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Another Set of Chemistry Unit 2 Notes
Another Set of Chemistry Unit 2 Notes
Formula
Pola AB
r
HA
AxOH
NxAy
Non- A2
polar CxAy
Description
Linear
Single H
OH at one end
N at one end
All elements
Carbon
compounds
E.g.
CO
HCl
C2H5OH
NH3
O2
CO2
2.3-Intermolecular forces
Types of Intermolecular forces
Permanent dipoles: Polar molecules only. Negative dipole attracted to the Positive
dipole and vice versa. 100x weaker than covalent bonding.
London forces: Electrons distributed around the nucleus change so more electrons
are distributed around one end. This induces another atom thats near it to do the
same. So a weak temporary bonding forms between the two atoms. Is a weak force
but strength does depend on the size of the electron cloud. More electrons=more
delocalisation=more London forces.
Hydrogen bonding: Hydrogen attached to a very electronegative element (e.g.
fluorine, oxygen and nitrogen.). This is the strongest intermolecular force.
Boiling temperature trends (determined by intermolecular forces)
Alkanes with increasing chain length: Increasing boiling temperature due to
increasing London forces with the increase in the number of electrons.
Branching in the carbon chain: The boiling temperature decreases. This is
because the side chains interfere with the packing of the molecule. Molecules cant
form many intermolecular forces.
Alcohols: Have hydrogen bonds present so have high boiling temperatures. Water
has a higher boiling temperature than alcohols as it can form double the amount of
Hydrogen bonds.
Hydrogen halides down the period: Fluorine is highly electronegative so has a
very large boiling temperature compared to the rest which from chlorine starts low
around -80 and then gradually increases due to increased dipole-dipole interactions
from increased number of electrons.
Solubility trends
A solution is made up of a solute and a solvent. Table below shows the
solubility of different substances. Ketone is unusual in that it can dissolve in
both water and organic solvents as it has both of the functional groups.
Highly
Polar
solids
Water
soluble
Polar
organic
substance
s
soluble
Nonpolar
liquids
Nonpolar
solids
Ionic
Non-polar
compoun liquids
d (e.g.
NaCl)
insoluble Soluble
(Hydration
enthalpy)
soluble
Immiscible
(forms two
separate
layers)
miscible
2.4-Redox
Oxidation no.: amount of charge due to no. of electrons.
Rules
Atom
Elements
Uncombined ion
Molecule total
Fluorine
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Oxidation no.
0
Its charge
0
-1
+1 (except metal hydrides=-1)
-2 (except peroxides=-1 and with
fluorine=positive no.)
-1 (except with oxygen or
fluorine=positive no.)
+1, +2, +3 respectively
Chlorine
Group 1, 2, 3
2Cl-(aq)
I2(s) + 2e-
2.5-Periodic Table
Group 2
Trend in 1st Ionisation energy: Decreases down the group due to increasing atomic
radius where the outer electrons are further away so less energy is needed to
remove an electron. Forms 2+ ions easily
Reactions- With Oxygen: Burns brightly to produce a metal oxide with increasing
reactivity down the group.
With Chlorine: Solid metal chloride formed. Also has an increase in reactivity.
With Water: Increasing reactivity down group. Beryllium has no reaction,
Magnesium only reacts with steam to produce a magnesium oxide and the rest react
with cold water to produce metal hydroxides.
Oxides with Water: Increasing reactivity. Beryllium and magnesium only react
slightly, Calcium fizzes to produce calcium hydroxide (slaking lime), and strontium
and Barium react in a similar way.
Oxides/Hydroxides with Dilute Acids: Forms a
salt and water. E.g. CaCl2+ H2O or Ca(NO3)2+H2O Cation
Flame Colour
Lithium
Red
Flame Testing: Place nichrome wire in
Sodium
Yellow
concentrated HCl then heat in a bunsen flame to
Potassium Lilac
clean. Colours of flames are shown in table.
Magnesium No colour
Calcium
Orange/Red
Solubility
Strontium
Red
Barium
Pale Green
Of hydroxides: Increases down group
Of Sulphates: Decreases down group
Thermal Stability
Of Nitrates: Decreases down group 1 due to weaker charge of attraction. Group 1
are more stable than group 2 apart from lithium due to larger charge.
2NaNO3 2NaNO2+O2, 4liNO3 2Li2O+4NO2+O2, 2Mg(NO3)2 2MgO+4NO2+O2
Of Carbonates: More stable as you go down the group as cations get bigger so
there is a more polarising effect on the carbonate.
Group7-Halogens
Solubility
2KCl+I2
Sulphuric acid oxidises halides and halogens with increasing vigour down the
group.
Hydrogen Halides are covalent but become increasingly ionic as you go up the
group
Hydrogen Halides and Ammonia: NH3+HCl
NH4Cl
Disproportionation reactions
With cold dilute Alkali: Cl2+2OH- Cl-+ClO-+H2O
With warm Alkali: 3ClO- 2Cl-+ClO3Testing for halogens
Silver halides: AgCl-White precipitate which is soluble in ammonia, AgBr- Cream
precipitate which is soluble in ammonia, AgI- Yellow precipitate which is insoluble in
ammonia.
Concentrated sulphuric acid and glass rod with ammonia: Chlorine=white
fumes, white smoke. Bromine=white and orange fumes, white smoke. Iodine=White
and purple fumes, white smoke.
2.6-Kinetics
Rate of reaction: Speed with which reactants disappear and products are formed
for a particular reaction.
Decreased rate=Decreased yield
Factors in rate of reaction
Concentration: Affects number of collisions due to change in number of particles in
a given volume.
Temperature: Affects activation energy due to faster moving particles with more
successful collisions.
Pressure: Affects number of collisions due to change in number of particles in a
given volume.
Surface area: Affects the number of particles open to contact.
Catalysts: Changes the rate of reaction without being used up or undergoing any
permanent changes by lowering the activation energy through forming an activated
complex. Industrial processes rely on catalysts to save money, energy and
resources.
Collision theory: In order for a reaction to happen, colliding particles need to be in
the right orientation and have enough energy. Rate of reaction depends on this.
Maxwell-Boltzmann model- models the distribution of molecular energies so
changes in concentration, temperature or pressure can be calculated to predict the
rate of reaction. E.g. As the temperature rises, the graph flattens so there are a
greater proportion of particles moving fast enough to overcome activation energy.
Activation energy: Minimum energy required for a reaction to take place.
2.7-Chemical Equilibria
Dynamic Equilibria: Two opposing processes that occur at the same rate so have
constant macroscopic properties.
Le Chateliers principle: Whenever a system in dynamic equilibrium is disturbed, it
tends to respond in opposition to the disturbance in order to restore equilibrium.
Increase in Temperature: Moves in the endothermic direction.
Increase in Pressure: Moves to the side with the fewest number of moles.
Increase in Reactants: Moves to the other side as more products are formed.
Increase rate.
Equilibria Reactions: N2O4
2NO2, ICl+ICl2
ICl3
2.8-Organic Chemistry
Alcohols
Functional group: -OH (Methanol, Ethanol, Propan-1-ol)
Primary Alcohol: 1 carbon attached to the carbon with the functional group on it.
Secondary Alcohol: 2 carbons attached.
Tertiary alcohol: 3 carbons attached.
Combustion: Produces carbon dioxide and water
Reaction with sodium: 2Na+2C2H5OH 2C2H5O-Na++H2, effervescence, forms a
white precipitate.
Reaction with PCl5: Reaction produces a chlorine haloalkane, POCl 3 and HCl gas
(misty white fumes that turn damp blue litmus paper red).
Reflux Apparatus:
Halogenoalkanes
Functional group: R-Cl, R-Br, R-I
Primary Haloalkanes: 1 carbon attached to the carbon with the functional group.
Most reactive as nucleophiles are more attracted.
Secondary Haloalkanes: 2 Carbons attached.
Tertiary Haloalkanes: 3 Carbons attached.
Structural isomers are very common in haloalkanes. A change in halogen atom
position makes a huge difference to the properties of the molecule.
Halogens react faster in substitution reactions if the halogen is attached to a
branched chain.
Metal halides and concentrated sulphuric acid should not be used in the
creation of a haloalkane as they are very reactive.
Reaction with aqueous KOH: Substitution reaction which creates an alcohol as
:OH- is attracted to the carbocation after breaking H-Cl.
Reaction with alcoholic KOH: Elimination reaction which produces an alkene. KOH
attracts H+ by acting as a base.
Reaction with silver nitrate dissolved in water: Ag+ ion reacts with the halogens
to create insoluble products. (See page 6-Silver halides)
Reaction with alcoholic ammonia: ammonia acts as a nucleophile which replaces
the halogen atom in a halogenoalkane.
Uses of halogenoalkanes
Anaesthetic: To put patient in a deep sleep. Chlorine= deep sleep, Fluorine-Carbon
bonds= stable molecule so less toxic.
Fire retardants: Used to be in fire extinguishers but is now in circuit boards, fabrics
and clothing.
Refrigerants: Liquid that changes phase to keep things cool.
Also used in: Aerosol containers and Insecticides
2.9-Mechanisms
Addition: Two or more substances react to form a single product.
Elimination: Small molecule removed from a larger molecule leaving a double bond.
Condensation: Addition followed by elimination of H2O or HCl.
Substitution: One atom or group of atoms replaced by another atom or group of
atoms.
Oxidation: Process where electrons are lost.
Reduction: Process where electrons are gained.
Hydrolysis: Splitting of a molecule by reaction with H2O.
Polymersiation: Joining of small molecules together in a long chain.
Homolytic fission: When a bond is broken and both atoms take a single electron
each and form two free radicals.
Heterolytic fission: When a bond is broken and both electrons only go to one atom
creating a negative ion and a positive ion. (Carbanion and carbocation.)
Free radicals: Has an unpaired electron so is extremely reactive and short lived.
E.g. Cl, CH3
Electrophile: Atom attracted to an electron-rich centre. Has a positive charge. E.g.
H+, Br+
Nucleophile: atom attracted to an electron-deficient centre. Has a negative charge.
E.g. :NH3-, :OHClassifying reagents gives clues to how a mechanism will take place.
Bond polarity determines whether the centre will be electron-rich or electrondeficient.
Nucleophillic substitution reaction: Halogenoalkanes
Free-radical substitution reaction: Alkanes with a halogen.
Electrophilic addition reaction: Alkenes with hydrogen or a halogen.
Ozone layer: Formed by O+O2 O3. This layer absorbs UV light from the sun but
when cloud cover and chemicals build up, the spring UV light hitting the clouds
causes any CFCs in them to break up and create free radicals which break down the
ozone layer into O2 molecules.
2.11-Green Chemistry
Bio-oil is made for fuel from pyrolysis (heating wheat without burning). Ethanol is
produced from organic waste by converting sugars using bacteria or yeast. Starch
has lots of uses including adhesives, paper bonding, textile fibres, shopping bags,
absorption paper, drug and pesticide encapsulation and corrugated card.
Catalysts enable a reaction to go under lower temperatures and pressures to save
energy. Catalysts need to be cheap, very active and produce no by-products.
Microwave ovens can heat reactants more economically. Continuous pulses of
radiation heats up reactants. Electric field occurs which rotates polar molecules and
lines them up.
Recycling glass and aluminium saves energy from having to make more. Water as
a waste product from a reaction in a factory must be treated before being disposed
to avoid contaminating the environment. Waste acidic gases are removed from the
rest of the air before it goes into atmosphere.
CO2 is the most worrying greenhouse gas as it absorbs lots of IR and is abundant in
the atmosphere. The other greenhouse gases arent as abundant.
Athropogenic factors: due to activities of human beings.
Natural factors: due to natural processes on earth.
Carbon neutral: a process that gives out as much CO2 as it takes in.
Titration calculations
To find percentage of a metal in an impure substance
1. Find the no. of moles using the known concentration and volume of a
substance.
2. Use the molar ratio to find the no. of moles in the other reacting
substance with the metal.
3. If divided by 10 fold in question, x no. of moles by 10 to get original no.
of moles.
4. Original no. of moles x Mr of metal= Mass of metal in grams
5. Mass of metal/Total mass x100= Percentage of metal