STRESS IS A PERSONS

PHYSICAL AND EMOTIONAL

RESPONSE TO CHANGE.

CLASSIFICATION OF
STRESS
POSITIVE STRESS
NEGATIVE STRESS
ACUTE STRESS
CHRONIC STRESS

WHAT CAUSES STRESS ?

LIFE EVENTS SUCH AS DIVORCE OR SEPARATION, DEATH OF A LOVED
ONE, THE BIRTH OF A CHILD, MOVING, A MAJOR FINANCIAL SETBACK,
EMPLOYMENT CHANGES OR BECOMING THE VICTIM OF A CRIME OR
NATURAL DISASTER
DAILY EVENTS SUCH AS TRAFFIC CONGESTION, LONG COMMUTES,
WORKING OVERTIME, DEADLINES, PERSONAL CONFLICTS, CAR TROUBLE,
JOB STRESS, AND JUGGLING HOUSEHOLD CHORES AND CHILDCARE
ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSORS SUCH AS POLLUTION, WEATHER
EXTREMES OR EXCESSIVE NOISE
PHYSICAL STRESSORS SUCH AS PHYSICAL INJURY, CHRONIC PAIN, TIRING
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY (SUCH AS TRAVELING), AND UNSATISFIED PHYSICAL
NEEDS SUCH AS HUNGER, THIRST OR LACK OF SLEEP
Continued.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

DEATH OF A SPOUSE
DIVORCE
MARITAL SEPARATION
IMPRISONMENT
DEATH OF A CLOSE RELATIVE
PERSONAL INJURY OR ILLNESS
MARRIAGE
FIRED FROM A JOB
MARITAL RECONCILIATION
RETIREMENT
ILLNESS OF A RELATIVE
PREGNANCY
SEXUAL PROBLEMS
BIRTH OR ADOPTION
BUSINESS READJUSTMENT

Continued

16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.

Change in financial status

Death of a close friend
Change to different work
Increased arguments with spouse
Mortgage or loan for major purchase
Foreclosure on mortgage or loan
Change in job responsibilities
Child leaving home
Problems with in-laws
Outstanding personal achievement
Spouse begins or stops work
Begin or end school
Change in living conditions
Changing personal habits
Problems with your boss

Continued

31. CHANGE IN WORK

32. HOURS/CONDITIONS
33. CHANGE IN RESIDENCE OR SCHOOL
RECREATION
34. CHURCH OR SOCIAL ACTIVITIES
35. MORTGAGE OR LOAN
36. CHANGE IN SLEEPING HABITS
37. CHANGE IN FAMILY GATHERINGS
38. CHANGE IN EATING HABITS
39. VACATION
40. ANY FESTIVALS
41. MINOR LAW VIOLATION

PREDISPOSING FACTORS
FOR STRESS

GENETIC FACTORS
INABILITY TO ADAPT
INADEQUATE RELAXATION RESPONSE
RESPONSE ACTIVITY VARIATIONS
AGE
PERSONALITY
ISOLATION
Environment

SYMPTOMS OF STRESS
Behavioral symptoms
Physical symptoms

BEHAVIORAL SYMPTOMS
TOO MUCH SLEEP (HYPERSOMNIA) OR
TOO LITTLE SLEEP (INSOMNIA)
NIGHTMARES
NERVOUS HABITS LIKE NAIL-BITING OR
FOOT-TAPPING
DECREASED SEX DRIVE
TEETH GRINDING
IRRITABILITY OR IMPATIENCE
CRYING OVER MINOR INCIDENTS
DREADING GOING TO WORK OR OTHER
ACTIVITIES

PHYSICAL SYMPTOMS
MIGRAINE OR TENSION HEADACHES
DIGESTIVE PROBLEMS LIKE
HEARTBURN OR DIARRHEA
SHALLOW BREATHING OR SIGHING
COLD OR SWEATY PALMS
JAW PAIN, NECK PAIN,SHOULDER
PAIN

EARLY WARNING SIGNS OF STRESS

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.

Excessive fatigue
Gastric disturbance
Withdraw from social life
Menstrual problems
Speech difficulties
More impatient
Headaches
Infertility
Ulcers
Nail biting
Grinding teeth
Low blood sugar
High blood sugar

EARLY WARNING SIGNS OF STRESS-2

14. Need more sleep
15. Tired but can't sleep
16. Sudden weight loss
17. Sudden weight gain
18. Low blood pressure
19. High blood pressure
20 .Lack of coordination
21. Repeated influenza
22. Repeated colds
23. Muscle aches
24. Hair loss
25. Chest pain

EARLY WARNING SIGNS OF STRESS-3

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Forgetfulness
Nervous talking
Lower back pain
Loss of appetite
Increased appetite
High cholesterol
High triglycerides

Physical signs and symptoms of stress

Increased heart rate

Pounding heart
Elevated blood pressure
Sweaty palms
Tightness of the chest, neck,
jaw, and back muscles
Headache
Diarrhea
Constipation
Urinary hesitancy
Trembling
Being easily startled
Chronic pain and
Dysponea

Twitching
Stuttering and other speech
difficulties
Nausea
Vomiting
Sleep disturbances
Fatigue
Shallow breathing
Dryness of the mouth or
throat
Susceptibility to minor
illness
Cold hands
Itching

Emotional signs and symptoms of stress

Irritability

Angry outbursts

Hostility

Depression
Jealously

Restlessness
Withdrawal

Decreased perception of positive

Experience opportunities

Narrowed focus

Obsessive rumination

Reduced self-esteem

emotional response reflexes

Weakened positive emotional response

reflexes

Anxiousness
Diminished initiative
Feelings of unreality or overalertness
Reduction of personal involvemen
with others
Lack of interest
Tendency to cry
Being critical of others
Self-deprecation
Nightmares
Impatience
Reduced self-esteem
Insomnia
Changes in eating habits

Cognitive/Perceptual Signs and Symptoms of Stress

Forgetfulness
Preoccupation
Blocking
Blurred vision
Errors in judging distance
Diminished or exaggerated
fantasy life
Reduced creativity
Lack of concentration
Diminished productivity
Lack of attention to detail
Orientation to the past

Decreased psychomotor
reactivity and coordination
Attention deficit
Disorganization of thought
Negative self-esteem
Diminished sense of
meaning in life
Lack of control/need for
too much control
Negative self-statements
and negative evaluation of
experience

Behavioral Signs and Symptoms of Stress

Increased smoking
Aggressive behaviors
(such as driving - road
rage, etc.)
Increased alcohol or
drug use
Carelessness
Under-eating
Over-eating

Nervous laughter
Compulsive
behavior
Impatience
Withdrawal
Listlessness
Hostility
Accident-proneness

Signs of Stress in The Workplace

Stress Arousal
Stage
Persistent
irritability and
anxiety
Bruxism and/or
Insomnia
Occasional
forgetfulness
and/or inability to
concentrate

Stress Resistance Stage

Absenteeism or tardiness for
work
Tired and fatigued for no
reason
Procrastination and indecision
Social withdrawal with
cynicism
Resentful, indifferent, defiant
Increased use of coffee,
alcohol, tobacco, etc.

Jobs and stress

The TUC identifies four main causes:
1. Environmental (noise, overcrowding, open plan offices, for
child care facilities, for instance):
2. Contractual (low pay, shift work, excessive overtime, job
insecurity);
3. Job designed (boring work, too much/little work, lack of
job control):
4. Relationships (poor relations with colleagues, lack of
communication, impersonal treatment).
Loss of self-esteem and a lack of control are two very
common themes.

Demands of the task

Excessive workloads are associated with increased
rates of accidents and health problems (Mackay &
Cox, 1978). The workload for mothers is particularly
heavy because not only do they work outside of the
home but also do most of the chores at home
(Frankenhaeuser, 1991). Repetitive jobs that under
utilise the workers abilities can produce stress. The
evaluation of an employee's job or performance is
also particularly stressful for both the supervisor and
the employee (Quick and Quick, 1984).

Responsibility for people's lives

People working in the health professions need
to take many life and death decisions
instantly and experience appalling things,
this leads to feelings of emotional
exhaustion (Maslach & Jackson, 1982). The
same applies to the police and fire fighters.

Stress can result from other

aspects of jobs:
1. The physical environment of the job. Extreme
levels of noise, temperature, humidity, or
illumination cause stress (Mackay & Cox, 1978).
2. Perceived insufficient control. People experience
stress when they have little influence over work
procedures or the pace of the work (Cottington
&House, 1987).

Stress can result from other

aspects of jobs:
3 Poor interpersonal relationships. Stress increases
when an employee's boss or colleague is socially
abrasive, being insensitive to the needs of others
or condescending and overly critical of the work
other individuals do (Quick and Quick, 1984).
4 Perceived inadequate recognition or advancement.
Workers feel stress when they do not get the
recognition or promotions they believe they
deserve (Cottington et al, 1986).

Stress can result from other

aspects of jobs:
5 Job loss. The sense of job insecurity is
stressful, particularly if the employee has
little prospect of finding another job
(Cottington et al, 1986). Unemployment is
associated with stress, such as in people's
loss of self-esteem and heightened blood
pressure (Olafsson & Svensson, 1986).

Retirement
Retirement can be stressful because retired people
have lost opportunities for social interaction and
an important part of their identity. They may miss
the power and influence they once hand, the
structure and routines of a job, and the feeling of
being useful and competent (Bohm & Rodin,
1985). In addition retired people often live on low
incomes, which again produces stress.

Life transitions
Life transitions tend to be stressful (Moos and
Schaefer, 1986). Changing from one phase to another
in life is called a transition; examples include:
Starting school
Moving home
Reaching puberty
Starting college, especially away from home
Starting a career
Getting married

Langer and Rodin (1976)

A study carried out by Langer and Rodin (1976)
attempted to discover the effects of giving people a
greater sense of personal control. They compared
two different wards in a nursing home for elderly
people in Connecticut, USA. The residents in the
two wards were of similar age, health and
socioeconomic status, and they had been resident
in the home for the same period of time on average
(residents who were too uncommunicative or
bedridden to take part were excluded from the
study).

Langer and Rodin (1976)

Both groups of residents were given a talk, but
the issue of personal responsibility was strongly
stressed with one of them and not the other.
Furthermore, residents in this first group were
offered a plant each for their rooms and were
asked where they wanted it placed.
Additionally, they were allowed to choose which
night to go and watch a film. Residents in the
other group were simply given the plant and
told which night to go and see the film.

Langer and Rodin (1976)

Even this fairly minimal manipulation of
personal control seemed to have a dramatic
effect. Residents who were given a greater sense
of personal control were happier, more active,
more alert and, when the researchers returned
after eighteen months, were in better health
and fewer had died. This study implies that
having a greater sense of personal control
actually helps to reduce stress.

Commentary
There are methodological and ethical
criticisms that can be made of Langer and Rodins
study. The sample was very limited (elderly
Americans living in a particular care home). On
the other hand, Langer and Rodin took care to
avoid demand characteristics by not informing the
residents, nurses or research assistants (who
collected the data) of the purpose of the study.
Controlled experiments on the damaging effects of
stress in human beings can be very unethical.

Commentary
In this case, Langer and Rodin would argue
that they did not harm anyones health, but
actually improved it for those residents who
were given a greater sense of control. On the
other hand, when the experiment was over, we
do not know whether the situation reverted to
what it had been before, and it may be that
being given a sense of control for three weeks,
then having it removed again, did more harm
than good in the long term.

Commentary
There are clear implications of this study for
the way people are treated in residential homes.
There is also a lesson to be learnt when
developing therapy to help people suffering
from extreme stress. If it is true that a low sense
of personal control (that is, having a very
external locus of control) can lead to stress, then
in cases where this applies it may be beneficial
for therapy to focus on shifting peoples locus of
control from external to internal.

Sources within the person

Approach/approach conflict
This is the conflict produced when the choice is
between two good strategies. For example needing
to follow a diet and wanting to eat a fattening
cake. These conflicts are easily resolved but the
more important the decision seems to be, the more
difficult it is for the person to solve the conflict.

Sources within the person

Avoidance/Avoidance conflict
This is the conflict produced when the choice is
between two bad strategies. For example, the choice
between two equally harrowing treatments for an
illness. Patients often delay making a choice and
might easily change their minds repeatedly. Patients
might even change their doctor in the hope that they
will be given an easier choice. They might even get
somebody else to make the decision for them. This
conflict is difficult to resolve and very stressful.

Sources within the person

Approach/Avoidance conflict
This is when a single goal has good points
and bad points. For example giving up
smoking might mean a gain in weight.

Sources in the family

Interpersonal conflict can arise from
financial problems, from inconsiderate
behaviour, and from opposing goals.
Overcrowded conditions increases conflict
over privacy and the use of family
resources, such as the Bathroom. Major
sources of stress in the family are the
addition of a new family member, illness,
infirmity, and death in the family.

An addition to the family

Obviously the mother will experience much stress
during pregnancy and after the birth. But the father may
also worry over money, or his wife's and baby's health,
or fear that his relationship with his wife may
deteriorate.
Parents may experience stress from their relationship
with the baby. Each baby comes into the world with
certain personality dispositions, which are called
temperaments (Buss & Plomin, 1975). There are easy
babies and difficult ones. Babies react differently to
feeding, cuddling, bathing, and dressing.

An addition to the family

Difficult babies tend to cry a great deal. They resist
new foods, routines, and people, and their patterns of
Sleep, hunger, and bowel movements are hard to
predict. About 10% of babies are classified as difficult
displaying most of these traits fairly consistently,
many others show some of these traits occasionally.
Longitudinal studies have shown that children's
temperaments are stable across time. Many traits
continue for many years, although many difficult
children show changes toward the development of
easy traits (Carey & McDevitt, 1978).

An addition to the family

The arrival of a new baby can also be stressful to
other children in the family (Honig, 1987). Much
stress can be experienced in children aged two or
three years old who do not want to share their
parents with the new brother or sister. These
children often show increased clinging to the mother
and their sleeping and toileting problems also
increase. Older children experience stress from the
changes in the pattern of family interaction, such as
when the parents introduce new rules.

Family illness, disability, and

death
A working mother with a sick child will
experience much stress. When children have a
serious chronic illness, their families have to cope
with stress over a long period. The amount of time
needed to care for the child conflicts with other
activities. The family also needs to make difficult
decisions. They need to learn about the illness and
how to care for their child. There is much expense
and other children begin to feel left out.

Family illness, disability, and

death
Adult sickness can also produce much stress in the
family. If a principal breadwinner is ill there will
be a strain on the family's financial resources. The
family's time and personal freedom are curtailed
producing changes in interpersonal relationships.
If an elderly person who is ill or disabled must live
with and be careful by relatives, the stress for
those in the household can be severe, especially if
the person requires constant care and shows
mental deterioration (Robinson & Thurner, 1986).

Family illness, disability, and

death
If a parent dies children under about five
years of age seem to grieve for the lost
parent less strongly and for a shorter time
than older children and adolescents do
(Garmezy, 1983). Children's concept of
death changes between four and eight years
of age (Lonetto, 1980). Young children
think death is reversible: the person will
come back eventually.

Family illness, disability, and

death
An adult whose child or spouse dies suffers
a tremendous loss. Bereaved mothers
reported that they had lost important hopes
and expectations for the future (Edelstein,
1984). A mother who loses her only child
loses her identity and role as a mother too.
The loss of a spouse is especially stressful
in early adult (Ball, 1976-77).

Child abuse
The stress caused by long-lasting psychological
effects of sexual abuse in childhood has been found to
increase the likelihood of certain diseases in old age.
Women who were assaulted in their teens appeared to
run greater risk of developing arthritis and breast
cancer in later life, while Male victims are more likely
to develop diseases of the thyroid than men who were
not abused as children. 1,300 elderly middle-class
participants were studied 12% of the women and 5%
of the men reported unwanted sexual contact for
childhood.

Child abuse
Breast cancer and arthritis were relatively
common amongst participants who had suffered
sexual abuse; the more sustained the abuse the
higher the risk of developing the diseases.
However those abused were less likely to suffer
from hypertension, but this was probably due to
survivor bias, in other words, people with
hypertension tend to die younger, so do not feature
in studies of elderly people. Stein and BarrettConnor (2000).

Environmental stress
Crowded conditions can be stressful for three
reasons:
1. Lack of control over interpersonal interaction, as
when other people can overhear your
conversation.
2. The restricted ability to move about freely or
reduced access to resources, such as seats.
3. Intrusion into personal space (Sarafino, 1987).

Environmental stress
People exposed to hazardous substances in their
environment worry for years about what will
happen to them (Baum, 1988).
People who lived near the three mile Island power
plant in Pennsylvania, where a nuclear accident
had happened suffered more stress more than a
year after the accident than other residents near a
similar facility (Fleming et al., 1982).

Stressors and stress response

Stressors - produce stress
Source of stressors can be Family (as when
trying to cope with a newborn baby or when
looking after a sick relative), Work or the
Environment.
Stress response - response to stresssor

Stressors and stress response

Stressors - external - e.g. heat, crowding,
noise, difficulties with a loved one or
contact with a hated one.
internal - e.g. pain, thoughts, feelings.
But not straightforward - heat can be
relaxing and crowds can be exciting.
Individual differences.

Other factors
Other factors
Event
negative - Divorce (-ve), Marriage (+ve)
Controllable or predictable
ambiguous - not sure what is happening. e.g.
stuck on underground train without being
informed.

Lundberg (1976)
Using urine samples
Commuters on crowded trains more stressed than
in empty trains
but those that had been on the train since the start,
showed less stress, even though they had been
exposed to the crowded condition longer.
Being able to choose seat, control the situation,
reduced the stress.

Post - traumatic stress disorder

and 'The Herald of Free
Enterprise'.
1) Re-experiencing phenomena.
Most of the children reported intrusive thoughts and some
experienced full-blown flashbacks.
2) Avoidance or numbing reactions.
Detached from others
Avoided not only ferry travel, but also the sea.
Immediate aftermath - avoided shower or bath.
Cyclical - reappear and disappear.
Onset can be several months later.
Just as severe.

Ambiguity
Ambiguity can cause stress. Two types of
ambiguity are:
1.Role ambiguity
2.Harm ambiguity.

Role ambiguity
Role ambiguity can occur in the
workplace, for instance when there are
no clear guidelines, standards for
performance and no clear consequences.
Role ambiguity is stressful because
people are uncertain about what actions
and decisions to make.

Harm ambiguity
Harm ambiguity occurs when people are not sure
what to do to avoid harm. Stress will depend
upon the person's personality, beliefs and general
experience (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984). A
person who is seriously ill and has no clear
information might draw hope from this
ambiguity, believing that they will get well.
Another person in the same situation may believe
that people are deliberately giving ambiguous
information because the prognosis is poor.

Controllability
Controllability is another factor that will
affect the perception of stress. People tend
to appraise uncontrollable events as being
more stressful than controllable events
(Miller, 1979). There are two types of
control:
1.Behavioural
2.Cognitive.

Controllability
Behavioural control means performing some
action. For example, being unable to take a
tablet for a headache will make experiencing a
headache less stressful.
In the case of cognitive control, we can affect
the impact of the events by using some mental
strategy, such as distraction or by developing a
plan to overcome the problem.

Link between stress and arousal

OUR BODYS REACTION TO STRESS

(GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME (GAS))

ALARM REACTION
RESISTANCE OR ADAPTATION

EXHAUSTION

ALARM REACTION
MUSCLES TENSE
HEART BEATS FASTER
THE BREATHING AND
PERSPIRATION INCREASES
THE EYES DILATE
THE STOMACH MAY CLENCH

RESISTANCE OR ADAPTATION
FATIGUE
CONCENTRATION LAPSES
IRRITABILITY AND LETHARGY

EXHAUSTION
DECREASED STRESS TOLERANCE
PROGRESSIVE MENTAL AND
PHYSICAL EXHAUSTION
ILLNESS AND COLLAPSE

Severe Exhaustion Stage

Chronic sadness or depression
Chronic mental and physical fatigue
Chronic stress related illnesses
(headache, stomach ache, bowel
problems, etc.)
Isolation, withdrawal, self-destructive
thoughts

Figure 9.1 The General Adaptation System

Evaluation of GAS
A problem for GAS is that some stressors
elicit a stronger emotional response than
others do. The theory does not take account
of psychosocial processes. A sudden
increase in temperature, for example, would
produce more emotion than a gradual
increase.

Evaluation of GAS
Another problem for GAS is that cognitive appraisal
is not taken account of. A study by Katherine Tennes
and Maria Kreye (1985) found that intelligent
schoolchildren experienced more stress on the day of
an exam than unintelligent schoolchildren. Cortisol
levels were measured in urine samples taken on
regular school days and on days when tests were
given. Intelligence test scores were obtained from
school records. The results suggest that brighter
children are more concerned about academic
achievement.

Evaluation of GAS
To summarise, the GAS incorrectly assumes
that all stressors produce the same
physiological reactions and fails to take
account of psychosocial factors in stress.
Even so the GAS is basically a valid model
of stress.

Lazaruss Cognitive Theory

Selye assumed
that stress
depended only
on the intensity
of the stressor.

Stressor

Appraisal

Lazarus proposed
that a mental
process determines
whether stress
occurs.

G. A. S.

Healthy Adaptation or Illness

Lazarus and Folkmans Theory

Stressor

Primary Appraisal: Is Stressor Negative?

Can be negative if it involves harm or loss, No
threat, or challenge (chance to grow).
Stress
Yes

No

Secondary Appraisal: Can I Control the

Situation?
If coping resources are adequate, then
consider options: problem-focused or
emotion-focused coping strategies.

Lazarus and Folkmans Theory

The Stress Response
Physiological component: Arousal, hormone
secretion.
Emotional Component: Anxiety, fear, grief,
resentment, excitement (if stress is from
challenge).
Behavioral Component: Coping strategies
(both behavioral and mental)problem
focused and/or emotion-focused.
The level of stress we experience depends
mainly on the adequacy of our resources for
coping and how much they will be drained by
the stressful situation.

Cognitive appraisal
Lazarus and Folkman (1984) propose a model that
emphases the transactional nature of stress. Stress is
a two way process; the environment produces
stressors and the individual finds ways to deal with
these.
Cognitive appraisal is a mental process by which
people assessed two factors:
1. Whether a demand threatens their well being
2. Whether a person considers that they have the
resources to meet the demand of the stressor

Cognitive appraisal
There are two types of appraisal:
1.Primary
2.Secondary.

Primary appraisal
During the primary appraisal stage a person
will be seeking answers as to the meaning
of the situation with regard to their well
being. One of three types of appraisals
could be made:
1.It is irrelevant
2.It is good (benign-positive)
3.It is stressful.

Primary appraisal
Imagine there was a snow blizzard. You might
consider that the blizzard would not affect you, as
you do not have to go to work the following day.
You might consider the blizzard a blessing
because this means that your college exam would
be postponed or you can go skiing! The situation
could be stressful because you have few supplies
and you need to get to the shops and driving
would be hazardous.

Primary appraisal
Further appraisal is made with regard to 3
implications:
1.Harm-loss
2.Threat
3.Challenge.

Harm-loss
Harm-loss refers to the amount of
damage that has already occurred. There
may have been an injury. The seriousness
of this injury could be exaggerated
producing a lot of stress.

Threat
Threat is the expectation of future harm,
for example the fear of losing one's job
and income. Much stress depends on
appraisals that involve harm-loss and
threat.

Challenge
Challenge is a way of viewing the stress
in a positive way. The stress of a higherlevel job could be seen as an opportunity
to expand skills, demonstrate ability, and
make more money.

Primary appraisal
The stress transaction can be vicarious.
Empathising with others who are in stress. An
example of vicarious stress is a study, which
involved showing college-student subjects a film,
called "Sub-incision" (Speisman et al, 1964). The
film showed a right of passage for young
adolescent boys in a primitive society in which the
underside of the penis is cut deeply from the tip to
the scrotum using a sharp stone.

Primary appraisal
The subjects were divided into four groups. One
group saw the film with no sound. Another group
heard a soundtrack with a "trauma" narrative
emphasising the pain, danger, and primitiveness of
the operation. A third group heard a "denial"
narration that denied the pain and potential harm
to the boys, describing them as willing participants
in a joyful occasion who "look forward to the
happy conclusion of the ceremony."

Primary appraisal
The fourth group heard a " scientific" narration that
encouraged viewers to watch in a detached mannerfor example, the narrator commented, "as you can
see, the operation is formal and the surgical
technique, while crude, is very carefully followed."
Physiological and self-report measures of stress were
taken. The physiological measure was of the heart
rate during the viewing of the film. The self-report
measures were questionnaires that evaluated feelings
of stress immediately after the film was shown.

Primary appraisal
Those who heard the trauma narration
reacted with more stress than the control
group (no sound); those who heard the
denial and scientific narrations reacted with
less stress than the control group.
Male Circumcision (Africa)

Secondary appraisal
Secondary appraisals occur at the same time as primary
appraisals. A secondary appraisal can actually cause a
primary appraisal. Secondary appraisals include feelings
of not being able to deal with the problem such as:
I can't do it-I know I'll fail
I will try, but my chances are slim
I can do it if I get help
If this method fails, I can try a few others.
I can do it if I work hard.
No problem-I can do it.

Secondary appraisal
Stress can occur without appraisal such as
when your car is involved in an accident
and you haven't had time to think about
what has happened. Accidents can often
cause a person to be in shock. It is difficult
for people to make appraisals whilst in
shock as their cognitive functioning is
impaired.

Eustress and Distress

Eustress
The pleasurable stress that accompanies
positive events. For example, a person may
receive a $10,000 bonus and experience stress
in deciding how to spend the money.

Distress
The unpleasant stress that accompanies
negative events.

Individual Differences and Stress

Hardiness
Is a persons ability to cope with stress.
People with hardy personalities have an internal locus of
control, are strongly committed to the activities in their lives,
and view change as an opportunity for advancement and
growth.

Optimism
Is the extent to which a person sees life in relatively positive
terms.
Is the glass half empty or half full?
In general, optimistic people tend to handle stress better than
pessimistic people.

Type a/type b (Friedman and

Rosenman, 1974)
Type a
1.Competitive, achievements orientation.
Self-critical. No joy in accomplishments.
2.Time urgency. Impatient. Always on the
go. Do several things at once.
3.Anger/hostility easily aroused to anger,
which may be overt or covert.

Type a/type b (Friedman and

Rosenman, 1974)
Type b
Low levels of competitiveness, time
urgency and hostility. Easy going
-philosophical.

Type a/type b (Friedman and

Rosenman, 1974)
An experiment by Glass et al (1980) had
participants playing a computer game
against a confederate. The game was
rigged so that it could not be won. A
prize was offered. A structured
interview determined whether
participants were type a or type b.

Type a/type b (Friedman and

Rosenman, 1974)
Half of each type were harassed by the
confederate the other half played with
that the confederate in silence. Several
physiological measures were taken.
Both type a and type b participants
showed increases in stress. In the
harassment condition type a showed
more stress than type b.

Type a/type b (Friedman and

Rosenman, 1974)
Factors that play a part in producing type
a behaviour are:
Intrapersonal. Behaviour is produced
as a result of controlling personal stress.
Interpersonal. They are more
competitive and when insulted are more
likely to be aggressive.

Type a/type b (Friedman and

Rosenman, 1974)
3

Institutional. The is limited opportunity

for promotion and therefore more
competition. A demanding boss or
teacher.
Cultural. The work ethic. The
importance of having expensive status
symbols.

Suzanne Kobasa (1979)

I.
II.
III.

People who can handle stress possess

'hardiness'.
There are three components
Control - can you control events? (See Locus
of control)
Commitment - Sense of purpose, involvement.
Challenge - problems seen as an opportunity
for personal growth.

Suzanne Kobasa (1979)

Kobasa (1979) - High stress executives

2 groups - high illness Vs low illness.
Using questionnaire, the low illness
group had more hardiness.

Suzanne Kobasa (1979)

I.
II.
III.

Problems
People vary with their personality. Unlikely to
be one type of person all of the time.
Only looked at white professional American
men - may not be true of other groups.
Hardiness and social support correlate so what
is attributed to hardiness could really be the
effect of social support (Blaney & Ganellen,
1990).

Figure 9.2
Causes and
Consequence
s of Stress

Common Causes of Stress:

Organizational Stressors
Task Demands
Stressors associated with the specific job a person
performs. Some occupations are by nature more
stressful than others.

Physical Demands
Stressors associated with the jobs physical setting,
such as the adequacy of temperature and lighting.

Figure 9.3 Workload, Stress, and Performance

Common Causes of Stress:

Organizational Stressors
Role Demands
Stressors associated with the role a person is expected to
play.
Role ambiguity arises when a role is unclear.
Role conflict occurs when the messages and cues constituting a role
are clear but contradictory or mutually exclusive.
Role overload occurs when expectations for the role exceed the
individuals capacity.

Interpersonal Demands
Stressors associated with group pressures, leadership, and
personality conflicts.

Consequences of Stress: Individual

Consequences
Behavioral Consequences
The behavioral consequences of stress, such as alcohol
abuse, may harm the person under stress or others.

Psychological Consequences
Psychological consequences relate to a persons mental
health and well-being.

Medical Consequences
Medical consequences affect a persons physical wellbeing.
Heart disease and stroke, among other illnesses, have been
linked to stress.

Consequences of Stress:
Organizational Consequences
Performance
One clear organizational consequence of too much
stress is a decline in performance.

Withdrawal
The most significant forms of withdrawal behavior
are absenteeism and quitting.

Attitudes
Stress can have a negative effect on job
satisfaction, morale, organizational commitment,
and motivation to perform at high levels.

Consequences of Stress: Burnout

Burnout
Is the general feeling of exhaustion that
develops when an individual
simultaneously experiences too much
pressure and has too few sources of
satisfaction.

The end