Photosynthesis & Chloroplasts

6CO + 6HO

CHO + 6O

Heterotroph something which gets its food from other organisms

Autotroph creates its own food
Photoautotroph uses light & energy to create its own food
ATP - Adenosine Triphosphate (3 phosphate groups)
- Universal energy source.
- Powers cellular processes by building and breaking bonds
When we need energy, the third bond is broken by a hydrolysis reaction using
ATPase enzyme.
ATP

ADP + Pi + energy

The Electron Transport Chain

ATP is made as a result of what is used in the electron transport chain. As
electrons move along the chain, they lose energy which can be used to drive
the synthesis of ATP to ADP & inorganic phosphate.
Hydrogen molecules removed from compounds are picked up by other
compounds and become reduced. OILRIG (oxidation is loss, reduction is gain)

Chloroplasts: Structures & Functions

Starch Grain

Organelle which contains starch

Lamellae

Extension of the Thylakoids (contain

PSI)

Thylakoids

Organelle which contains chlorophyll

(and PSI & PSII) found in the Stroma in
stacks called Grana. Increase surface
area for light capture and allows
capture of photons with a wider range
of wavelengths. Light Dependant
Reactions occur in the Thylakoid
Membrane.

Grana (granum)

Stack of Thylakoid discs

Stroma

The space in a chloroplast surrounding

the Thylakoids. Contains ribosomes
and genetic materials so proteins
required for photosynthesis can be
synthesised. Also contains starch
grains and lipid droplets.

Ribosomes

Organelle for synthesis of

Polypeptides

Outer Membrane
(double membrane)

Permeable to most ions and

metabolites.

Inner Membrane
(double membrane)

Highly specialised with transport

proteins

Chlorophyll Pigments
There are 5 pigments:
- Chlorophyll a
- Chlorophyll b
- Carotene
- Xanthophyll
- Phaeophytin

Carotenoids

All parts of the plant do not need to carry out photosynthesis and therefore do not have
chloroplasts. The most abundant type of chlorophyll is chlorophyll a which is found in
most places. The benefit of having different types is that it is most efficient as each of
the pigments absorbs and captures light from particular areas, more energy from the
light can be used and photosynthesis is maximised. Plant leaves appear green as all
colours apart from green are absorbed so green is reflected back as chlorophyll a is most
abundant.

Photosystem I Lamellae
Photosystem II Granum
Light dependent reactions Thylakoid Membrane
Light independent reactions Stroma

LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTIONS

Products of Light Dependent Reactions ATP (energy), Oxygen & Reduced NADP

Takes place on the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts. It has 2 main

functions:
1. To produce ATP, supplying energy for the synthesis of carbohydrates
2. Split water molecules in a photochemical reaction providing hydrogen
ions to reduce CO2 & produce carbohydrates
The smallest unit of light energy is a photon. When a photon of light hits a
chlorophyll molecule, the energy is transferred to the electrons of that
molecule. Photoexcitation occurs & if an electron is raised to a sufficiently
high energy level it will leave the chlorophyll molecule completely. The excited
electron can be picked up by an electron acceptor (carrier molecule). This in
turn results in the synthesis of ATP by one of two processes Cyclic & NonCyclic photophosphorylation.

CYCLIC PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION
Cyclic photophosphorylation involves only photosystem I & drives the
production of ATP. When light hits a chlorophyll molecule, a light excited
electron leaves the molecule. It is taken up by an electron acceptor and passed
directly along the electron transport chain to produce ATP. When an electron
returns to the chlorophyll molecule in PSI, it can then be excited in the same
Way.

NON - CYCLIC PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION

Non cyclic photophosphorylation involves both photosystem I & photosystem
II. It splits water molecules to provide reducing power to make carbohydrates.
It also produces more ATP.
Water dissociates into Hydrogen (H+) ions and hydroxide (OH-) ions, so there
are always plenty of these ions present in the cell. A series of Redox Reactions
take place.
An excited electron from PSI is picked up by an electron acceptor (NADP). The
NADP takes up a hydrogen ion from the dissociated water at the same time to
form reduced NADP. This reduced NADP is used as a source of reducing power
in the light independent reactions of photosynthesis to make glucose.
At the same time, an excited electron from PSII is picked up by another
electron acceptor and passes along an electron transport chain until it reaches
PSI. PSI then receives an electron to replace the one that was lost to the light
independent reactions.
As the chlorophyll molecule in PSII is short of an electron and unstable, an
electron has to be found from somewhere to restore the chlorophyll to its
original state. The electron comes from the splitting of water PHOTOLYSIS.

LIGHT INDEPENDENT REACTIONS

Carbon dioxide is converted to carbohydrates. These reactions
occur in the Stroma of the chloroplasts, surrounding the grana.
Carbon dioxide readily diffuses into the chloroplast where it is built
up into sugars in a cyclic process called the Calvin cycle.

The Calvin Cycle

Intermediates of the Calvin Cycle:
- RuBP (Ribulose Biphosphate)
- Rubisco (Ribulose Biphophate Carboxylase/Oxygenase enzyme)
- GP (Glycerate 3 phosphate)
- TP (Triose phosphate) = GALP (Glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate)

The enzyme Ribisco combines RuBP with CO to form a 6 carbon molecule

(unstable) which then splits into 2 GP molecules which are 3 carbons each.
These molecules are reduced using ATP energy & H+ from NADPH (from
the light dependent reactions) to form 2 GALP molecules (3 carbons each).
1 carbon goes off to make complex molecules; glucose, lipids and amino
acids & the other 5 start the process again converting back into RuBP.
Products of the Calvin Cycle which pass from independent reaction to
dependent reactions are: NADP, ADP & Inorganic Phosphate

ECOSYSTEM
- An ecosystem is a life supporting environment which includes all living
organisms which interact together, the nutrients that cycle through the
system, and the physical & chemical environment in which the
organisms are living.
Habitat place where an organism lives
Population group of organisms of the same species
Community all the populations of different species living in a habitat at any
one time.
Niche role of an organism, its way of life
Abiotic factors non-living elements of the habitat of an organism e.g.
sunlight, temperature, soil, ph.
Biotic factors living elements of a habitat which affect the ability of a group
of organisms to survive there e.g. the presence of suitable prey will affect the
number of predators in the habitat

BIOMES
- Major ecosystems devised from the biosphere, distinguished by their
similar climates and plant communities.
Tropical Rainforest high humidity, warm and plenty of sunlight, rain all year.
Savannah dry tropical grassland
Tropical Woodland wetter than savannah, grassland with thornwoods,
bushes and trees
Desert very little rainfall, often extreme of temp. between day and night
Taiga evergreen forests in cold subarctic & subalpine regions
Tundra very cold, artic & high mountain regions
The major biomes have developed over millions of years due to:

SUCCESSION Communities of animals and plants colonise an area, and over time are
replaced by other, usually more varied communities

Primary Succession
- Rock is uninhabited, due to poor conditions for growth such as no soil or
moisture
- Pioneer species such as algae or lichens penetrate the bare rock
- The pioneer species break the bare rock, this is mixed with the remains
of dead pioneer species organisms HUMUS, which creates the
foundations of soil
- Once soil is established, plants which require soil such as grasses and
ferns colonise the area
- Upon the death of primary colonisers, more humus is added to the soil,
so the nutrient content develops. Roots hold the soil together and retain
more water
- Secondary colonisers more adapted to the new environment will then
colonise the land
- Larger trees block the growth of smaller plants, due to competition for
sunlight & species diversity drops.
- Climax community is self-sustaining & reached where the biodiversity
is constant. Not many further changes occur.
Secondary Succession

Occurs as rivers shift their courses after fires & floods and disturbances
cause by humans. Due to primary succession, the soil is already formed
and contains the seeds, tools and soil organisms, which means the
number of plants and animals present right from the beginning of the
succession, are much higher.

EFFECTS OF ABIOTIC FACTORS

ABIOTIC FACTOR

Light

Temperature

Wind

Water

Oxygen Conc.

Edaphic
Factors (soil
structure &
mineral
content)

EFFECT ON ECOSYSTEM IF IN
MODERATION
Plants depend on light for
photosynthesis and must be
able to cope in areas with
low levels of light.

There is a range of
temperatures which allow
growth and reproduction for
particular organisms. The
temperature in an area also
affects the rate of enzyme
controlled reactions in plants
Wind increases water and
heat loss from the body ad
adds to the environmental
stress an organism has to
cope with.
Water is vital for living
organisms

Oxygen can be in short

supply in both water and
soil. When water is cold
sufficient oxygen dissolves in
it to support life and vice
versa. Soil is usually well
aerated.
Plant populations that are
linked by massive root and
rhizome networks, such as
marram grass can survive in
loose, shifting structures
such as sand. They bind the
sand together which makes it
more suited for colonisation
by other species.

EFFECT ON ECOSYSTEM IF TOO

MUCH/LITTLE
Some plants are able to reproduce
and thrive in low light levels, having
extra chlorophyll or other
chlorophyll pigments which are
sensitive to lower light levels.
Animals behaviour may be affected
by seasonal light changes, as well as
reproductive patterns.
Above or below that range,
reproduction does not occur, even if
the organism survives. It is the
extreme of temperature which
determines where an organism can
live, not the average.
Few species can survive in areas
with strong prevailing winds while
occasional gales and hurricanes can
devastate populations.
So where the supply is limited it will
cause severe problems. Organisms
may die if the stress becomes too
severe if like camels and cacti, the
have adaptations to enable them to
survive.
The spaces between soil particles
contain air so there is plenty of
oxygen for the respiration of plant
roots. In waterlogged soil, the air
spaces are filled with water so plant
roots may be deprived of oxygen
and may die.
Soil that contains high proportion of
sand are light, easily worked and
warmed. However, also easily
drained so water passes through
them rapidly, carry with it minerals
needed for plants. The opposite
occurs for soils made of
predominantly tiny clay particles.

EFFECT OF BIOTIC FACTORS

TERM & MEANING

HOW IT AFFECTS
AN ECOSYSTEM
Finding a mate
Affects the
finding a member of biodiversity
the opposite sex to allows niches to
reproduce with
carry on. Larger
allele/genetic
diversity
Territory an area Resources are
occupied & defended defended making
by an/a group of
sure others can get
organism (s) from them and continue
the same or different reproducing
species
Parasitism & Disease Diseases can wipe
biotic factors which out whole
cause weakened
populations within
animal relationships. a biome
Where 1 organism
benefits at the
others expense

EXAMPLE
A equine species
becoming extinct
due to
reproduction
isolation
Lions dens

Mixing
populations &
bringing diseases
Wild pigs

Competition
- Intraspecific Competition
competition for a limited
resource between
members of the same
population or species.
As a result of intraspecific
competition, some
individuals may not
survive, or may not
reproduce and so
population growth slows.
- Interspecific Competition occurs when different species
within a community compete for the same resources.
Competition will reduce the abundance of the competing
species.

Energy Transfer In Ecosystem

Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) the rate at which energy is incorporated
into plants. Plants use up to 25% of this accumulated energy for metabolic
processes. Most importantly, in respiration breaking down glucose to release
energy in the form of ATP.
Net Primary Productivity (NPP) The rest of energy which is stored in body
tissues
NPP = GPP Plant Respiration
The energy in plant material is available to herbivores, but relatively little of it
ends up as new animal material. Much of the energy is used to drive
respiration then is lost to the atmosphere as heat energy. Some is lost as
chemical energy in metabolic waste products and heat energy in urine.
The energy used to make new animal biomass is known as SECONDARY
PRODUCTION.

Speciation & Evolution

Mechanisms of Speciation Populations that have been isolated for
millions of years can remain effectively the same species. However,
populations living next door to each other can begin to form new species.
Reproductive isolation is crucial to speciation and this occurs when fertilisation
is prevented (prezygotic) or when the zygote fails or is unable to breed
(postzygotic)
Sympatric Speciation Occurs when populations are
Allopatric Speciation
geographically near but other barriers prevent
reproduction such as:
Occurs when populations
are geographically far

Prezygotic
Reproductive Barriers

Postzygotic
Reproductive Barriers

- Habitat Isolation
Populations occupy
different habitats in
the same area, and
therefore do not
breed

Gametic Isolation Sex

cells of opposite sexes are
incompatible

- Mechanical Isolation
Reproductive
organs do not fit
together with all
potential members
of the same species

- Temporal Isolation

- Low Hybrid Adult

Viability Offspring
of two different
species are not
healthy enough to
survive

Species exist in the

same area but are
reproductively active
at different times of
the year

- Behavioural
Isolation
Speciation
populations do not
respond to each
others mating calls

Low Hybrid Zygote

Vigour Zygote fails
to develop and dies
or produces
offspring with severe
disability

- Hybrid Infertility
Offspring of two
different species are
not fertile

INVESTIGATING TIME OF DEATH

A number of changes take place in the place of any mammal after
death which can be helpful in estimating the time of death.
- The normal human body temp is 37C, at death the metabolic
reactions which have created the body heat slow down and
eventually stop. Although body temp. Starts to fall straight
after death, it plateaus for a while before dropping steadily to
room temp. As a result, the temp. of a body will give some
indication of how long they have been dead.
Rigor Mortis a stiffening effect caused by lack of ATP in the
muscles & muscle fibres becoming permanently contracted and
locked solid. On average rigor mortis starts about 2-4 hours after
death, begins in the face & neck and works its way down the body.

Stages of Succession
The first colonisers are anaerobic bacteria, which do not
need oxygen and thrive in the lactic acid rick
environment of the muscles after death.
As enzymes break down cells, the bacteria spread & are
joined by several species of flies mostly blowflies.
These insects can arrive on the body within minutes of
death as they are attracted to the moisture and smell of
natural orifices of the body as well as open wounds.
The main attraction of the body is a site to lay eggs.
Maggots begin to hatch and feed on the tissues,
breaking them down.
The maggots pupate, turn into flies, mate & start the
cycle again. As the tissues of the body liquefy, adult flies
can feed on this too.
Beetles then begin to lay eggs on the carcass & parasitic
wasps arrive to lay their eggs in the larvae.
As the body is digested it also dries out, which doesnt
suit the early colonisers. Different species such as the
cheese flies and coffin flies move in.
As the body becomes too dry for maggots, carcass
beetles, ham beetles and hide beetles feed on the
remains of the muscles and connective tissues
At the very end, mites and other larvae will feed on the
hair until only dry bones are left.

Viruses
- Viruses are the smallest of
all microorganisms. They
are not cells, but
arrangements of genetic
material and protein that
invade other living cells &
take over their
biochemistry to make
more viruses.
- Most scientists class viruses as obligate intracellular
parasites meaning they can exist and reproduce as
parasites only in the cells of other living organisms.
The Structure of Viruses
The protein coat or
capsid is made up of
simple repeating
protein units known
as capsomeres,
arranged in different
ways. In some viruses,
the genetic material
and protein coat are
covered by a lipid
envelope, produced
from the host cell. The presence of the envelope makes it
easier for the viruses to pass from cell to cell but it does
make them vulnerable to substances such as ether which will
dissolve the lipid membrane. Viral genetic material can be

DNA or RNA, and nucleic acid can be single or double

stranded.
Viral RNA directs the synthesis of a special enzyme called
reverse transcriptase which proceeds to make DNA
molecules corresponding to the viral genome.
Viruses attach to their host cells by means of specific
proteins (antigens) known as Viral attachment particles
(VAPs) which target proteins in the host cell surface
membrane.

Virus Life Cycles

Bacteriophages inject their genome into the host bacterial

cell but the bulk of the viral material remains outside the
bacterium. The viral DNA forms a plasmid within the
bacterium. The viruses that infect animals get into the cells in
several ways. Some types are taken into the cell by
endocytosis & the host cell then digests the capsid, releasing
the viral genetic material. The viral envelope fuses with the
host cell surface, releasing the rest of the virus inside the cell
membrane. Plant viruses usually get into the plant cell using
a vector (often an insect) to pierce the cellulose cell wall.
2 routes of infection
- Lysogenic Pathway Many viruses are non-virulent
when they first get into the host cell. They insert their
DNA into the host DNA so it is replicated every time the
host cell divides. This inserted DNA is called a provirus.
During this period of lysogeny, when the virus is part of

the reproducing host cells, the virus is said to be

dormant.
- Lytic Pathway Sometimes the viral genetic material is
replicated independently of the host DNA straight after
entering the host. Mature viruses are made & eventually
the host cell bursts, releasing large numbers of new
virus particles to invade other cells. The virus is said to
be virulent (disease causing) & the process of
replicating & killing cells is known as the lytic pathway.
1. Bacteriophage attracts bacterium
2. Phage DNA is injected into host cell. It brings about
the synthesis of viral enzymes
3. A. Viral DNA is incorporated into host cell DNA &
replicated each time the bacterium divides, without
causing any damage.
B. OR Phage DNA inactivates the host DNA and takes
over the cell biochemistry
4. Phage DNA is replicated. New phage particles are
assembled as new protein coats are made around
phage DNA. The enzyme lysozyme is synthesised or
released
5. Lysis the bacterial cell bursts due to the action of
lysozyme, releasing up to 1000 phages to infect other
bacteria & the cycle begins again.

RETROVIRUSES
Retroviruses have a more complex life cycle. Their
genetic material is viral RNA. This cannot be used as
mRNA but is translated into DNA using reverse
transcriptase.
1. The retrovirus attacks an animal cell
2. Viral RNA enters the host cell. This RNA cannot be
used as mRNA.
3. Viral RNA is translated into viral DNA by reverse
transcriptase in the cytoplasm
4. Viral DNA is incorporated into the host DNA in the
nucleus. It directs the production of new viral genome
RNA, mRNA and coat proteins.
5. New viral particles are assembled and leave the host
cell by exocytosis. Viral DNA remains in the nucleus
so the process is repeated.
6. The host cell continues to function as a virus making
factory, while the new viruses move on to infect
other cells.

Bacteria
Flagella & Pilli

Cytoplasm - About 75% water

in which are dissolved
proteins (mainly enzymes)
Lipoproteins, sugars, amino
acids and fatty acids, inorganic
salts, and the waste products
of metabolism.

Flagella are rigid protein strands that arise from basal bodies in the
plasma membrane in some bacteria. They bring about movement by
rotating from their base, driven by the basal body.
Pilli are tiny tubular structures that arise from the cell membrane of
some bacteria. They enable bacteria to attach to surfaces and to other
bacteria.

Cell Wall
Protects against rupture due to
osmosis and keep shape. Rigid wall
containing giant molecules
consisting of amino sugars and
peptidogylcan

Capsule
A slime layer or
capsule is made up of
additional materials
that are laid down on
the outer surface of
the wall. Capsules are
firmly attached,
whereas slime layers
may diffuse into the
surrounding medium.

Ribosomes - Sites of
protein synthesis.
Bacterial ribosomes are
known as 70S ribosomes
because they are smaller
than those in the
cytoplasm of plant and
animal cells and fungi
(called 80S ribosomes)

Plasmids

Mesosomes

Additional hereditary material

small rings of DNA, present in the
cytoplasm of some but not all
bacteria.

Infoldings of the plasma

membrane found in some
bacterial cells. In the
photosynthetic bacteria, they
are where the photosynthetic
pigments are housed.

Plasma Membrane - Consists

of phospholipids and proteins
arranged in the fluid mosaic
model. Carbohydrates attach
to some lipids forming
glycolipids and some proteins
forming glycoproteins on the
outer surface membrane.

There are two different types of

bacterial cell walls which can be
distinguished by Gram Staining.
Gram positive bacteria have a thick
layer of peptidoglycan containing
chemicals such as teichoic acid. The
crystal violet in the stain binds to
the acid & resists decolouring,
leaving the positive PURPLE/BLUE in
colour.
Gram negative bacteria have a
thinner layer of peptidogylcan with no teichoic acid. Any crystal
violet which does bind is readily decolourised & replaced with red
safranine in the stain, so the cells appear RED in colour.

Classifying Bacteria
- by shape
Cocci (spherical)
Bacilli (rod shaped)
Spirilla (twisted/spiral)
Vibrios (comma shaped)

Reproduction of Bacteria
Bacteria can reproduce in two main ways. The most common
is Asexual Reproduction (binary fission) splitting into two.
One the bacterium reaches a certain size, the DNA is
replicated and the old cell wall begins to break down around
the middle of the cell. Enzymes break open the circular piece
of DNA allowing the strands to unwind and be replicated.

Another form of reproduction is Sexual reproduction. In very

rare conditions, bacteria can reproduce using what appear to
be different forms of sexual reproduction. There are 3 ways
in which genetic material from one bacterium cab be taken in
and used as part of the DNA of another bacterium.

Transformation
A short piece of DNA is released by a donor and actively
taken up by a recipient where it replaces a similar piece of
DNA. Only occurs in certain types of bacteria.
Transduction
Takes place when a small amount of DNA is transferred from
one bacterium to another by a bacteriophage. Bacteriophage
attaches to the bacterial cell wall. Enzymes are released to
break down the cell wall. New bacteriophage forms and
some bacteria DNA is included by mistake

Conjugation genetic information is transferred from one

bacterium to another by direct contact. The donor cell is
similar to a male cell and this produces a sex pillus, a
cytoplasmic bridge between the two cells through which DNA
is transferred to the recipient cell, similar to the female cell

Endotoxins
- Lipopolysaccharides (part of
the outer layer of gram
negative bacteria)
- Rarely fatal
- Tend to cause symptoms
such as fever, vomiting &
diarrhoea
- E.g. Salmonella & E.coli
- However symptoms may
indirectly lead to death
Exotoxins
- Soluble proteins produced & released into the body by bacteria as they
metabolise and reproduce.
- There are many different types; some damage cell membranes causing
internal bleeding, some act as competitive inhibitors to
neurotransmitters, whilst others directly poison cells.
- Rarely cause fevers but so include some of the most dangerous bacterial
diseases.
- E.g. Clostridium botulinum produces one of the most toxic substances
known, botulinum toxin

BENEFICIAL BACTERIA
- Many bacteria in the body is beneficial,
helping to break down food and keeping
pathogens at bay by outcompeting them. The
normal growth of bacteria on your skin or in
your gut is referred to as the skin flora or
gut flora
Probiotic drinks and foods contain cultures of these
good bacteria to help support the normal healthy
bacterial flora of the gut.
- Bacteria also play a vital role in the ecosystems of the natural world. The
majority of bacteria are decomposers. They break down organic
material to produce simple inorganic molecules such as CO2 and water.
- They release inorganic nitrogen which returns to the soil in the nitrogen
cycle, and also sulphur compound which returns to the soil or water.
- Another important aspect of bacteria is in the carbon cycle is the fact
that some microorganisms produce the enzyme cellulase. This enzyme
breaks down the cellulose produced in plant cell walls to give sugars
which can then be used as food by a wide range of other
microorganisms.

INVADING THE BODY

Pathogens are transmitted in a variety of ways:
- Vectors - a living organism that transmits infection from one host to
another E.g. Insects Malaria
- Fomites inanimate objects that carry pathogens from one host to
another E.g. Hospital towels & bedding
- Direct Contact many sexual diseases are spread by direct contact of
genital organs E.g. Gonorrhoea or Syphilis
- Inhalation coughing, sneezing, &
talking release droplets which contain
pathogens E.g Tuberculosis & Influenza
- Ingestion Contaminated food the
risk is greatest in raw or undercooked
food E.g. Salmonella
- Inoculation directly through a break in the skin either through
contaminated medical instruments or shared needles in drug abuse. An
infected animal may also bite or lick you. E.g. H.I.V or Rabies

BARRIERS TO ENTRY
SKIN
- An impenetrable layer toughened by keratin, a fibrous structural
protein
- Forms a physical barrier between the pathogen laden environment &
the blood rich tissues beneath the skin
- Sebum, an oily substance produced by the skin contains chemicals which
inhibit the growth of microorganisms
- Natural skin flora prevent disease by competing successfully for a
position on the skin & produce substances that inhibit the growth of
other microorganisms

MUCUS & TEARS

- Surfaces of internal tubes & ducts are more vulnerable than skin
however these epithelial layers also produce defensive secretions. Many
produce MUCUS.
- MUCUS contains lysozymes, enzymes capable of destroying microbial
cell walls, particularly against gram positive bacteria, breaking cross
linkage in the the peptidoglycans in the bacterial cell wall.
- Lysozymes are also present in tears, the secretions produced to keep the
eyes moist & to protect them from the entry of pathogens.
- Part of the non-specific defence of the body

GUT
- Saliva in the mouth has bacterial properties. Some polypeptides
produced in the salivary glands destroy bacteria while others slow down
bacterial growth.
- Acid in the stomach destroys the majority of ingested microorganisms.
- The natural flora in the gut usually competes successfully for both
nutrients and space with any microorganisms which manage to get
through the stomach & produces anti-microbial compounds
- VOMITING is effectively removing many of the microorganisms
physically from the system when the body is infected.

NON SPECIFIC RESPONSES TO INFECTION

Inflammation is a common way in which our bodies respond to infection.
- Special cells called mast cells are found in the connective tissue below
the skin & around blood vessels. When this tissue is damaged, mast cells
along with damaged white blood cells release chemicals known as
HISTAMINES.
- These cause the blood vessels in the area to dilate, causing local heat &
redness. The raised temp. reduces the effectiveness of pathogen
reproduction in the area.
- Histamines also make the walls of the capillaries lady as the cells forming
the walls separate slightly. As a result, fluid including plasma, WBCs &
antibodies is forced out of the capillaries causing swelling.
- The WBCs & antibodies destroy the pathogens.
Fever occurs when a pathogen infects the body which cause the hypothalamus
to reset to a higher temp. This helps in 2 ways:
- A raised temp. will reduce the ability of many pathogens to reproduce
effectively & so they cause less damage.
- Specific response works better at a higher temp. & therefore will be
more successful at combating the infection.
Phagocytosis involves white blood cells. There are 2 main types of white blood
cells; the granulocytes which have granules that can be stained in their
cytoplasm & agranulocytes which have no granules.
- Phagocyte is a general term for white blood cells
which engulf & digest pathogens and any other
foreign material in the blood & tissues.
- There are two types of phagocytes; neutrophils
NEUTROPHIL
which are granulocytes & make up 70% of the
white cells & macrophages which are
agranulocytes and make up about 4%. They
accumulate at the site of infection to attack
invading pathogens. Phagocytes can sometimes
be seen as pus which may ooze out of the wound
MACROPHAGE
or it may be reabsorbed into the body.
INTERFERONS Group of chemicals produced when cells are invaded by viruses.
Interferons are proteins that inhibit viral replication within the cells. They bind to
receptors in the surface membranes on uninfected cells, stimulating a pathway which
makes the cells resistant to infection by viruses by preventing viruses reproducing.

THE SPECIFIC RESPONSE TO INFECTION

The immune system enables the body to recognise anything that is non-self
and to remove it from the body as efficiently as possible. Each organism carries
its own unique antigens or the cell surface membrane. There are 2 main types
of White blood cells involved in the immune systems;
- Lymphocytes are agranulocytes, made in the white bone marrow
- Macrophages are also agranulocytes which move freely through the
tissue after leaving the bloodstream
KINDS OF LYMPHOCYTES
B cells
- are made in the bone marrow
- found in lymph glands & free
in the body
- have membrane bound
globular receptor proteins on
their cell surface membrane
which are identical to the
antibodies they will later
produce
- all antibodies are known as
immunoglobulins (IgM)

Lymphocytes

T
Cells

Helper
Cells

B
Cells

Killer
Cells

T cells
- made in the bone marrow but mature and become active in the thymus
gland
- Surface of each T cell displays thousands of identical T-cell receptors.
There are 2 main types of T-cells; T killer cells produce chemicals that
destroy pathogens & T helper cells involved in the process which
produces antibodies against the antigens on particular pathogen.
The working of these cells depend on special proteins known as major
histocompatibility complex (MHC) proteins, which display antigens in the
cell surface membranes

ANTIBIOTICS
- Bacteriostatic the antibiotic used completely inhibits the growth or the
microorganism
- Bactericidal the antibiotic used will destroy almost all of the pathogens
present

DIFFERENT TYPES OF IMMUNITY

- Natural Active Immunity when the body comes into contact with a
foreign antigen and the immune system is activated & antibodies are
formed & the pathogen is destroyed. The body actively makes the
antibodies.
- Natural Passive Immunity during pregnancy, preformed antibodies are
passed from the mother to the foetus through the placenta. The baby
gets extra protection from antibodies taken in through breast milk. This
provides the baby with temporary immunity until its own system
becomes active.

INDUCING IMMUNITY
- Immunisation is the process of protecting people from infection by
giving them passive or active artificial immunity.
- Vaccination is the procedure by which you immunise people to produce
immunity

Artificial Passive Immunity occurs when antibodies are formed

in one individual, extracted & injected into another individual.
Artificial Active Immunity is when small amounts of antigen
(vaccine) are used to produce immunity in a person

CORE PRACTICALS
1. Studying The Ecology On An Area
- Techniques such as taking a transect can be used to
study the topography of an area the shape, height &
depth of the land surface.
- Quadrats can be used to give valid & reliable measures
of the numbers and types of plants.
- The animal communities can be investigated by many
methods, including quadrats, nets, pitfall traps & taking
soil samples.
- The abiotic factors which affect a habitat such as rainfall
& temperature & edaphic factors such as soil type & pH
are also measured & recorded to give as much
information as possible about the ecology of the area.

2. Effect of temperature on a living organism

- It is possible to model the effect of increasing
temperature on the development of living organism in
the laboratory.
- There are many different experimental procedures
which can be used such as germination of seeds, the
growth rate of young seedlings, or the hatching rate of
brine shrimps.
- The temperature differences for the investigation need
to be controlled very carefully

3. Gel Electrophoresis
- Gene probes are short DNA sequences that are
complementary to specific sequences which are being
sought. Each probe is labelled, either with a radioactive
element or with a fluorescent molecule
- Large amounts of the gene probes are added to the
filter and bind with complementary DNA strands in a
process known as hybridisation
- Excess probes are washed away & either X-ray pictures
are taken of the filter, or the filter is placed under UV
light to show up the DNA regions

4. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

- Amplifying the DNA
- Adapts the natural process in which DNA is replicated in
the cell, making it possible to produce enough DNA for a
profile from tiny traces of biological material
- Primers (small sequences of DNA which must join to the
beginning of the separated DNA strands before copying
can begin) & a good supply of the four nucleotide bases
are mixed together in a PCR vial and placed in a PCR
machine.
- The mixture is heated to 90-95C which causes hydrogen
bonds to break so DNA strands separate
- The mixture is then cooled to 55-60C so the primers
bind to the single DNA strands
- The mixture is then heated again to 75C which is the
optimum temperature for DNA polymerase enzyme to
build the complementary strands of DNA.
- The process is repeated about 30 times to give approx. 1
billion copies of the DNA.

5. Effect Of Different Antibiotics On Bacteria

- The effect of different antibiotics on bacteria can be
investigated using standard microbiological techniques.
- An agar plate is seeded with a known bacterial culture
- Filter paper discs containing different antibiotics, or
different concentrations of the same antibiotics, are
placed in the agar & the plate is sealed.
- A control culture of microorganisms with known
sensitivity to the antibiotic is grown at the same time
under the same conditions
- The level of inhibition of bacterial growth gives a
measure of the effectiveness of the dr ugs.