CHAPTER 5 - OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

List of topics for this chapter :

Operational Amplifiers
Ideal Operational Amplifier
Inverting Amplifier
Noninverting Amplifier
Summing Amplifier
Difference Amplifier
Cascaded Operational Amplifier Circuits
Operational Amplifier Circuits with PSpice
Applications

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

Problem 5.1

Calculate Vout for R L = 1 , 100 , 1 k, 10 k, 100 k , given the

2 k

1 k

50
+

Vs

Vin

100 k

+
Vout

100k Vin

RL

circuit in Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1
Carefully DEFINE the problem.
Each component is labeled completely. The problem is clear.
PRESENT everything you know about the problem.
The value of the load resistor, R L , is varied over a wide range of values.
The dependent voltage source (a voltage-controlled voltage source) has a large gain (100k).

Obviously, the goal of the problem is to determine the output voltage in terms of the input (or
source) voltage.
Establish a set of ALTERNATIVE solutions and determine the one that promises the
greatest likelihood of success.

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Vout can be determined using nodal analysis, mesh analysis, or circuit analysis. Because we
want to find a voltage, rather than a current, we will use nodal analysis.
ATTEMPT a problem solution.
Use nodal analysis to find Vout in terms of VS and R L .
At the left node or Vin :

Vin Vs Vin 0 Vin Vout

+
+
=0
1k
100k
2k
At the right node or Vout :

Vout Vin Vout + 100k Vin Vout 0

+
+
=0
2k
50
RL
Simplifying the left node equation,

(100)(Vin Vs ) + Vin + (50)(Vin Vout ) = 0

151 Vin 100 Vs 50 Vout = 0
Simplifying the right node equation,

(Vout Vin ) + (40)(Vout + 100k Vin ) +

2k
V =0
R L out

2k
41 +
V + (4M 1) Vin = 0
R L out

2k

- 41 +
RL

Vin =
Vout
4M 1
Substituting the simplified right node equation into the simplified left node equation,

2k

- (151) 41 +
RL

Vout 100 Vs 50 Vout = 0

4M 1

2k
(50)(4M 1)
- (151) 41 +
RL

Vout = 100 Vs
(4M 1)
(100)(4M 1)
Vout =
Vs

2k
(50)(4M 1)
- (151) 41 +
RL

Substitute each value for R L into this equation to find Vout in terms of Vs .
Vout = - 1.99692283 Vs
For R L = 1 ,

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For R L = 100 ,

Vout
Vout
Vout
Vout

For R L = 1 k ,
For R L = 10 k ,
For R L = 100 k ,

=
=
=
=

- 1.99990789 Vs
- 1.99993507 Vs
- 1.99993779 Vs
- 1.99993806 Vs

EVALUATE the solution and check for accuracy.

First, the answers appear reasonable with the gain of the entire circuit approaching 2 as R L
increases in size.
In addition, even for R L = 1 , Vout = 2 Vs is a good approximation
Clearly, using an ideal op amp is reasonable.
Has the problem been solved SATISFACTORILY? If so, present the solution; if not,
then return to ALTERNATIVE solutions and continue through the process again.
This problem has been solved satisfactorily.

Problem 5.2
Determine:
(a)
(b)
(c)

For R L = 1 ,

Vout = - 1.99692283 Vs

For R L = 100 ,

Vout = - 1.99990789 Vs

For R L = 1 k ,

Vout = - 1.99993507 Vs

For R L = 10 k ,

Vout = - 1.99993779 Vs

For R L = 100 k ,

Vout = - 1.99993806 Vs

[5.1]

The equivalent model of a certain op amp is shown in Figure 5.1.

the input resistance,

the output resistance,
the voltage gain in dB.

60

1.5 M

vd

8 104 vd

Figure 5.1

(a)

R in = 1.5 M

(b)

R out = 60

(c)

A = 8 10 4

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A dB = 20 log10 (8 10 4 )
A dB = 98.06

Problem 5.3
Figure 5.1.

Solve for Vout when R L = 1 , 1 k, 100 k, 1 M , given the circuit in

1 k

50
+

Vs

Vin

100 k

+
Vout

100k Vin

RL

Figure 5.1
Use nodal analysis to find Vout in terms of VS and R L .
At the left node or Vin :

Vin VS Vin 0
+
=0
1k
100k

At the right node or Vout :

Vout + 100k Vin Vout 0

+
=0
50
RL
Simplifying the left nodal equation,

(100)(Vin VS ) + Vin = 0
101 Vin = 100 VS
100
Vin =
VS
101
1
1
Vout + 2k Vin = 0
+
50 R L

Simplifying the right node equation,

R L + 50

Vout = - 2k Vin
50 R L

- 100k R L
Vin
Vout =
R L + 50

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Substituting the simplified left node equation into the simplified right node equation,

- 100k R L 100
- 10M R L

VS
VS =
Vout =
R L + 50 101
(101)(R L + 50)
Substitute each value for R L into this equation to find Vout in terms of VS .
For R L = 1 ,

Vout = - 1,941.3706 VS

For R L = 1 k ,

Vout = - 94,295.1438 VS

For R L = 100 k ,

Vout = - 98,960.4208 VS

For R L = 1 M ,

Vout = - 99,004.9507 VS

IDEAL OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

An ideal op amp has infinite open-loop gain, infinite input resistance, and zero output resistance.

Problem 5.4

Looking at the circuit in Figure 5.1, what effect does R L have on the value

of Vout ?

RF
R1
+

Vs

+
Vo

RL

Figure 5.1

Carefully DEFINE the problem.

Each component is labeled completely. The problem is clear.
PRESENT everything you know about the problem.
Essentially, we are to determine if the value of R L affects the output voltage in any way.

Thus, the goal of the problem is to solve for Vo in terms of the other variables.

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Treat the operational amplifier as ideal. Due to infinite input resistance, we know that the
currents into both input terminals are zero. The voltage across the terminals is negligibly
small or Va = Vb .
Establish a set of ALTERNATIVE solutions and determine the one that promises the
greatest likelihood of success.
Because this is a circuit problem, we can use nodal analysis, mesh analysis, or basic circuit
analysis. Nodal analysis typically works best for op amp circuits.
ATTEMPT a problem solution.
Referring to the circuit below, there are three unknown nodes.

RF
R1
+

Va
Vb

Vs

Vc
+
Vo

RL

Write a node equation at node a. The node voltage at node b is already known, Vb = 0 .
Writing a node equation at node c will only introduce an additional unknown. This gives two
equations with four unknowns. Solving for Vo in terms of Vs (and the resistances) implies
that we need one equation with two unknowns. Hence, we need a constraint equation to
reduce the number of unknowns.
At node a,

Va Vs Va Vc
+
+0=0
R1
RF

At node b,

Vb = 0

The constraint equation comes from a characteristic of the ideal op amp.

Va = Vb
Thus,

Va = Vb = 0

Substitute the constraint into the node equation for node a to solve for Vo .

- Vs - Vc
+
=0
R1
RF

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-RF
V
R1 s

Hence,

Vc =

Clearly,

Vo = Vc =

- RF
V
R1 s

We have shown that the value of R L has no effect on the value of Vo , assuming that R L is
finite and not equal to zero.
EVALUATE the solution and check for accuracy.
Consider the following circuit.

I
I

R1

Va
Vb

RF

Vs

Vc
+
Vo

RL

Using Ohm's law, I =

Vs Va
R1

From a characteristic of the ideal op amp, Va = Vb

But

Vb = 0
Va = 0

So,

I=

Vs
R1

Also,

I=

Va Vc - Vc
=
RF
RF

But

Vc = Vo
- Vo
I=
RF

So,
Thus,

Vs - Vo
=
R1
RF

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Vo =

- RF
V
R1 s

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Our check for accuracy was successful.

Has the problem been solved SATISFACTORILY? If so, present the solution; if not,
then return to ALTERNATIVE solutions and continue through the process again.
This problem has been solved satisfactorily.
The value of RL has no effect on the value of Vo, assuming that RL is finite and not zero.

Problem 5.5

[5.11]

Find v o and i o in the circuit in Figure 5.1.

2 k

8 k

va

5 k

vb
3V

io

+
4 k

vo

10 k

Figure 5.1

At node b,

10
(3) = 2 V
vb =
10 + 5

At node a,

3 va va vo
=
2
8

But

va = vb = 2 V

So,

12 = (5)(2) v o
vo = - 2 V

12 = 5 v a v o

vo va vo 0 - 2 2 - 2
+
=
+
= -0.5m 0.5m
8k
4k
8k
4k
i o = - 1 mA

io =

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INVERTING AMPLIFIER
An inverting amplifier reverses the polarity of the input signal while amplifying it.

[5.19]

Problem 5.6

Using the circuit in Figure 5.1, calculate v o if v s = 0 .

8 k

4 k

2 k

4 k

vb

va
9V

vs

+
vo

Figure 5.1
At node a,

9 va va vo va vb
=
+
4k
8k
4k
18 = 5 v a v o 2 v b

(1)

va vb vb vo
=
4k
2k
va = 3 vb 2 vo

(2)

At node b,

vb = vs = 0

Hence, (2) becomes

va = - 2 vo

and (1) becomes

18 = -10 v o v o = -11 v o and v o = - 1.6364 V

But

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Problem 5.7

Express Vo in terms of Vs for the circuit shown in Figure 5.1.

RF
R1

Va

Vs

+
Vo

Vb

Figure 5.1
Using nodal analysis,

Va Vs Va Vo
+
=0
R1
RF
where Va = Vb = 0 is the constraint equation.
- Vs - Vo
+
=0
R1
RF
- RF
Vo =
V
R1 s

NONINVERTING AMPLIFIER

Problem 5.8

How does the circuit in Figure 5.1 differ from the circuit in Figure 5.1?

RF
R1

Va

Vb
Vs

+
Vout

RL

Figure 5.1

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Using nodal analysis,

Va 0 Va Vout
+
=0
R1
RF

where Va = Vb = Vs is the constraint equation.

Simplifying,

Vs Vs Vout
+
=0
R1
RF
1
1
1
Vs
Vout =
+
RF
R1 R F
RF

Vout =
+ 1 Vs
R1

The significant difference between the two circuits is that the voltage gain for this circuit is
positive. In addition it should be noted that in the circuit of Figure 5.1, the relationship
between the output voltage, Vo, and the input voltage, Vs, is a simple ratio of RF and R1. For
the circuit in Figure 5.1, however, the gain can never be less than one. Since there is rarely
a case where the gain is less than one, this is not normally a problem.

SUMMING AMPLIFIER
A summing amplifier combines several inputs and produces an output that is the weighted sum of
the inputs.

Problem 5.9

[5.33]

A four-input summing amplifier has R 1 = R 2 = R 3 = R 4 =

12 k . What value of feedback resistor is needed to make it an averaging amplifier?

In order for
to become

Rf
R
R
R
R
v1 + f v 2 + f v 3 + f v 4 = f ( v 1 + v 2 + v 3 + v 4 )
R1
R2
R3
R4
12k
-1
1 R
v o = ( v1 + v 2 + v 3 + v 4 )
= f
4
4 12k
vo =

Rf =

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12k

= 3 k
4

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Express Vout in terms of V1 and V2 for the circuit shown in Figure 5.1.
Problem 5.10
What have we done here?

10 k

V1

10 k

10 k

Va
Vb

V2

Vout

RL

Figure 5.1
Using nodal analysis,

Va V1 Va V2 Va Vout
+
+
=0
10k
10k
10k

where Va = Vb = 0 is the constraint equation.

- V1 - V2 - Vout
+
+
=0
10k 10k 10k
Vout = -V1 V2
Vout = - ( V1 + V2 )
We have constructed an inverting, summing amplifier.

DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER
A difference amplifier amplifies the difference between two inputs but rejects any signals
common to the two inputs.

Problem 5.11

Using an operational amplifier, can we construct a circuit where

Vout = V2 V1 ?

Yes, we want to construct what is called a difference amplifier. We can do this using the circuit
shown in Figure 5.1.

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R1

R2

+
Va

R3
V1

Vb

V2

R4

+
Vout

RL

Figure 5.1

Now, verify that this circuit will amplify the difference of the two inputs.
Using nodal analysis,

Va V1 Va Vout
+
=0
R1
R2
where Va = Vb is the constraint equation.

and

Vb V2 Vb 0
+
=0
R3
R4

and

Vb =

Simplifying,

R2

+ 1Va 2 V1 = Vout
R1
R1

R4
V2
R3 + R4

Using the constraint equation to combine the two equations yields

R
R 4
R
V2 2 V1
Vout = 2 + 1
R1
R1
R 3 + R 4
or

Vout =

When

R2
R1

1 + R1 R 2
R

V2 2 V1
R1
1 + R3 R4

R1 R 3
,
=
R2 R4

Vout =

R2
(V V1 )
R1 2

If R 1 = R 2 and R 3 = R 4 ,

Vout = V2 V1

This was the desired case.

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[5.39]
Design a difference amplifier to have a gain of 2 and a common
Problem 5.12
mode input resistance of 10 k at each input.
The input resistances are

R 1 = R 3 = 10 k
For a gain of 2,

R2
=2
R 2 = 2 R 1 = 20 k
R1
A property of difference amplifiers is

R1 R 3
=
R2 R4
Thus,

R 4 = R 2 = 20 k
Now, verify the results,

vo =

R 2 (1 + R 1 R 2 )
R2
v2
v
R1 1
R 1 (1 + R 3 R 4 )

20k
20k 1 + 0.5

v 2
vo =
v
10k 1 + 0.5
10k 1
v o = 2 ( v 2 v1 )
This is the desired result. Therefore,

R 1 = R 3 = 10 k

R 2 = R 4 = 20 k

CASCADED OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS

A cascade connection is a head-to-tail arrangement of two or more op amp circuits such that the
output of one op amp circuit is the input to the next op amp circuit.

Problem 5.13
(a)

(b)

[5.45]

Refer to the circuit in Figure 5.1. Calculate i o if:

v s = 12 mV
v s = 10 cos(377 t ) mV

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12 k

12 k

6 k

vs

4 k

io

2 k

Figure 5.1
This is a cascading system of two inverting amplifiers.

- 12 - 12

v = 6 vs
vo =
4 6 s
io =
(a)

vs
= 3 10 -3 v s
2 10 3

When v s = 12 mV ,

i o = 36 A
(b)

When v s = 10 cos(377 t ) mV

i o = 30 cos( 377t ) A

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS WITH PSPICE

Problem 5.14

Solve Problem 5.1 using PSpice.

PSpice does not perform symbolic simulations. So, let Vs = 1 V . Add a VIEWPOINT to the
circuit to indicate the output voltage. Set the load resistor to the desired value, save the schematic
and simulate. With the repetition of setting the load resistor and simulating the circuit, the output
voltage for each load resistor in Problem 5.1 can be verified.

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From the schematic,

for R L = 1 ,

Vout = - 1.99692283 V

By changing the load resistor and simulating the circuit, it can be shown that
Vout = - 1.99990789 V
for R L = 100 ,
for R L = 1 k ,

Vout = - 1.99993507 V

for R L = 10 k ,

Vout = - 1.99993779 V

for R L = 100 k ,

Vout = - 1.99993806 V

This matches the answers obtained in Problem 5.1 when Vs = 1 V .

Problem 5.15

Solve Problem 5.7 using PSpice.

Consider the following schematic.

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Because PSpice does not perform symbolic simulations, let Vs = 1 V . We also need to choose
values for the resistors.
For the circuit above, let

Vs = 1 V ,

R 1 = 1 k ,

and

R F = 10 k

which produces,

Vo =

- RF
- 10k
(1) = - 10 V
Vs =
R1
1k

This verifies the answer obtained in Problem 5.7.

One must realize that Problem 5.7 was performed assuming an ideal op amp; PSpice does not
simulate an ideal op amp. Thus, the output voltage may not be an integer value even though the
calculations from Problem 5.7 would predict an integer value.
Also, the output voltage cannot be greater than V+ or less than V, where V+ and V are the
power supply voltages of the op amp.
There are three modes in which real op amps can operate. The most desirable is to have them
give the desired output. The second mode is when the op amp goes into saturation, reaching its
maximum output voltage and remaining there. The third mode is that the op amp can act like an
oscillator; its output voltage can be some type of periodic signal such as a sine wave.

Problem 5.16

Solve Problem 5.8 using PSpice.

Consider the following schematic.

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For the circuit above,

Vs = 1 V ,

R 1 = 1 k ,

R F = 10 k

and

and

RF

10k
Vo =
+ 1 Vs =
+ 1 (1) = 11 V
1k

R1

This verifies the answer obtained in Problem 5.8

Also, see the comments made concerning ideal versus real op amps in Problem 5.15.

APPLICATIONS

Problem 5.17
current source.

Use an operational amplifier to change an ideal voltage source to an ideal

Consider the following circuit.

?
i1
i1
+

R1

Vin

+
Vout

Clearly,

i1 =

Vin
R1

In the circuit above, the op amp will maintain the current through the black box in the
feedback path at i1. Thus, the op amp is working like an ideal current source.

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