a protocol convertor.
2) Router transfers, accepts & relays packets only across the networks
using similar protocols.
3) A Gateway on the other hand can accept a packet forwarded for one
protocol & convert it to a packet format for another protocol before
forwarding it.
4) A gateway is generally a s/w installed within a router.
5) The Gateway understands the protocol used by each n/w linked into a
router & usable to translate from one to another
6) That is it can adjust the data rate, size format of the packet etc.
7) A Gateway potentially operates in all the 7 layer of the OSI.
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MULTIPLEXING
Multiplexing is set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission
of multiple signals across a single data link. In a multiplexed system n
number of devices can share the capacity of the link.
Four devices on the left direct their transmission streams to be MUX,

which combines them into a single stream. At the receiving end that
stream is fed into a DEMUX which seperates the stream back into its
component transmission & directs them to their receiving devices.
The word path refers to the physical link & the word channel refers to a
portion of a path that carries transmission between a given pair of
devices. One path can have many number of channels.
Signals are multiplexed using 3 basic techniques.
1) FDM [Frequency Division Multiplexing]
2) TDM [Time Division Multiplexing]
3) WDM [Wave Division Multiplexing]
1) FDM
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) is a analog technique that can be
applied when the bandwidth of a link is greater than the combined
bandwidths of the signals to be transmitted.
63
]
In FDM signals generated by each sending device modulate at different
carrier frequencies. This modulated signals are then combines into a
single composite signal that can be transported by the link. In this fig we
show telephone as i/p & o/p devices. Each telephone generates a signal
of similar frequency range. Inside the multiplexer these similar signals are
modulated on to different carrier carrier frequency F1, F2, F3.
The Resulted modulated signal are then combines into single composite
signal that is send out over a media link that has enough bandwidth to
accommodate it. All three carrier frequencies exist at the sometime within
the bandwidth. The signals are modulated using either AM or FM
modulation.
The channels in the link must be seperated by stripes of unused
bandwidth (Guard bands) to prevent signals from overlapping.
DEMULTIPLEXING:
The demultiplexing uses a series of filters to decompose the multiplexed
signals into its constituent component signals. The individual signals are
then passed to a demodulator that seperates tem from their carrier &
passes them to the waiting receivers
IDM:
In Time Division multiplexing two or more channels are transmitted
for the transmission of each channel
the channels take turns to use
the link
(i)
Synchronous TDM:
The multiplexer allocates exactly the same time slot to each device at all
time wheither or not a device has anything to Transmit.
64
e.g.:- Time slot is assigned to device 1 alone & cannot be used by another
device. In synchronous TDM a frame consists of one complete cycle of
Time slots.
Thus no of slots in a frame is equal to number of inputs.
Synchronous TDM : Multiplexing Process
DEMULTIPLEXING PROCESS :
Asynchronous TDM:
In Asynchronous TDM each slot in a frame is not dedicated to a fixed
device. Each slot contains an index field which indicates the device i.e.
Asynchronous TDM adds the address to each slots. Thus number of slots
in a frame need not be equal to number of input device. More than 1 slot
in a frame can be allocated for a i/p device. Hence Asynchronous TDM
allows maximum utilization of the link. It allows a lower speed i/p lines to
be multiplexed to a single high sped line.
eg:- Multiplexing Process
65
Demultiplexing Process
8
ROUTING
Routing means selecting the best Path from the source to destination for
sending a Packet in Routing the term best Path can mean the combination
of many factors including shortest, cheapest, fastest, most reliable & so
on.
A router uses a certain routing algorithm to choose the optimum path for
sending packets.
TYPES OF ROUTING
1) Static or Fixed Routing:In this method the routing algorithm do not base their routing decessions
on measurements or current traffic & topology. Instead the choice of the
route to be used is computed in advance before transmitting the packets &
all the packets for that destination are sent along one route.
2) Adaptive Routing:In this method the routing algorithm on the other hand attempt to change
their routing decession to reflect changes in topology & the
ADVANTAGES OF DATAGRAM APPROACH OVER

VIRTUAL APPROACH:-
66
1) In virtual Approach if a node fails all Pkts that pass through that node
are lost. But in case of Datagram Approach delivery may find an
alternate route that by-pass that node.
2) Call Setup Phase is avoided, hence for fewer Pkts datagram approach
is quicker.
Current traffic.
In this a central controller is used to find the best path depending on the
congestion in the Network. The central controller collects status data from
each switch in the n/w to determine the prefered routes. If a direct link
exists between the source & the destination it is attempted first, else an
alternate route is selected.
3) Alternate Routing:In alternate routing all the possible routes to be used between source &
destination is predefined. It is the responsibility of the originating switch to
select the appropriate route for each all. Each switch is given a set of
preplanned routes for each destination in order or preference.
Eg:
[DIAGRAM]
Route a: X Y
Route b: X J Y
Route c: X K Y
Route d: X I J Y
As shown in the fig the originating switch X has 4 possible routes to
destination switch Y. The direct Route a will always tried first. If this is
unavailable then the other routes will be tried in a particular order.
Flooding:- Saturation of a n/w with packets is call Flooding. Each Router
sends its information to every other Router on the intern network. A Router
sends its information to its immediate neighbours. Each neighbour then
sends the packets to all its neighbours & so on i.e. each node that
receives the packet sends copies to all its neighbour. Thus every router
has as many copies of the same information as the number of neighbours.
NETWORK LAYER
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The main function of the network layer is source to destination delivery of

packet across multiple network links. The two method by which a packet
can travel from source to destination are
1) Switching
2) Routing
1) Switching :- Switching refers to a temporary connections between
Physical links resulting in longer Links for N/W transmission. A
telephone conversation is an eg of a switched communication. Here 2
lines are temporarily Joined into a single dedicated link for the duration
of the conversation. In this case, each packet is sent by the same route
to the destination.
2) Routing :- Routing means selecting a best Path for sending a packet
from one pt to another. When more than one path is available. In this
case each packet may take a different roue to the destination, where
the packets are collected & reassembled into their original order.
SWITCHING NETWORKS
[DIAGRAM]
Communication is typically achieved by transmitting data from source to
the destination through a n/w of intermediate switching nodes. The
switching nodes are not concerned with the content of data, rather their
purpose is to provide a switching facility that will move data from node to
node until they reach their destination. These nodes are connected to
each other in same topology by
2)Data Transfer:- After the connection is established, the use of the circuit
is exclusive or continuous for the duration of the information exchange.
3) Circuit Disconnect:- After data transfer, connection is terminated
usually by one of the two stations.
After disconnection the physical link between the nodes are ready for
use by other connections.
Advantages:
1) Delivery is Guaranteed
2) Comparatively Faster than packet switching
eg :- Public telephone n/w, PBX
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Disadvantages:
1) Channel capacity is dedicated for the duration of a communication
even if no data are been transferred.
2) A small delay occurs during the connection establishment phase.
3) In circuit switching, the communication provides for transmission at a
constant data rate. Thus each of the connected means of transmission
links.
A switching n/w contains a series of interconnected switching nodes or
switches. A switch is a device capable of creating temporary connection
between two or more devices linked to the switch but not to each other.
In the above eg data from device A intended for device F are sent first to
node 4. That may then be routed via node 5 & 6 or node 7 & 6 to the
destination station F.
Node to Node links are usually multiplexed using FDM or TDM. The two
main methods of switching are
i)
Circuit Switching
ii)
Packet Switching
i)
Circuit Switching Networks
Circuit switching creates a direct Physical connection between two
devices such as phones or computers.
Communication via circuit switching involves three phases.
1)
Circuit Establishment :- Before data transfer, an end-to-end or

station-to-station connection must be established device must
transmit & receive at the same data rate. This limits the utility of n/w
in inter connecting a variety of host computers or terminals.
2) Packet Switching Networks : In Packet Switching n/ws, data are

transmitted in short packets & the maximum length of the packet is
established by the n/w. Each packet contains a portion of the users
data plus some control information. Control information is the
information that the n/w requires in order to be able to route the
packets through the n/w & deliver it to the intended destination. At
each node, the packet is required to be stored briefly & passed onto
the next node.
Disadvantage:Since the ckt is not dedicated a sudden surge of i/p traffic may over whelm
a router, exceeding its storage capacity & causing it to lose packets.
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Advantages:1) Rate conversion is possible i.e. 2 stations of different data rates can
exchange packets.
2) A single node to node link can be dynamically shared by many packets
at the same time.
PACKET SWITCHING CAN BE DONE BY FOLLOWING

TWO APPROACHES
1) Datagram Approach
2) Virtual-circuit Switching Approach.
1) Datagram Approach:In datagram approach each packet is treated independently from one
another. Packet in this technology are reffered to as datagrams.
[DIAGRAM]
Figure shoes how the datagram approach can be used to deliver 4
packets from station A to station D. Here all 4 Pkts belong to the same
message, but may go by different paths to reach their destination. It is the
responsibility of the transport layer is re-order the datagram before
passing them to the final destination. If a packet is lost it is again upto the
destination station to detect the lost packet & figure out how to recover
them.
2) Virtual Circuit Switching Approach:The Virtual Circuit Switching Approach appears quite similar to circuit
switching. But a preplanned route is established before any Pkts are send.
[DIAGRAM]
Suppose A has one or more messages to be sent to E, it first sends a
control Pkt reffered to as call request Pkt to node 4 requesting a logical
connection to E. Node 4 then router the request to node 5, ten to node 6
which finally delivers the call request Pkt to E. If E is prepared to accept
the connection it sends a call accept Pkt to 6 5 4 A. Station A & E
may now exchange data over the root that has been established.
Here each node on the pre-established root knows were to direct each Pkt
& hence no routing discussion are required. One of the stations terminates
the connections with a clear-request Pkt. At each time each station may
have more than one virtual circuit to any other station & can also have
70
virtual circuits to more than one stations virtual circuit path is not a
dedicated path like circuit switching.
Advantages of virtual approach over Datagram approach :1) Packets arrive in original order.
2) Packets are transmitted more rapidly as no routing discussion are
involved at each node.
CONGESTION CONTROL
Congestion in a network may occur if users send data into the network at
a rate greater than that allowed by network resources. For eg, Congestion
may occur because the switches in a network have a limited buffer size to
store arrived packets before processing.
The objective of the congestion control is to maintain the number of
packets with in the network below the level at which performance falls off
drastically. Consider there are 2 buffers at each link one to accept arriving
packets & one to hold Pkts that are waiting to depart. When the Pkts arrive
they are stored in the input buffer for the corresponding link. The node
examines each incoming Pkt to make a routing decision & then moves the
Pkts to the appropriate o/p buffer. Packets queued up for o/p are
transmitted as rapidly as possible.
Now if the Packets arriving at a node are more than the outgoing packets
then their will be no memory available for new packets. When such a
saturation point is reached the simplest way is to discard any incoming
packets for which there is no available buffer space.
The other alternative for the node is to exercise some sort of flow control
over its neighbours, so that the traffic flow remains. Manageable. When
the buffers are full, it must discard packets thus the source stations must
retransmit the discarded packets in addition to the new packets. Even
successfully delivered packet may be retransmitted because it takes so
long to acknowledge them.
The objective of all congestion control technique is to limit que lengths at
the nodes so as to avoid collapse.
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10
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol is a set of rules or
procedures that govern the exchange of messages in a internetwork
TCP/IP was originally developed as a protocol for networks that wanted to
be connected to the ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Agency
Network). ARPANET is now known as internet.
TCP/IP Protocol suite is 5 layer Protocol suite whose bottom 4 layers
match OSI model closely.
TCP/IP & OSI MODEL
The Highest level in the Application layer corresponds to OSI 3 layers i..e.
Session, Presentation and application layer of the OSI model.
PHYSICAL & DATALINK LAYERS
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In Physical & Datalink layers the TCP/IP does not define any specific
Protocol. It supports all the Standard Protocols.
Network Layer:The N/W layer or internet layer supports internet protocol [IP]. The IP in
turn contains 4 supporting Protocol ARP, RARP, IGMP & ICMP IP is
unreliable & connectionless datagram protocol it provides no error
checking or trucking. IP transports data in packets called Datagram, each
of which is transported seperately Datagrams can travel along different
routes & can arrive out of sequence or can be duplicated. IP does not
keep track of the routes & has no facility for recording the datagrams once
they arrive at their destination.
ARP : Address Resolution Protocol
ARP is used to associate an IP address with the Physical address. On a
typical Physical N/W such as LAN, each device on the link is identified by
a Physical address of a station, usually it is printed on the Network
Interface card.
RARP : Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
RARP allows a host to discover its internet address when it knows only its
Physical address. It is used when a computer is connected to the N/W for
the 1st time.
ICMP : Internet Control Message Protocol
ICMP is a mechanism used by hosts & gateway to send notification of
datagrams problems back to the sender. It sends control & error reporting
messages.
IGMP : Internet Group Message Protocol
IGMP is used to Facilitate the simultaneous transmission of message to a
group of recipients.
TransPort Layer
TransPort layer is represented n TCP/IP by 2 protocols i.e. TCP & UDP.
The IP is a host-to-host Protocol. Meaning that it can deliver a packet from
one physical device to other. UDP & TCT are transport layer protocol
responsible for delivery of message from a process i.e. a running program
to another process.
UDP : User Datagram Protocol
It is a unreliable & Connectionless Protocol. UDP communication is form
Port-to-Port or Process-to-Process. The UDP packet is known as user
Datagram.
TCP : Transmission control
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Protocol TCP is a reliable & connection oriented Protocol. TCP

communication is also port-to-port or process-to-process. The packet is
called as segment in case of TCP.
Domain Name System (DNS)
TCP/IP Protocols use the IP Address, which uniquely identifies the \
connection of a host to the Internet. However, People prefer to use names
instead of addresses. Therefore, we need a system that can map a name
to an address & conversely an address to a name. In TCP/IP, this is the
Domain Name System (DNS).
DNS in the Internet
DNS is a protocol that can be used in different platforms. In the internet,
the domain name space (tree) is divided into 3 different sections:
(i)
Generic Domains
(ii)
Country Domains
(iii)
Inverse Domains
Generic Domains:- The generic domains define registered hosts according

to their generic behaviour. Each node in the tree defines a domain, which
is an index to the domain name space data base.
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Country Domains:- The Country Domains section follows the same formed
as the generic domains but uses two-character country abbreviations (eg
us for United States) in place of 3 character organizational abbreviations.
2nd level can be organizational or they cab be more specific, national
designation
75
Fig shows the country domain section. The address anza. cup. ca. us can
be translated to De Anza college in cupertino in California in the United
States.
Inverse Domain
The inverse domain is used to map an address to a name. This may
happen. For example, when a server has received a request from a client
to do a task. Whereas the server has a file that contains a lists of
authorized clients, the server lists only the IP address of the client
(extracted from the received IP Packet). To determine if the client is on the
authorized list, it can s end a query to the DNS server & ask for a mapping
of address to name
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12
BRIDGES
INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING AND
INTERNETWORKING DEVICES
Two or more devices connected for the purpose of sharing data or
resources can form a network.
77
When two or more separate network are connected for exchanging data or
resources they become an internetwork (or internet).
[DIAGRAM]
REPEATER :A repeater is an electronic device that operates only on the Physical layer
of the OSI Model. Signals that carry information with in a network can
travel a fixed distance before attenuation endangers or causes the loss of
data.
A repeater installed on a link receives the signal before it becomes too
weak or corrupted. It regenerates the original bit pattern & puts the
refreshed copy back on the link. A repeater is a regenerator & not an
amplifier i.e. when it receives weak signal it creates a copy bit for bit at
original strength.
The location of a repeater in a link is vital. It must be place so that a signal
reaches it before any noise changes, the meaning of any of its bits.
[DIAGRAM]
Bride is an intermediate system or device used to connect 2 LANs i.e. it
can divide a large n/w into smaller segments. They are used for extending
the range of LAN coverage.
[DIAGRAM]
Bridges operate in both Physical & datalink layers of OSI model & hence it
can access the Physical address of all station connected to it. When a
frame enters a bridge, the bridge not only regenerates the signal, but
checks the address of the destination & forwards the new copy to the
segment to which the address belongs. It does so by comparing the
address with a table of all the stations on both segments. When it finds a
match, it discovers to which segments the station belongs & relays the
packet only to that segment.
Unlike repeaters, bridges contain logic that allows them to keep the traffic
for each segment separate. In this way, they filter traffic that makes them
useful for controlling congestion.
Routers
[DIAGRAM]
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ROUTER IN AN INTERNET
Routers work at Physical, datalink & Network layers of OSI Model. They
have access to the n/w address & contains software that enable them to
determine which of the several possible paths between those addresses is
best for particular transmission.
Routers relay packets among multiple interconnected networks. A packet
sent from a station on one n/w to a station on a neighbouring n/w goes 1st
to Jointly held router which switches it over to the destination n/w. If there
is no, 1 router connected to both sending & receiving n/ws, the sending
router transfers the packet across one of its connected networks to the
next router in the direction of the ultimate destination. That router forwards
the packet to the next router on the path & soon, until the destination is
reached.
GATEWAYS :A Gateway is protocol convertor.

Packets any across the networks using similar protocols. A Gateway on
other hand can accept a packet forwarded for one protocol & convert it to
a packet format for another protocol is generally a software installed within
a router. The Gateway is generally a software installed within a router. The
Gateway understands the protocol used by each network linked into a
router & is therefore able to translate from one to another. That is it can
adjust the data rate, size, format of the packet etc. A Gateway potentially
operates is all the 7 layers of the OSI model.
14
INTRODUCTION TO OTHER TECHNOLOGIES
ATM
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM0 is the cell oriented switching, high
performance & Multiplexing technology that uses fixed length packets to
carry different types of traffic. In ATM N/W all information is formatted into
fixed length cells consisting of Header, Data & Trailor
H
Data
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H Header, T Trailor
Header consists of source ID & Destination ID.
Trailor consists of error control information.
As packets of different sizes & formats reach the cell network from a
tributary network, they are split into multiple small data units of equal
length & loaded into cells. The cells are ten multiplexed with other cells &
routed through the cell network. Because each cell is of same size & all
are small, the problems associated with multiplexing different sized
packets are avoided.
ATM uses asynchronous time-division Multiplexing that is why it is called
Asynchronous Transfer Mode to multiplex cells coming from different
channels. It uses fixed size slots. ATM multiplexers fill a slot with a cell
from any input channel that has a cell, the slot is empty if none of the
channels has a cell to send.
ATM MULTIPLEXING.
Fig. shows how cells from three inputs are multiplexed. At the first tick of a
clock, channel 2 has no cell (empty i/p slot), so the MUX fills the slot with a
cell from the third channel. When all the cells from all the channels are
multiplexed, the o/p slots are empty.
VSAT:
Very small Aperture Terminal, an earth bound station used in satellite
communications of data, voice & video signals, excluding broadcast
television. A VSAT consists of two parts, a transceiver that is placed
outdoors in direct line of sight to the satellite & a device that is placed
indoor to interface the transceiver with the end users, communication
devices such as PC. The transceiver receives or sends a signal to a
satellite transponder in sky. The satellite sends or receives signals from a
ground station computer that acts as a hub for the system. Each end user
is inter connected with the hub station via the satellite forming a star
topology.
The hub controls the entire operation of the N/W. For one end user to
communicate with other each transmission has to go first to the hub
80
station that then retransmits it via the satellite to the other end users
VSAT. VSAT can handle upto 56kbps. VSAT gives full access to a N/W
which may comprise hundreds or even thousands of nodes. VSAT system
use satellite transponders operating at C-band (uplink 6GHZ & downlink
4GH) or
ISDN:Integrated services Digital Network an international communication
standards for sending voice, Video & data over digital telephone lines or
normal telephone wires. ISDN supports data transfer rate at 64Kbps.
Original version of ISDN employs base band transmission. Another
version called B-ISDN use broadband transmission & is able to support
transmission rate of 1.5mbps.
ISDN involves the digitization of the telephone N/W, which permits voice,
data, text, graphics, music, video & other source material to be transmitted
over existing telephone wire.
ISDN
To allow flexibility, digital pipes between customers & ISDN office C
subscriber loops are organised in to multiple channels of different size.
The ISDN std defines three channel type, each with a different
transmission rate.
USER INTERFACES:
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Digital Subscriber loops are of two types (i) Basic Rate Interface (BRI) &
(ii) Primary Rate Interface (PRI). Both include one D channel & some
number of either B & H channel. BRI specifies Digital Pipe containing two
B channels & one 16kbps D channel. BRI is designed to meet residential
& small office customer.
PRI: Primary Rule Interface Specifies a digital pipe with 23 B channels &
one 64kbps D channel.
FUNCTIONAL GROUPING:-
In the ISDN std, the devices that enable, users to access the services of
the BRI or PRI are described by their functional duties & collected in
functional grouping. Functional Groupings used at the subscribers
Premises include N/W terminations (type 1 & type 2), terminal Equipment
(type 1 & type 2) & terminal Adapters.
NT1:- The NT1 device controls the Physical & electrical termination of the
ISDN at the users premises & connects the users internal system to the
digital subscriber loop. These functions are comparable to those defined
for the OSI physical layer.
NT2:- NT2 device performs functions at the physical, datalink & N/W layer
of the OSI model. NT2 provide Multiplexing (layer 1), Flow control (Layer
2) & packetizing (Layer 3). An NT2 provide intermediate signal.
Processing between the data generating device & an NT1. (LAN & PBX
can function as NT2).
TE1:- Terminal equipment 1 is used by the ISDN std to mean the same
thing as DTE in other protocol. It refers to digital subscriber equipment.
TE1 is any device that supports ISDN std
eg:- Digital Telephone
TE2:- TE2 equipment is any non-ISDN device such as workstation, host
computer or regular telephone. TE2 device are not immediately
compatible with an ISDN N/W but can be used with the help of another
device called Terminal Adapter.
TA:- Terminal Adapter converts informan received in Non-ISDN format
from TE2 into a Format Capable of being carried by the ISDN.
Reference points:- The term reference point refers to the label used to
identify individual interfaces between 2 elements of an ISDN installation.
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Reference point R defines the connection between TE2 & a TA.

Reference point S defines the connection between TE1 or TA & NT1 or
NT2. Reference pt I defines the interface between an NT2 & NT1. Finally
R pt U defines the interface between an NT1 & ISDN office.
?
X.25
X.25 is a packet-switching wide area network developed by ITU-T in 1976;
since then it has undergone several revisions. According to the formal definition given in
the ITU-T standard, X.25 is an interface between data terminal equipment (DTE) and
data circuit-terminating, equipment (DCE) for terminal operation in the packet mode on
public data networks.
Figure 17.1 gives a conceptual overview of X.25. Although X.25 is an end-to-end
protocol, the actual movement of packets through the network is invisible to the user. The
user sees the network as a cloud through which each packet passes on its way to the
receiving DTE.
Figure 17.1 X.25

X.25 defines how a packet-mode terminal can be connected to a packet network
for the exchange of data. It describes the procedures necessary for establishing,
maintaining, and terminating connections. It also describes a set of services, called
facilities, to provide functions such as reverse change, call direct, and delay control.
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X.25 is what is known as a subscriber network interface (SNI) protocol. It defines

how the users DTE communicates with the network and how packets are sent over that
network using DCEs. It uses a virtual circuit approach to packet switching (SVC and
PVC) and uses asynchronous (statistical) TDM to multiplex packets.
X.25 LAYERS
The X.25 protocol specifies three layers: the physical layer, the frame layer, and
the packet layer. These layers define functions at the physical, data link, and network
layers of the OSI model. Figure 17.2 shows the relationship between the X.25 layers and
the OSI layers.
Figure 17.2 X.25 layers in relation to the OSI layers
PHYSICAL LAYER
At the physical layer, X.25 specifies a protocol called X.21 (or X.21
bis), which has been specifically defined for X.25 by the ITU-T. X.21,
however, is similar enough to other physical layer protocols, such as EIA232, that X.25 is able to support them as well. (See Chapter 6 for a
discussion of these interface protocols.)
FRAME LAYER
At the frame layer, X.25 provides data link controls using a bit-oriented protocol
called link access procedure, balanced (LAPB), which is a subset of HDLC. (see
Chapter 11). Figure 17.3 shows the general format of the LAPB packet.
Figure 17.3 Format of a frame
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The flag, address, control, and FCS fields are exactly the same as we described
ub Chapter 11. However, because the communication here is point-to-point and in
asynchronous balanced mode, the only two addresses are 00000001 (for a command
issued by a DTE and the response to this command) and 00000011 (for a command
issued by a DCE and the response to this command). Figure 17.4 shows how addresses
are used in the frame (data link) layer.
Figure 17.4 Addressing at the frame layer
THREE CATEGORIES OF FRAMES

As discussed in Chapter 11, HDLC (and its derivation, LAPB) has
three categories of frames: I-frames, S-frames, and U-frames.
I-Frames
I-frames are used to encapsulate PLP packets from the network layer.
S-Frames
S-frames are for flow and error control in the frame layer.
U-Frames
U-frames are used to set up and disconnect the links between a DTE and a DCE.
The three packets most frequently used by LAPB in this category are SABM (or ESABM
if extended address mode is used), UA, and DISC (see Chapter 11 for a description of
these packets).
Frame Layer Phases
In the frame layer, communication between a DTE and a DCE involves three
phases: link setup, packet transfer, and link disconnect (see Figure 17.5).
Link Setup
The link between DTE and DCE must be set up before packets
from the packet layer can be transferred. Either the DTE or the DCE can
set up the link by sending an SABM (set asynchronous balanced mode)
frame; the responding party sends a UA (unnumbered acknowledgment)
frame to show that the link is actually set.
85
Transferring Data
After the link has been established, the two parties can send and receive network
layer packets (data and control) using I-frames and S-frames.
Figure 17.5 Three phases of the frame layer
Link Disconnect
When the network layer no longer needs the link, one of the parties
can issue a disconnect (DISC) frame to request disconnection. The other
party can answer with a UA frame.
Packet layer
The network layer in X.25 is called the packet layer protocol (PLP). This layer
is responsible for establishing the connection, transferring the data, and terminating the
connection. In addition, it is responsible for creating the virtual circuits and negotiating
network services between two DTEs. While the frame layer is responsible for making a
connection between a DTE and a DCE, the packet layer is responsible for making a
connection between two DTE (end-to-end connection). Note that X.25 uses flow and
error control at two levels (frame layer and packet layer). Flow and error control between
a DTE and a DCE (link) are under the jurisdiction of the frame layer. End-to-end flow and
error control between two DTEs (end-to-end) are under the jurisdiction of the packet
layer. Figure 17.6 shows the difference between the frame layer and the packet layer
domains of responsibility.
Virtual Circuits
The X.25 protocol is a packet-switched virtual circuit network. Note that the
virtual circuits in X.25 are created at the network layer (not the data link layer as in some
other wide area networks such as Frame Relay and ATM. This means that a physical
86
connection established between a DTE and DCE can carry several virtual circuits at the
network layer with each circuit responsible for carrying either data or control information,
a concept called in-band signaling. Figure 17.7 shows an X.25 network in which three
virtual circuits have been created between DTE A and three other DTEs.
Figure 17.6 Frame layer and packet layer domains
Figure Virtual circuits in X.25

Virtual Circuit Identifiers
Each virtual circuit in X.25 should be identified for use by the packets. The
virtual circuit identifier in X.25 is called the logical channel number (LCN). When a
virtual circuit is established between two DTEs, there is always a pair of LCNs: one
defining the virtual circuit between the local DTE and the local DCE and the other one
between the remote DCE and the remote DTE. The reason for having two different LCNs
is to make the LCN domain local. This allows the set of LCNs for each local connection to
be small and consequently the LCN field to be short. A global LCN would require a larger
set of LCNs and consequently a longer LCN field. The local LCN allows the same set of
LCNs to be used by two different pairs of DTE-DCE links without confusion. Figure 17.8
shows the LCNs in an X.25 network.
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Figure 17.8 LCNs in X.25
X.25 uses both permanent and switched virtual circuits (PVCs and
SVCs). PVCs are established by the X.25 network providers. They are
similar to the leased lie in telephone networks. The LCNs are permanently
assigned by the network provider.
SVCs are established at each session. The network layer uses a control packet
to set up a connection. After the connection is established, both DTE-DCE links are
assigned an LCN. After the data transfer, the virtual circuit is disconnected and the LCNs
are no longer valid.
Note that the virtual circuit establishment and release at the network layer are
different from link setup and disconnect at the frame layer. In a typical situation, the
following five events occur:
A link is set up between the local DTE and DCE and also between the remote
DTE and DCE.
A virtual circuit is established between the local DTE and the remote DTE.
Data are transferred between the two DTEs.
The virtual circuit is released.
The link is disconnected.
LCN Assignment
12
X.25 allows up to 4096 (2 ) LCNs. Figure 17.9 shows how these LCNs are
assigned. The one-way LCNs are used for simplex communication; the two-way LCNs
are used for duplex communication.
PLP Packets
The general format of a PLP packet, shown in Figure 17.10, has three or four
bytes of header and an optional information field.
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Figure 17.9 LCN assignment
Figure 17.10 PLP packet format
The fields in the header are as follows:
General format identifier (GFI). The general format identifier (GFI) is a fourbit
field. The first bit, called the Q (qualifier) bit, defines the source of control
information: 0 for PLP, 1 for other high-level protocols. The D (delivery) bit,
defines which device should acknowledge the packet: 0 for the local DCE, 1 for
the remote DTE. The last two bits of GFI indicate the size of the sequence
number fields. If these bits are 01, the sequence numbers are only 3 bitsmodulo
8 (0 to 7). If these bits are 10, the sequence numbers are 7 bitsmodulo 128 (0 to
127).
Logical Channel Number (LCN). The logical channel number (LCN) is a 12-bit
field that identifies the virtual circuit chosen for a given transmission. The protocol
originally defined a LGCN (logical group channel number) of 4 bits and an LCN
(logical channel number) of 8 bits to give a sense of hierarchy to the virtual circuit
identifier, but today, the combination is normally referred to as LCN.
Packet Type Identifier (PTI). The packet type identifier (PTI) defines the type
of packet. The content of this field is different for each packet. We will discuss
them in the next section.
TWO CATEGORIES OF PACKETS

Packets at the PLP level can be divided into two broad categories: data packets
and control packets. The control packets, in addition, have two formats: one used for RR,
RNR, and REJ packets and another for the remaining packets (see Figure 17.11).
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Figure 17.11 categories of PLP packets

Data Packets
Data packets are used to transmit user data. Figure 17.12 shows the structure of
a data packet. The general format is simple: a header and a user data field. The header,
however, is complex and requires discussion here. There are two formats for information
packets: short and long. The PTI field in the data packet consists of four sections. P(S)
and P(R) carry the packet sequence numbers for flow and error control. P(S) stands for
packet send and indicates the sequence number of the packet expected by the receiver.
This field is used to piggyback acknowledgments to data packets when both parties have
data to send. In the short header, both the P(S) and P(R) fields are three bits long
(sequence numbers from 0 to 7). In the long header, each field contains seven bits
(sequence numbers from 0 to 127). The M (more) bit is used to define a set of packets
belonging to the same unit. This bit is set to 1 if there are more packets in the unit (for
example, a message); it is set to 0 if the packet is the last one. Data packets are
differentiated from control packets by a 0 in the least significant bit in the third byte.
Figure 17.12 Data packets in the PLP layer
RR, RNR, AND REJ PACKETS

RR (receive ready), RNR (receive not ready), and REJ (reject) packets consists
of just a header with the two least significant bits in the third byte set to 01. Figure 17.13
shows the general format of the packets. The header is essentially the same as the data
packets with only one difference; because these packets are used solely for flow and
error control, they do not carry data and therefore do not have a P(S) field. Instead, they
contain a new field, the packet type field, which carries a code that describes the purpose
of the packet.
90
Figure 17.13 RR, RNR, and REJ packets
These packets can be one of three types: receive ready (RR),

receive not ready (RNR), and reject (REJ). They are described as follows:
RR (000).
Receive ready (RR) means that the device (DTE or DCE) is
ready to receive more packets. It also acknowledges the receipt of a data packet
by indicating the number of the next packet expected in the P(R) field.
RNR (001).
Receive not ready (RNR) means that the device cannot accept
packets at this time. The other party must stop sending packets as soon as this
packet is received.
REJ (010).
Reject (REJ) means that there was an error in the packet
identified by the P(R) field. The other party must resend all packets including and
following the packet indicated (go-back-n error recovery).
Other Control Packets
The other types of control packets may carry information in addition to the
header. However, the information is only, for control and does not contain user data.
There is only one header size in this category because these packets do not carry
sequence numbers. In these packets the two least significant bits in the third byte are set
to 11. Figure 17.14 shows the general format of the header, which is essentially the same
as the information packet, except that there are no P(R) or P(S) fields.
Figure 17.14 Other control packets
The packet type field in these control packets is six bits long and
can be used to specify up to 64 different functions. As of this writing,
however, only a handful of the possible codes have been assigned
meanings. Table 17.1 shows some of these types. Packet formats for the
various types are shown in Figure 17.15. the functions of each type are
described next.
Table 17.1
Control packet type
DTE to DCE
DCE to DTE
Type
Call request
Call accepted
Clear request
Clear confirm
Interrupt
Interrupt confirm
Reset request
Reset confirm
Restart request
Restart confirm
Registration request
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Incoming call
Call connected
Clear indication
Clear confirm
Interrupt
Interrupt confirm
Reset indication
Reset confirm
Restart indication
Restart confirm
Registration confirm
000010
000011
000100
000101
001000
001001
000110
000111
000001
111111
111100
111101
Figure 17.15 Control packet formats
Call request/incoming call.

The call request and incoming call packets are used to request the
establishment of a connection between two DTEs. Call request goes from the
local DTE to the local DCE. Incoming call goes from the remote DCE to the
remote DTE. In addition to the header, each of these packets includes fields
specifying the length of the address, the addresses of the DTEs, the length of
any facilities, and optional information such as log-on codes and database
access information. Facilities are optional services that can be included on a
contractual or per call basis. Facilities are made available by agreement between
the users and network providers. Contractual options can include such services
as incoming calls barred, outgoing calls barred, flow control parameter
negotiation, fast select acceptance and D-bit modification. Per call options can
include flow control negotiation, fast select, and reverse charging.
Call accepted/call connected.
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The call accepted and call connected packets indicate the acceptance of
the requested connection by the called system. They are sent in response to the
call request and incoming call packets. Call accepted is sent by the remote
(called) DTE to the remote DCE. Call connected is sent by the local (calling) DCE
to the local DTE.
Clear request/clear indication.
The clear request and clear indication packets are used at the end of an
exchange to disconnect (clear) the connection. Either DTE or DCE can initiate
the clearing. These packets also can be used by a remote DTE to respond
negatively to an incoming call packet when it is unable to accept the requested
connection.
Clear confirm.
The clear confirm packet is sent in response to the clear indication packet
described above.
Interrupt.
The interrupt packet is used under unusual circumstances to break into an

exchange and get attention. It can be sent by either of the DTEs or DCEs
involved in the exchange and acts as an alert. For example, imagine that a
local DTE waits a long time without receiving either a positive or negative
acknowledgment from the remote DCE. Its window has reached the end. It
cannot send more packets and it cannot quit. It sends an interrupt message to
get attention.
Interrupt confirm.
The interrupt confirm packet confirms the receipt of the interrupt packet
described above.
Reset request/reset indication
The reset request and reset indication packets are used to reset the sequence
numbers in an exchange over a particular virtual circuit. Reset packets are
used when a connection has been damaged to the point where the virtual
circuit must be reinitialized. The virtual circuit remains active, but the
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transmission begins again from a predetermined point; all packets from that
point on are renumbered, starting from 0.
Reset confirm.
The reset confirm packet confirms the reset process.
Restart request/restart indication.

The restart request and restart indication packets restart all virtual
circuits created by a DTE. This process is different from the reset process. Reset
packets activate a new st of sequence numbers on an existing virtual circuit.
Restart packets start up a new virtual circuit. Restart terminates and
reestablished a call by establishing a new virtual circuit for transmission. Any
packets on the original pathway are lost and new packets are renumbered
starting with 0. An analogy to this process is a phone call where the connection
becomes so bad that uou hang up and dial again.
Restart confirm.
The restart confirm packet confirms the restart request.
Registration request.
The registration request packet allows on-line registration of new users
to the network.
Registration confirm.
The registration confirm packet confirms a registration.
?
FRAME RELAY
INTRODUCTION
Recently, the nature of the demands on WANs has changed dramatically.
Previous WAN technologies, such as T-lines or X.25, were not responding to the needs
of the user. Users were looking for higher data rates, lower cost, efficient handling of
bursty data transmissions, and less overhead. Frame Relay is a virtual-circuit technology
that provides low-level (physical and data link layers) service in response to the following
demands:
The requirements for frame relay are
Higher Data Rate at Lower Cost.
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In the past, many organizations used a WAN technology such as a leased line or
X.25 to connect single computers. The data rate was relatively low. Today, most
organizations use high-speed LANs and want to use WANs to connect these
LANs. One solution is to use T-lines, but these lines provide only point-to-point
connections, not many-to-many. Creating a mesh network out of T-lines is very
expensive. For example, to connect six LANs, we need 15 T-lines. On the other
hand, we need only six T-lines to connect the same six LANs to a Frame Relay
network. Frame Relay provides the same type of service at lower cost. Figure
18.1 shows the difference.
Although Frame Relay originally was designed to provide a 1.544-Mbps
data rate (equivalent to a T-1 line), today most implementations can handle up to
44.376 Mbps (equivalent to a T-3 line).
Bursty Data.
Some services offered by wide area network providers assume that the user has
a fixed-rate need. For example, a T-1 line is designed for a user who wants to
use the line at a consistent 1.544 Mbps. This type of service is not suitable for
the many users today that need to send bursty data. For example, a user may
want to send data at 6 Mbps for 2 seconds, 0 Mbps (nothing) for 7 seconds, and
3.44 Mbps for 1 second for a total of 1.544 Megabits during a period of 10
seconds. Although, the average data rate is still 1.544 Mbps, the T-1 line cannot
accept this type of demand because it is designed for fixed-rate data, not bursty
data. Bursty data requires what is called bandwidth on demand. The user
needs different bandwidth allocations at different times. Figure 18.2 shows the
difference between fixed-rate data and bursty data.
Figure 18.1 Frame Relay versus pure mesh T-line network
Figure 18.2 Fixed-rate versus bursty data
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Frame Relay accepts bursty data. A user is granted an average data rate that
can be exceeded during bursty periods.
Less Overhead Due to Improved Transmission Media.

The quality of transmission media has improved tremendously since the last
decade. They are more reliable and less error prone. There is no need to have a
WAN that spends time and resources checking and double-checking potential
errors. X.25 provides extensive error checking and flow control. Frames are
checked for accuracy at each station (node) to which they are routed. Each
station keeps a copy of the original frame until it receives confirmation from the
next station that the frame has arrived intact. Such station-to-station checking is
implemented at the data link layer of the OSI model. But X.25 does not stop
there. It also checks for errors from source to receiver at the network layer. The
source keeps a copy of the original frame until it receives confirmation from the
final destination. Much of the traffic on an X.25 network is devoted to error
checking to ensure complete reliability of service. Figure 18.3 shows the traffic
required to transmit one frame from source to receiver. The white boxes show
the data and data link acknowledgments. The colored boxes show the network
layer confirmation and acknowledgments. Only one-fourth of this traffic is
message data; the rest is reliability. Such extensive traffic was necessary at the
time X.25 was introduced because transmission media were more error prone
then than they are today.
Figure 18.3 X.25 traffic
Unfortunately, all this overhead eats up bandwidth that cannot

therefore be used for message data. If bandwidth is limited, the data rate
of the transmission, which is proportional to the available channel width, is
severely reduced. In addition, the requirement that each station keep a
copy of the frame in its storage while it waits for acknowledgment results
in another traffic bottleneck and further reductions in speed.
Improvements in traditional transmission media and a greater use of fiber-optic
cable, which is far less susceptible to noise than metallic cable, have decreased the
probability of transmission error to a point where this level of caution is not only
unnecessary but counterproductive as well.
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Frame Relay does not provide error checking or require acknowledgment

in the data link layer. Instead, all error checking is left to the protocols at the network and
transport layers, which use the services of Frame Relay. (Frame Relay operates at only
the physical and data link layers.) Many data link layer operations are eliminated while
others are combined. Instead of the complex situation shown in Figure 18.3, we now
have the simplified transmission shown in figure 18.4.
Figure 18.4 frame Relay traffic

We summarize the differences between X.25 and Frame Relay in Table 18.1
Table 18.1
Comparison between x.25 and Frame Relay
Feature
X.25
Frame Relay
Connection establishment
Hop-by-hop flow control and
error control
At the network layer

At the data link layer
None
None
End-to-end flow control and

error control
Data rate
Multiplexing
Congestion control
None
Fixed
Not necessary
Bursty
At the data link layer
Necessary
ADVANTAGES
Frame Relay has several advantages over comparable wide area networks such as X.25
and T-lines:
Frame Relay operates at a higher speed (1.544 Mbps and recently 44.376
Mbps). This means that it can easily be used instead of a mesh of T-1 or T-3
lines.
Frame Relay operates in just the physical and data link layers. This means it
easily can be used as a backbone network to provide services to protocols that
already have a network layer protocol. For example, the TCP/IP protocol (see
Chapter 24) already has a network layer protocol (IP). If TCP/IP wants to use the
services of X.25, there is duplication in the network layer functions: X.25 has its
own network layer and TCP/IP has its own. There is no duplication in the case of
Frame Relay: TCP/IP uses its own network layer and Frame Relay provides
services at the physical and the data link layers.
Frame Relay allows bursty data. Users do not have to adhere to a fixed data rate
as in the case of X.25 or T-lines.
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Frame Relay allows a frame size of 9000 bytes, which can accommodate al local
area network frames.
Frame Relay is less expensive than other traditional WANs.
DISADVANTAGES
Frame Relay is not perfect. Despite its low cast, there are some disadvantages:
Although some Frame Relay networks operate at 44.376 Mbps, this is still not
high enough for protocols with even higher data rates (such as B-ISDN).
Frame Relay allows variable-length frames. This may create varying delays for
different users. A frame Relay switch handles a large frame from one user and a
small frame from nother user the same way. They are stored in the same queue
if they are going out the same interface. The delay of a small frame following a
large frame may be different than the delay of a small frame following another
small frame; users of small frames are punished.
Because of the varying delays, which are not under user control, Frame Relay is
not suitable for sending delay sensitive data such as real-time voice or video. For
example, Frame relay is not suitable for teleconferencing.
?
IP PROTOCOL
NETWORK LAYER
At the network layer (or, more accurately, the internetwork layer), TCP/IP
supports the internetwork protocol (IP). IP, in turn, contains four supporting protocols:
ARP, RARP, ICMP, and IGMP. Each of these protocols is described in detail later in this
chapter.
INTERNETWORK PROTOCOL (IP)

IP is the transmission mechanism used by the TCP/IP protocols. It is an
unreliable and connectionless datagram protocol a best-effort delivery service. The
term best-effort means that IP provides no error checking or tracking. IP assumes the
unreliability of the underlying layers and does its best to get a transmissions through to its
destination, but with no guarantees. As we have seen in previous chapters, transmissions
along physical networks can be destroyed for a number of reasons. Noise can cause bit
errors during transmission across a medium; a congested router may discard a datagram
if it is unable to relay it before a time limit runs out; routing quirks can end in looping and
the ultimate destruction of a datagram; and disabled links may leave no usable path to
the destination.
If reliability is important, IP must be paired with a reliable protocol such as TCP.
An example of a more commonly understood best-effort delivery service is the post
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office. The post office does its best to deliver the mail but does not always succeed. If an
unregistered letter is lost, it is up to the sender or would-be recipient to discover the loss
and rectify the problem. The post office itself does not keep track of every letter and
cannot notify a sender of loss or damage. An example of a situation similar to pairing IP
with a protocol that contains reliability functions is a self-addressed, stamped postcard
included in a letter mailed through the post office. When the letter is delivered, the
receiver mails the postcard back to the sender to indicate success. If the sender never
receives the postcard, he or she assumes the letter was lost and sends out another copy.
IP transports data in packets called datagrams, each of which is transported
separately. Datagrams may travel along different routes and may arrive out of sequence
or duplicated. IP does not keep track of the routes and has no facility for reordering
datagrams once they arrive. Because it is a connectionless service, IP does not create
virtual circuits for delivery. There is no call setup to alert the receiver to an incoming
transmission.
The limited functionality of IP should not be considered a weakness, however, IP
provides bare-bones transmission functions that free the user to add only those facilities
necessary for a given application and thereby allows for maximum efficiency.
Datagram
Packets in the IP layer are called datagrams. Figure 24.3 shows the IP datagram
format. A datagram is a variable-length packet (up to 65,536 bytes) consisting of two
parts: header and data. The header can be from 20 to 60 bytes and contains information
essential to routing and delivery. it is customary in TCP/IP to show the header in four byte
sections. A brief description of each field is in order.
Version. The first field defines the version number of the IP. The current version
is 4 (Ipv4), with a binary value of 0100.
Header length (HLEN). The HLEN field defines the length of the header in
multiples of four bytes. The four bits can represent a number between 0 and 15,
which, when multiplied by 4, gives a maximum of 60 bytes.
Service type. The service type field defines how the datagram should be
handled. It includes bits that define the priority of the datagram. It also contains
bits that specify the type of service the sender desires such as the level of
throughput, reliability, and delay.
Total length. The total length field defines the total length of the IP datagram. It
is a two-byte field (16 bits) and can define up to 65,535 bytes.
Identification. The identification field is used in fragmentation. A datagram,
when passing through different networks, may be divided into fragments to match
the network frame size. When this happens, each fragment is identified with a
sequence number in this field.
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Figure 24.3 IP datagram
Flags. The bits in the flags field deal with fragmentation (The datagram can or
cannot be fragmented; can be the first, middle, or last fragment; etc.).
Fragmentation offset. The fragmentation offset is a pointer that shows the offset
of the data in the original datagram. (if it is fragmented).
Time to live. The time-to-live field defines the number of hops a datagram can
travel before it is discarded. The source host, when it creates the datagram, sets
this field to an initial value. Then, as the datagram travels through the Internet,
router by router, each router decrements this value by 1. If this value becomes 0
before the datagram reaches its final destination, the datagram is discarded. This
prevents a datagram from going back and forth forever between routers.
Protocol. The protocol field defines which upper-layer protocol data are
encapsulated in the datagram (TCP, UDP, ICMP, etc).
Header checksum. This is a 16-bit field used to check the integrity of the
header, not the rest of the packet.
Source address. The source address field is a four-byte (32-bit) Internet
address. It identifies the original source of the datagram.
Destination address. The destination address field is a four-byte (32-bit)
Internet address. It identifies the final destination of the datagram.
Options. The options field gives more functionality to the IP datagram. It can
carry fields that control routing, timing, management, and alignment.
ADDRESSING
In addition to the physical addresses (contained on NICs) that

identify individual devices, the Internet requires an additional
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addressing convention: an address that identifies the connection of

a host to its network.
Each Internet address consists of four bytes (32 bits), defining three fields: class
type, netid, and hostid. These parts are of varying lengths, depending on the class of the
address (See Figure 24.4).
Figure 24.4 Internet addresses
CLASSES
There are currently five different field- length patterns in use, each defining a
class of address. The different classes are designed to cover the needs of different
types of organizations. For example, class A, B, C addresses are numerically the lowest.
They use only one byte to identify class type and netid, and leave three bytes available
for hostid numbers. This division means that class A neworks can accommodate far
more hosts than can class B or class C networks, which provide two- and one-byte hostid
fields, respectively. Currently both class A and class B are full. Addresses are available in
class C only.
Class D is reserved for multicast addresses. Multicasting allows copies of a
datagram to be passed to a select group of hosts rather than to an individual host. It is
similar to broadcasting, but, where broadcasting requires that a packet be passed to all
possible destinations, multicasting allows transmission to a selected subset. Class E
addresses are reserved for future use. Figure 24.5 shows the structure of each IP
address class.
Example 24.1
What is the class of each of the following addresses?
a. 10011101
10001111
11111100
11001111
b. 11011101
10001111
11111100
11001111
c.
01111011
10001111
11111100
11001111
d. 11101011
10001111
11111100
11001111
e. 11110101
10001111
11111100
11001111
Solution
The first bits define the class:
101
a. Class B
b. Class C
c.
Class A
d. Class D
e. Class E
Figure 24.5 - Internet classes

DOTTED-DECIMAL NOTATION
To make the 32-bit form shorter and easier to read, Internet addresses are
usually written in decimal form with decimal points separating the bytes - dotted-decimal
notation. Figure 24.6 shows the bit pattern and decimal format of a possible address.
Figure 24.6 IP addresses in decimal notation
Looking at the first byte of an address in decimal form allows us to

determine at a glasne to which class a particular address belongs (see
Figure 24.7).
Example 24.2
Write each of following in dotted-decimal notation:
a. 10011101
10001111
11111100
11001111
b. 11011101
10001111
11111101
00001111
c.
00011111
00000001
11110101
01011101
102
d. 11111101
10001010
00001111
00111111
e. 11111110
10000001
01111110
00000001
Figure 24.7 Class ranges of Internet addresses

Solution
Each byte is converted to a decimal number between 0 and 255.

a. 157.143.252.207
b. 221.143.253.15
c.
93.31.1.245
d. 253.138.15.63
e. 254.129.126.1
Example 24.3
Find the class of each address:
a. 4.23.145.90
b. 227.34.78.7
c.
246.7.3.8
d. 29.6.8.4
e. 198.76.9.23
Solution
The first byte defines the class.
a. Class A
103
b. Class D
c.
Class E
d. Class B
e. Class C
Example 24.4
Find the netid and the hostid for each address:
a. 4.23.145.90
b. 227.34.78.7
c.
246.7.3.8
d. 129.6.8.4
e. 198.76.9.23
Solution
First find the class and then find the netid and hostid.
a. Class A,
netid: 4
b. Class D
no hostid or netid
c.
no hostid or netid
Class E,
hostid: 23.145.90
d. Class B,
netid: 129.6
hostid: 8.4
e. Class C,
netid: 198.76.9
hostid: 23
Example 24.5
Find the network address for each address:
a. 4.23.145.90
b. 227.34.78.7
c.
246.7.3.8
d. 129.6.8.4
e. 198.76.9.23
104
Solution
First find the class and then find the network address.
a. Class A,
network address: 4.0.0.0
b. Class D,
no network address
c.
no network address
Class E,
d. Class B,
e. Class C,
?
SNMP
SIMPLE NETWORK MANAGEMENT PROTOCOL (SNMP)
The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is a framework for
managing devices in an internet using the TCP/IP protocol suite. It provides a set of
fundamental operations for monitoring and maintaining an internet.
CONCEPT
SNMP uses the concept of manager and agent. That is, a manager, usually a
host, controls and monitors a set of agents, usually routers (see Figure 25.19).
Figure 25.19 SNMP concept
SNMP is an application-level protocol in which a few manager

stations control a set of agents. The protocol is designed at the application
level so that it can monitor devices made by different manufacturers and
installed on different physical networks. In other words, SNMP frees
management tasks from both the physical characteristics of the managed
devices and the underlying networking technology. It can be used in a
105
heterogeneous internet made of different LANs and WANs connected by

routers or gateways made by different manufacturers.
MANAGERS AND AGENTS

A management station, called a manager, is a host that runs the SNMP client
program. A managed station, called an agent, is a router (or a host) that runs the SNMP
server program. Management is achieved through simple interaction between a manager
and an agent.
The agent keeps performance information in a database. The manager has
access to the values in the database. For example, a router can store in appropriate
variables the number of packets received to see if the router is congested or not.
The manager can also make the router perform certain actions. For example, a
router periodically checks the value of a reboot counter to see when it should reboot
itself. It reboots itself, for example, if the value of the counter is 0. The manager can use
this feature to reboot the agent remotely at any time. It simply sends a packet to force a 0
value in the counter.
Agents can also contribute to the management process. The server program
running on the agent can check the environment and, if it notices something unusual, it
can send a warning message (called a trap) to the manager.
In other words management with SNMP is based on three basic ideas:
1. A manager checks an agent by requesting information that reflects the behavior
of the agent.
2. A manager forces an agent to perform a task by resetting values in the agent
database.
3. An agent contributes to the management process by warning the manager of an
unusual situation.
COMPONENTS
Management in the Internet is achieved not only through the SNMP protocol but
also by using other protocols that cooperate with SNMP. At the top level, management is
accomplished with two other protocols: structure of management information (SMI)
and management information base (MIB). SNMP uses the services provided by these
protocols to do its job. In other words, management is a team effort by SMI, MIB, and
SNMP. All three use other protocols such as abstract syntax notation 1 (ASN.1) and
basic encoding rules (BER). We discuss SMI, MIB, and SNMP in the next three
sections (see Figure 25.20).
Figure 25.20 Internet management components
106
SMI
The SMI is a component used in network management. Its
functions are to name objects; to define the type of data that can be stored
in an object, and to show how to encode data for transmission over the
network.
MIB
The management information base (MIB) is the second component used in
network management. Each agent has its own MIB, which is a collection of all the objects
that the manager can manage. The objects in the MIB are categorized under eight
different groups: system, interface, address translation, ip, icmp, tcp, udp, and egp.
These groups are under the mib object in the object identifier tree (see Figure 25.21).
Each group has defined variables and/or tables.
Figure 25.21 MIB
SNMP
SNMP defines five messages: GetRequest, GetNextRequest, SetRequest,
GetResponse, and Trap (see Figure 25.22).
Figure 25.22 SNMP messages
107
GET REQUEST
The GetRequest message is sent from the manager (client to the
agent (server) to retrieve the value of a variable.
GET NEXT REQUEST

The GetNextRequest message is sent from the manager to the
agent to retrieve the value of a variable. The retrieved value is the value of
the object following the defined object in the message. It is mostly used to
retrieve the values of the entries in a table. If the manager does not know
the indexes of the entries, it cannot retrieve the values. However, it can
use GetNextRequest and define the object.
GET RESPONSE
The GetResponse message is sent from an agent to a manager in
response to GetRequest and GetNextRequest. It contains the value of the
variable(s) requested by the manager.
SET REQUEST
The SetRequest message is sent from the manager to the agent to set (store) a
value in a variable.
TRAP
The Trap message is sent from the agent to the manager to report an event. For
example, if the agent is rebooted, it informs the manager and reports the time of
rebooting.

Computer Networks: Goals of Networking

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1

HISTORY OF NETWORK DEVELOPMENT

around 1970s special processor called front end were developed to

A link is a physical communication hathway that transfers data from one

In a Mesh topology every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to

In a star topology each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to

2) It is easy to install & reconfigure, less cabling is involved & addition

A tree Topology is a variation STAR, as in star nodes in a tree are

1) A Bus topology is a Multipoint configuration, one long cable acts like a

In a Ring topology each device has a dedicated point-to-point line

often a n/w combines several topologies as sub network linked together in

DTE DCE Interface

There are usually four basic functional units involved in communication of

The International Standard Oranization [ISO] was established in 1947

FUNCTIONS OF OSI MODEL LAYERS

1) Physical layer co-ordinates the functions required to transmit a bit

The physical layer is concerned with the following:

7) Transmission mode:- The physical layer also defines the direction of

II DATA LINK LAYER

III NETWORK LAYER

Network layer is responsible for sources-to-destination delivery of a packet

Transport layer is responsible for source-to-destination delivery of the

Presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the

VII APPLICATION LAYER

Specification services provided by the application layer include the

Three different types of connectors

SHIELDED TWISTED PAIR

is enclosed in a insulating sheath & the whole cable is protected by a

TWISTED PAIR CABLE:

FREQUENCY RANGE OF TWISTED PAIR CABLE:

The Electronic Industry Associate (EIA) has developed Standards to grade

Category 1: The basic twisted Pair Cable used in telephone systems.

Category 4: Used to data transmission up to 16Mbps.

Category 5: Used to data transmission up to 100Mbps.

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable:

Frequency Range of Co-axial Cable:

Advantages of Coaxial Cable:

Access control function of Data Link layer manages the establishment of

CATEGORIES OF FLOW CONTROL

Stop and wait

STOP AND WAIT FLOW CONTROL

The advantage of S & W fc is simplicity ie each frame is checked &

SLIDING WINDOW FLOW CONTROL

1) In sliding window method of flow control the sender can transmit

Example of Sliding Window

CRC GENERATOR & CHECKER

BINARY DIVISION IN CRC GENERATOR

predetermined divisor = 1001

CATEGORIES OF ERROR CONTROL

Stop and Wait

STOP AND WAIT ARQ

Lost Data frame:-

Lost acknowledgement frame

The figure gives an example where 6 frames have been transmitted

Sliding window protocols require that Data frame be transmitted

SELECTIVE REJECT ARQ

retransmission. A buffer in the receiver must keep all previous received

Figure shows a situation in which a damaged frame is received. Frame 0

DATA LINK PROTOCOL

HDLC SUPPORTS 3 LINK CONFIGURATION

An Unbalance configuration is also called as master slave configuration in

A Symmetric configuration is one in which each physical station on a link

A balance configuration is one in which both stations in a point-to-point