APPENDIX C

PERMUTATIONS

A permutation of a finite set S is a function : S -> S that is both injective (one-toone) and surjective (onto). The cyclic form of the permutation dislays it in terms
of its iterations. Thus, is written as a collection of cycles each of which has the
form
(ai a2 ... ak)
where
,+ =/(fl/)

f o r / = 1,2,...,*-1

and
1 = /(<**)

Example C.l.l The permutation = (1 6)(5 3 7 2 )(4) is the function that maps 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 onto 6, 5, 7, 4, 3, 1, 2, respectively.
It is clear that the order of the cycles within a permutation is immaterial, as is the
starting point of each cycle. Thus,
(1 6)(5 3 7 2 )(4) = ( 5 3 7 2 )(4)(1 6) = (7 2 5 3 )(6 1)(4).
Introduction to Topology and Geometry, Second Edition.
By Saul Stahl and Catherine Stenson Copyright 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

457

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APPENDIX C

If and p are permutations of the set S, so is their composition p, where

( ) ( ) = (())

for all x e S.

Example C.1.2
(1 6)(5 3 7 2)(4) o (1 2 3 4 5 6 7) = (1 5)(2 7 6)(3 4),
(1 2 3 4 5 6 7) o (1 6)(5 3 7 2)(4) = (17 3)(2 6)(4 5).
A set P of permutations of S is said to act transitively on 5 provided that for any
two elements s,t e S, there is a sequence , 2,..., * of (not necessarily distinct)
permutations in P such that
( 2 .*)() = .
Example C.1.3 The permutations {(1 3 5 7 9)(2 4 6 8), (3 9)(7 1 5)(2 6)(4 8)} do
not act transitively, because no sequence of permutations will transform an odd number to an even number. On the other hand, {( 1 3 5 7 8) (2 4 6 9), (3 9) (7 1 5) (2 6) (4 8)}
do act transitively.
It is clear that a single permutation acts transitively if and only if it has a single
cycle.
If is any permutation, then \\\\ denotes the number of cycles in its cyclic form.
Thus, ||(1)(2)(3)|| = 3 and ||(1 2 3)(4 5 6 7)|| = 2.
Proposition C.1.4 Suppose a,b G S, and ,,,

are permutations of S such that

a,b belong to the same cycle ofn\

a,b belong to different cycles of p.
Then
1. \\(ab)oK\\

= \\no(ab)\\

= \\K\\ + l;

2. ||(*)op|| = ||po( fc)|| = llpll - 1,

3. " 1 !! = ||||;
4. ||(&)|| = | | | | 1 .
PROOF: 1 : Suppose contains the cycle (a A b B) where A and B are character
strings. Then the assertion follows from the observation that (a b)o(a A b B) =
(aA)(bB).
2: Suppose p contains the cycles (a A)(b B) where A and B are character strings.
Then the assertion follows from the observation that {a b) o [a A)(b B) = (a Ab B).
3: The assertion follows from the fact that (abc -x) is a cycle of if and only
if (() p(b) p(c) '"P(x)) is acycleof - 1 .
4: It follows from parts 1, 2, and 3 that
| | ( 6 ) | | = | | ( & ) - 1 | | = ||(&)||
= ||||1 = ||-1||1 = ||||1.
Q.E.D.

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459

Exercises C.1
1. Given p = (1 2 3 4)(5)(6 7 8 9), = (1 2)(3 4)(5 9 8 7 6), = (1 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2),
compute:
(a) ,
(b) ,
(c) ,
(d) ,
(e) ,
(f) ,
2. Decide which of the following sets of permutations act transitively:
(a) {(123)(4 5 6)(7 8)(9),(13 2 87)(4 5 6 9)},
(b) {(1 2 3)(4 5 6)(7 8)(9), (13 2 8 6)(4 5 7 9)},
(c) {(1 2 3)(4 5 6)(7 8)(9), (1 3 2 9)(4 5 6 7 8)},
(d) {(1 2 3)(4 5 6)(7 8)(9), (1 3 2 4)(9 5 6 7 8)},
(e) {(1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9), (9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1)},
(f) { ( 1 2 3 4 5 6 7)(8 9), (9 8)(7 6 5 4 3 2 1)}.