Designing HDPE Piping System

Chapter 6 155
Design of PE Piping Systems
Chapter 6

Introduction
Design of a PE piping system is essentially no different than the
design undertaken with any ductile and flexible piping material.
The design equations and relationships are well-established in the
literature, and they can be employed in concert with the distinct
performance properties of this material to create a piping system
which will provide very many years of durable and reliable service for
the intended application.
In the pages which follow, the basic design methods covering the use
of PE pipe in a variety of applications are discussed.
The material is divided into four distinct sections as follows:
Section 1 covers Design based on Working Pressure Requirements.
Procedures are included for dealing with the effects of temperature,
surge pressures, and the nature of the fluid being conveyed, on the
sustained pressure capacity of the PE pipe.
Section 2 deals with the hydraulic design of PE piping. It covers
flow considerations for both pressure and non-pressure pipe.
Section 3 focuses on burial design and flexible pipeline design
theory. From this discussion, the designer will develop a clear
understanding of the nature of pipe/soil interaction and the
relative importance of trench design as it relates to the use of a
flexible piping material.
Finally, Section 4 deals with the response of PE pipe to
temperature change. As with any construction material, PE
expands and contracts in response to changes in temperature.
Specific design methodologies will be presented in this section to
address this very important aspect of pipeline design as it relates
to the use of PE pipe.
154-264.indd 155
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156 Chapter 6
This chapter concludes with a fairly extensive appendix which

details the engineering and physical properties of the PE material
as well as pertinent pipe characteristics such as dimensions
of product produced in accordance with the various industry
standards.
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Chapter 6 157
Section 1
Design Based on Required Pressure Capacity
Pressure Rating
The methodology for arriving at the standard pressure rating, PR, for PE pipe is
discussed in detail in Chapter 5. The terms pressure rating (PR), pressure class (PC),
are used in various consensus standards from ASTM, AWWA, CSA and others
to denote the pipes capacity for safely resisting sustained pressure, and typically
is inclusive of the capacity to resist momentary pressure increases from pressure
surges such as from sudden changes in water flow velocity. Consensus standards
may treat pressure surge capacity or allowances differently. That treatment may
vary from the information presented in this handbook. The reader is referred to the
standards for that specific information.
Equations 1-1 and 1-2 utilize the Hydrostatic Design Stress, HDS, at 73F (23C)
to establish the performance capability of the pipe at that temperature. HDSs for
various PE pipe materials are published in PPI TR-4, PPI Listing of Hydrostatic
Design Basis (HDB), Hydrostatic Design Stress (HDS), Strength Design Basis (SDB),
Pressure Design Basis (PDB) and Minimum Required Strength (MRS) Ratings for
Thermoplastic Piping Materials. Materials that are suitable for use at temperatures
above 100F (38C) will also have elevated temperature Hydrostatic Design Basis
ratings that are published in PPI TR-4.
The PR for a particular application can vary from the standard PR for water service.
PR is reduced for pipelines operating above the base design temperatures, for
pipelines transporting fluids that are known to have some adverse effect on PE,
for pipelines operating under Codes or Regulations, or for unusual conditions.
The PR may be reduced by application of a factor to the standard PR. For elevated
temperature applications the PR is multiplied by a temperature factor, FT. For special
fluids such as hydrocarbons, or regulated natural gas, an environmental application
factor, AF, is applied. See Tables 1-2 and Appendix, Chapter 3.
The reader is alerted to the fact that the form of the ISO equation presented in
Equations 1-1 and 1-2 has changed from the form of the ISO equation published
in the previous edition of the PPI PE Handbook. The change is to employ HDS
rather than HDB, and is necessitated by the additional ratings available for high
performance materials. In the earlier form of the ISO equation, PR is given as a
function of the HDB, not the HDS as in Equations 1-1 and 1-2. This difference is
significant and can result in considerable error if the reader uses the Environmental
Applications Factors given in Table 1-2 as the Design Factor in the HDB form of the
ISO equation.
154-264.indd 157
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7, ASTM D2447, ASTM D3035, ASTM F714, AWWA C901, AWWA

E.(3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10) The appendix provides specific dimensional
ide diameter
controlled polyethylene pipe and tubing made in
158 Chapter 6
of PE Piping
Systems
ected ASTM andDesign
AWWA
standards.
e used to determine an average inside diameter for OD-controlled

ade to dimension ratio (DR) specifications in accordance with the
d standards. In(1-1)
these standards, pipe dimensions are specified as
2 HDS F T A F
ameter and, typically,
is specified as a minimum
PR =wall thickness
+12% tolerance is applied. (DR-1)
Therefore, an average ID for flow
may be determined by deducting twice the average wall thickness
(1-2)
2 HDS F A F from the average outside
ness plus half the
wall
PR =tolerance orT 6%)
(IDR+1)
WHERE
D
= Pressure
DPR
DO 2rating,
.12psi O
A
DRStress,
psi (Table 1-1)
HDS = Hydrostatic Design
Eq. 1-1
AF = Environmental Application Factor (Table 1-2)

NOTE: The environmental application factors given in Table 1-2 are not to be confused with the Design Factor, DF,
used in previous editions of the PPI Handbook and in older standards.

pipe average inside
diameter, in
FT = Service Temperature Design Factor (See Appendix to Chapter 3)
pipe outside diameter, in
DR = OD -Controlled Pipe Dimension Ratio
dimension ratio
(1-3)
DR
DO
t
Eq. 1-2
pipe minimum wall thickness, in
DO = OD-Controlled Pipe Outside Diameter, in.

t = Pipe Minimum Wall Thickness, in.
IDR = ID -Controlled Pipe Dimension Ratio
Controlled Pipe(1-4)
D
IDR = I
Eq. 1-6
t
diameter controlled pipes provide average dimensions for the pipe
are
used for flow
calculations.
ID-controlled
pipe standards include
ID-Controlled
Pipe
Inside Diameter,
in.
DI = ID-Controlled Pipe Inside Diameter, in.
M D2239, ASTM F894 and AWWA C901. (11,12,13)
Table 1-1
nd IDR are used
with outside diameter controlled and inside
Hydrostatic Design Stress and Service Temperatures
drostatic
Design Basis
Ratings
and Service
Temperatures
pipe respectively.
Certain
dimension
ratios that
meet an ASTM2708, PE 3608,
ASTM
eries
are standardized
dimension
ratios,
thatPEis2606,SDR
orPE
SIDR.
y
PE 3408
PE
2406
Property
Standard
PE2706
PE 3708, PE 4608
Standard
Hydrostatic Design Stress,

D 2837
HDS
at 73F(23C) 1600
23C)
ed temperature
ervice
ed Temperature
Service
psi
ASTM D2837 &

(11.04PPIMPa)
TR-3
Maximum recommended
temperature for140F
operating
Pressure Service*
(60C)*-
recommended 180F (82C)

Maximum
operating temperature for
materials
are stress rated at temperatures
Non-Pressure Service
PE 3710, PE 4710
630
psi (4.6
800 psi (5.5 MPa)
1250
psi MPa)
(8.62 MPa)
1000 psi
(6.9 MPa)
140F
140F
(60C)(60C)140F (60C)
140F (60C)
180F (82C)
180F (82C)
180F (82C)
lene piping
as high as 180 F. For
n regarding these materials and their use, the reader is referred to PPI, TR-4
180F (82C)
* Some PE piping materials are stress rated at temperatures as high as 180F. For more information regarding

these materials and their use, the reader is referred to PPI, TR-4.
gth of thermoplastic pipe is based on regression analysis of stressd in accordance with ASTM D2837. Analysis of the data obtained
s utilized to establish a stress intercept for the material under
0 hours. This intercept when obtained at 73 F is called the longength or LTHS. The LTHS typically falls within one of several
hat are detailed in ASTM D2837. This categorization of the LTHS
154-264.indd 158
erial establishes
its hydrostatic design basis or HDB. The HDB is
1/16/09 9:56:53 AM
Chapter 6 159
The Hydrostatic Design Stress, HDS, is the safe long-term circumferential stress that
PE pipe can withstand. It is derived by applying an appropriate design factor, DF,
to the Hydrostatic Design Basis, HDB. The method for establishing the Hydrostatic
Design Stress for PE pipe is described in Chapters 3 and 5.
At the time of this printing, AWWA is in the process of revising AWWA C906 to
incorporate PE4710 material and to use the HDS values in Table 1-1. The version in
effect at the time of this printing, AWWA C906-07, limits the maximum Hydrostatic
Design Stress to 800 psi for HDPE and to 630 psi for MDPE. AWWA C901-08 has been
revised to incorporate the materials listed in Table 1-1.
The Environmental Application Factor is used to adjust the pressure rating of
the pipe in environments where specific chemicals are known to have an effect
on PE and therefore require derating as described in Chapter 3. Table 1-2 gives
Environmental Applications Factors, AF, which should only be applied to pressure
equations (see Equations 1-1 and 1-2) based on the HDS, not the HDB.
Table 1-2
PE Pipe Environmental Application Factors (AF)*
Pipe Environment
Environmental Application
Factor (AF) at 73F (23C)
Water: Aqueous solutions of salts, acids and bases; Sewage; Wastewater;

Alcohols; Glycols (anti-freeze solutions)
1.0
Nitrogen; Carbon dioxide; Methane; Hydrogen sulfide; Non-Federally regulated

applications involving dry natural gas or other non-reactive gases
1.0
Fluids such as solvating/permeating chemicals in pipe or soil (typically

hydrocarbons) in 2% or greater concentration, natural or other fuel-gas liquids
condensates, crude oil, fuel oil, gasoline, diesel, kerosene, hydrocarbon fuels, wet
gas gathering, multiphase oilfield fluids, LVP liquid hydrocarbons, oilfield water
containing >2% hydrocarbons.
0.5
* Certain codes and standards include prohibitions and/or strength reduction factors relating to the presence
of certain constituents in the fluid being transported. In a code controlled application the designer
must ensure compliance with all code requirements.
When choosing the environmental applications factor (AF), consideration must

be given to Codes and Regulations, the fluid being transported, the external
environment, and the uncertainty associated with the design conditions of internal
pressure and external loads.
The pressure rating (PR) for PE pipe in water at 73F over the range of typical DRs is
given in Tables 1-3 A and 1-3 B in this chapter.
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160 Chapter 6
Pressure Rating for Fuel Gas Pipe

Compared to other common thermoplastic pipes, PE pipe can be used over a broader
temperature range. For pressure applications, it has been successfully used from -40F
(-40C) to 140F (60C). In the case of buried non-pressure applications it has been
used for conveying fluids that are at temperatures as high as 180F (82C). See Table
1-1. For pressure applications above 80F (27C) the Service Temperature Design
Factor is applied to determine the pressure rating. See Table A.2 in the Appendix to
Chapter 3.
The pressure rating for gas distribution and transmission pipe in US federally
regulated applications is determined by Title 49, Transportation, of The Code of
Federal Regulations. Part 192 of this code, which covers the transportation of natural
and other gases, requires that the maximum pressure rating (PR) of a PE pipe be
determined based on an HDS that is equal to the materials HDB times a DF of 0.32.
(See Chapter 5 for a discussion of the Design Factor, DF.) This is the equivalent of
saying that for high density PE pipe meeting the requirements of ASTM D2513 the
HDS is 500 psi at 73F and for medium density PE pipe meeting D2513 the HDS is
400 psi at 73F. There are additional restrictions imposed by this Code, such as the
maximum pressure at which a PE pipe may be operated (which at the time of this
writing is 125 psi for pipe 12-in and smaller and 100 psi for pipe larger than 12-in
through 24-in.) and the acceptable range of operating temperatures. The temperature
design factors for federally regulated pipes are different than those given in Table
A.2 in the Appendix to Chapter 3. Consult with the Federal Regulations to obtain the
correct temperature design factor for gas distribution piping.
At the time of this writing, there is an effort underway to amend the US federal
code to reflect changes already incorporated in ASTM F714 and D3035. When
amended, these changes will increase the pressure rating (PR) of pipe made with
high performance PR resins - those that meet the higher performance criteria listed in
Chapter 5 (see Determining the Appropriate Value of HDS), to be 25% greater than
pressure ratings of pipe made with traditional resins.
In Canada gas distribution pipe is regulated per CSA Z662-07. CSA allows a design
factor of 0.4 to be applied to the HDB to obtain the HDS for gas distribution pipe.
PE pipe meeting the requirements of ASTM D2513 may be used for the regulated
distribution and transmission of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). NFPA/ANSI 58
recommends a maximum operating pressure of 30 psig for LPG gas applications
involving polyethylene pipe. This design limit is established in recognition of the
higher condensation temperature for LPG as compared to that of natural gas and,
thus, the maximum operating pressure is recommended to ensure that plastic pipe
is not subjected to excessive exposure to LPG condensates. The Environmental
Application Factor for LP Gas Vapors (propane, propylene, and butane) is 0.8 with
154-264.indd 160
1/16/09 9:56:53 AM
Chapter 6 161
a maximum HDS of 800 psi at 73F for HDPE and 630 psi for MDPE. For further
information the reader is referred to PPIs TR-22, Polyethylene Piping Distribution
Systems for Components of Liquid Petroleum Gases.
The pressure rating for PE gas gathering lines in the US may differ depending upon
the class location (population density) of the gathering line. Gas gathering lines
in Class 2, 3 and 4 locations are regulated applications and subject to US federal
codes the same as gas distribution and transmission lines. Gas gathering lines in
Class 1 locations are not regulated in accordance with US federal codes, and may
be operated at service pressures determined using Equation 1-1. Non-regulated gas
gathering lines may use PE pipe meeting ASTM F2619 or API 15LE, and may be
larger than 24 diameter. PE pipe meeting ASTM D2513 is not required for nonregulated gas gathering lines.
In Canada, PE gas gathering lines are regulated in accordance with CSA Z662 Clause
13.3 and are required to meet API 15LE. PE gas gathering lines may be operated at
service pressures equivalent to those determined using Equation 1-1.
Pressure Rating for Liquid Flow Surge Pressure
Surge pressure events, which give rise to a rapid and temporary increase in
pressure in excess of the steady state condition, are the result of a very rapid
change in velocity of a flowing liquid. Generally, it is the fast closing of valves and
uncontrolled pump shutdowns that cause the most severe changes and oscillations
in fluid velocity and, consequently in temporary major pressure oscillations.
Sudden changes in demand can also lead to lesser but more frequent pressure
oscillations. For many pipe materials repeated and frequent pressure oscillations
can cause gradual and cumulative fatigue damage which necessitate specifying
higher pressure class pipes than determined solely based on sustained pressure
requirements. And, for those pipe materials a higher pressure class may also be
required for avoiding pipe rupture under the effect of occasional but more severe
high-pressure peaks. Two properties distinguish PE pipes from these other kinds
of pipes. The first is that because of their lower stiffness the peak value of a surge
pressures that is generated by a sudden change in velocity is significantly lower than
for higher stiffness pipes such as metallic pipes. And, the second is that a higher
pressure rating (PR), or pressure class (PC), is generally not required to cope with the
effects of pressure surges. Research, backed by extensive actual experience, indicates
that PE pipes can safely tolerate the commonly observed maximum peak temporary
surge pressure of twice the steady state condition. Furthermore, the long-term
strength of PE pipes is not adversely affected by repeated cyclic loading that is, PE
pipes are very fatigue resistant.
154-264.indd 161
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162 Chapter 6
In the design of PE pipe, pressure surges are generally classified as Occasional

pressure surges, Recurring pressure surges, and Negative pressures.
Occasional surge pressures are caused by emergency operations such as fire flow or
as a result of a malfunction, such as a power failure or system component failure,
which includes pump seize-up, valve stem failure and pressure relief valve failure.
Recurring surge pressures are inherent to the design and operation of a system.
Recurring surge pressures can be caused by normal pump start up or shut down,
normal valve opening and closing, and/or background pressure fluctuations
associated with normal pipe operation.
Negative pressure may be created by a surge event and cause a localized collapse
by buckling. (Negative pressure may also occur inside flowing pipelines due to
improper hydraulic design.)
In recognition of the performance behavior of PE pipes the following design
principles have been adopted by AWWA for all PE pressure class (PC) rated pipes.
These design principles, which are as follows, are also applicable to PE water pipes
that are pressure rated (PR) in accordance with ASTM and CSA standards:
1. Resistance to Occasional Pressure Surges:
The resultant total pressure sustained plus surge must not exceed 2.0 times the
pipes temperature compensated pressure rating (PR). See Tables 1-3 A and 1-3 B
for standard surge allowances when the pipe is operated at its full rated pressure.
In the rare case where the resultant total pressure exceeds 2.0 times the pipes
temperature adjusted PR, the pipe must be operated at a reduced pressure so that
the above criterion is satisfied. In this event the pipes reduced pressure rating is
sometimes referred to as the pipes working pressure rating (WPR), meaning
that for a specific set of operating conditions (temperature, velocity, and surge)
this is the pipes pressure rating. AWWA uses the term WPR not just for a reduced
pressure rating but for any pressure rating based on application specific conditions.
Where the total pressure during surge does not exceed the standard allowance of
2.0 (occasional) and 1.5 (recurring) the WPR equals the temperature adjusted PR.
The maximum sustained pressure must never exceed the pipes temperature
adjusted pressure rating (PR).
Example:
A PE pipe has a DR = 17 and is made from a PE4710 material. Accordingly, its

standard pressure rating (PR) for water, at 73F is 125 psi (See Table A.1 in Appendix
to Chapter 3). The maximum sustained water temperature shall remain below 73F.
Accordingly, no temperature compensation is required and therefore, the pipes
initial WPR is equal to its standard PR or, 125 psi.
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Chapter 6 163
Let us first assume that the maximum occasional surge pressure shall never exceed
120 psi. Since a WPR of 125 psi plus a surge of 120 psi is less than 2 times 125 psi the
pipes initial WPR of 125 psi remains at that value.
Now let us assume a second case in which the maximum occasional surge pressure
can be as high as 150 psi. This pressure plus the pipes initial WPR of 125 psi result in
a total momentary pressure of 275 psi, which is 25 psi above the limit of 2 x 125 psi =
250 psi. To accommodate this 25 psi excess it is necessary to reduce the pipes initial
WPR of 125 to a final WPR of 100 psi.
2. Resistance to Recurring Pressure Surges:
The resultant total momentary pressure sustained plus surge must not exceed
1.5 times the pipes temperature adjusted pressure rating (PR). See Tables 1-3 A
and 1-3 B for standard surge allowance when the pipe is operated at its full rated
pressure.
In the rare case where the resultant total pressure exceeds 1.5 times the pipes
temperature adjusted PR the pressure rating must be reduced to the pipes WPR so
that the above criterion is satisfied.
The maximum sustained pressure must never exceed the pipes temperature
adjusted PR.
3. Resistance to Localized Buckling When Subjected to a Negative Pressure Generated
by a Surge Event
A buried pipes resistance to localized buckling while under the combined effect of
external pressure and a very temporary full vacuum should provide an adequate
margin of safety. The design for achieving this objective is discussed in a later
section of this chapter. It has been shown that a DR21 pipe can withstand a recurring
negative pressure surge equal to a full vacuum at 73F. Higher DR pipes may also
be able to withstand a recurring negative surge equal to full vacuum if they are
properly installed and have soil support. Their resistance may be calculated using
Luschers Equation presented later in this chapter.
Estimating the Magnitude of Pressure Surges
Regardless of the type of pipe being used surge or water hammer problems can
be complex especially in interconnected water networks and they are best evaluated
by conducting a formal surge analysis (See References 25 and 32). For all water
networks, rising mains, trunk mains and special pump/valve circumstances a
detailed surge analysis provides the best way of anticipating and designing for
surge.
154-264.indd 163
1/16/09 9:56:53 AM
surge pressures are caused by emergency operations. Occasional

ures are usually
the result of a malfunction, such as power failure or
164 Chapter 6
of PEincludes
Piping Systems pump seize-up, valve stem failure and
mponent failure, Design
which
ief valve failure.
WPR for a selected DR, the pressure surge must be calculated. The
s may be used to estimate the pressure surge created in pressure
Absent a formal surge analysis, an estimate of the magnitude of a surge pressure can
ms.
be made by evaluating the surge pressure that results from an anticipated sudden
change in velocity in the water flowing inside a PE pipe.
in the velocity of a flowing liquid generates a pressure wave. The

e may be determined
using
Equation
1-21.of a flowing liquid in a pipe generates a pressure
An abrupt
change
in the velocity
wave. The velocity of the wave may be determined using Equation 1-5.
(1-5)
4660
a
1
Eq. 1-21
K BULK
( DR 2)
Ed
16
Where
Wave velocity a(celerity),

= Wave velocityft/sec
(celerity), ft/sec
Bulk modulus KofBULK
fluid
at
working
temperature
= Bulk modulus of fluid
at working temperature (typically 300,000 psi for water at 73F)
ynamic
instantaneous
effective
modulus
of pipe
material
(typically
300,000
psi
for
water
at
73oF)modulus
Ed = Dynamic instantaneous effective
of pipe
material
150,000
psi for all PE pipe at 73F (23C)); see Appendix to Chapter 3
pically 150,000 psi(typically
for PE
pipe)
DR = Pipe dimension ratio
pe dimension ratio
The resultant transient surge pressure, Ps, may be calculated from the wave velocity,
t surge pressure,
Ps,the
may
be change
calculated
from
the
wave
velocity, a,
a, and
sudden
in fluid
velocity,
V.
d velocity, v. (1-6)
V
Eq. 1-22
Ps = a
2.31g
Where
PS = Transient surge pressure, psig
a = Wave velocity
(celerity), ft/sec
ansient surge pressure,
psig
V = Sudden
velocity change, ft/sec
ave velocity (celerity),
ft/sec
g = Constant of gravitational acceleration, 32.2 ft/sec
dden velocity change, ft/sec
Figure 1-1acceleration,
represents the pressure
surge2 curves for all PE pipes as calculated using
nstant of gravitational
32.2 ft/sec
2
Equations 1-5 and 1-6 for Standard Dimension Ratios (SDRs).
e pressure surge curves for PE3408 as calculated using Equations 1-21

imension Ratios (DRs).
SDR 7.3
SDR 9
SDR 11
SDR 13.5
SDR 17
SDR 21
SDR 26
SDR 32.5
154-264.indd 164
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Chapter 6 165
Pressure Surge, psig
Sudden Changes in Flow Rate, fps

* A value of 150,000 psi and 300,000 psi were used for Ed and K, respectively.
** Calculated surge pressure values applicable to water at temperatures not exceeding 80F (27C).
Figure 1-1 Sudden Velocity Change vs. Pressure Surge for All PE Pipes
The surge pressure values in Figure 1-1 are based on a sudden change in velocity,
which may more often be the case for events like a sudden pump shut-down or a
rapid valve closure. A sudden shut-down or a rapid closure occurs faster than the
critical time (the time it takes a pressure wave initiated at the beginning of a valve
closing to return again to the valve). Under ordinary operations, during which
valve closings and pump shut-downs are slower than the critical time, the actual
pressure surge is smaller than that in Figure 1-1. The critical time is determined by
means of the following relationship:
(1-7)
T CR = 2L/a
WHERE
TCR = critical time, seconds
L = distance within the pipeline that the pressure wave moves before it is reflected back by a boundary

condition, ft
a = wave velocity (celerity) of pressure wave for the particular pipe, ft/s. (See Equation 1-5)
Generally, PE pipes capacity for safely tolerating occasional and frequently occurring
surges is such that seldom are surge pressures large enough to require a de-rating of
the pipes static pressure rating. Tables 1-3 A and 1-3 B show the maximum allowable
sudden changes in water flow velocity (V) that are safely tolerated without the need
154-264.indd 165
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166 Chapter 6
to de-rate the pressure rating (PR) or, the pressure class (PC), of a PE pipe. If sudden
changes in velocity are expected to be greater than the values shown in these Tables,
they then must be accommodated by lowering the pipes static pressure rating. As
previously discussed, the new rating is called the working pressure rating (WPR).The
procedure for establishing a WPR has been discussed earlier in this Section.
Table 1-3A
Allowances for Momentary Surge Pressures Above PR or PC for Pipes Made From PE4710 and PE3710 Materials1.
Standard Allowance for Momentary Surge Pressure Above the
Pipes PR or PC
Pipe Standard
Diameter Ratio
(SDR)
Standard Static
Allowance for Recurring Surge
Pressure Rating
(PR) or, Standard
Resultant
Pressure Class
Allowable
(PC) for water @ Allowable Surge Sudden Change
73F, psig
Pressure, psig
in Velocity, fps
Allowance for Occasional Surge
Allowable Surge
Pressure, psig
Resultant
Allowable
Sudden Change
in Velocity, fps
32.5
63
32
4.0
63
8.0
26
80
40
4.5
80
9.0
21
100
50
5.0
100
10.0
17
125
63
5.6
125
11.2
13.5
160
80
6.2
160
12.4
11
200
100
7.0
200
14.0
250
125
7.7
250
15.4
7.3
320
160
8.7
320
17.4
1. AWWA C906-07 limits the maximum Pressure Class of PE pipe to the values shown in Table B. At the time of
this printing C906 is being revised to allow PC values in Table A to be used for PE3710 and PE4710 materials.

Check the latest version of C906
Table 1-3 B
Allowances for Momentary Surge Pressures Above PR or PC for Pipes Made from PE 2708, PE3408, PE3608,
PE3708 and PE4708 Materials.
Standard Allowance for Momentary Surge Pressure Above the
Pipes PR or PC
Pipe Standard
Diameter Ratio
(SDR)
154-264.indd 166
Standard Static
Allowance for Recurring Surge
Pressure Rating
Resultant
(PR) or, Standard
Allowable
Pressure Class
(PC), for Water @ Allowable Surge Sudden Change
Pressure, psig
in Velocity, fps
73F, psig
Allowance for Occasional Surge
Allowable Surge
Pressure, psig
Resultant
Allowable
Sudden Change
in Velocity, fps
32.5
50
25
3.1
50
6.2
26
63
32
3.6
63
7.2
21
80
40
4.0
80
8.0
17
100
50
4.4
100
8.8
13.5
125
63
4.9
125
9.8
11
160
80
5.6
160
11.2
200
100
6.2
200
12.4
7.3
250
125
6.8
250
13.6
1/16/09 9:56:54 AM
Chapter 6 167
The surge pressure allowance in Table 1-3 A and 1-3 B are not the maximum surge
limits that the pipe can safely withstand. Higher surge pressures can be tolerated in
pipe where the working pressure rating (WPR) of the pipe is limited to a pressure
less than the pressure rating (PR). This works because the combined total pressure for
surge and for pumping pressure is limited to 1.5 times the PR (or PC) for recurring
surge and 2.0 times the PR (or PC) for occasional surge. If the pumping pressure is
less than the PR (or PC) then a higher surge than the standard allowance given in
Table A and B is permitted. The maximum permitted surge pressure is equal to 1.5 x
PR WP for recurring surge and 2.0 x PR WP for occasional surge, where WP is the
pumping or working pressure of the pipeline. For example a DR21 PE4710 pipe with
an operating pressure of 80 psi can tolerate a recurring surge pressure of 1.5 x 100 psi
80 psi = 70 psi. Note that in all cases WP must be equal or less than PR.
Controlling Surge Pressure Reactions
Reducing the rate at which a change in flow velocity occurs is the major means by
which surge pressure rises can be minimized. Although PE pipe is very tolerant
of such rises, other non-PE components may not be as surge tolerant; therefore,
the prudent approach is to minimize the magnitude of surge pressures by taking
reasonable precautions to minimize shock. Hydrants, large valves, pumps, and all
other hydraulic appurtenances that may suddenly change the velocity of a column of
water should be operated slowly, particularly during the portion of travel near valve
closing which has the larger effect on rate of flow. If the cause of a major surge can be
attributable to pump performance especially, in the case of an emergency stoppage
then, proper pressure relief mechanisms should be included. These can include
traditional solutions such as by providing flywheels or by allowing the pumps to run
backwards.
In hilly regions, a liquid flow may separate at high points and cause surge pressures
when the flow is suddenly rejoined. In such cases measures should be taken to keep
the pipeline full at all times. These can consist of the reducing of the flow rate, of the
use at high points of vacuum breakers or, of air relief valve.
Also, potential surge pressure problems should be investigated in the design of
pumping station piping, force mains, and long transmission lines. Proven and
suitable means should be provided to reduce the effect of surges to a minimum
that is practicable and economical. Although PE pipe is much more tolerant of the
effect of sudden pressure increases traditional measures should be employed for the
minimizing of the occurrence of such increases.
154-264.indd 167
1/16/09 9:56:54 AM
168
Chapter 6
Section 2
Hydraulic Design of PE Pipe
This section provides design information for determining the required flow diameter
for PE pipe. It also covers the following topics: general fluid flows in pipe and
fittings, liquid (water and water slurry) flow under pressure, non-pressure(gravity)
liquid flow, and compressible gas flow under pressure. Network flow analysis and
design is not addressed.(1,2)
The procedure for piping system design is frequently an iterative process. For
pressure liquid flows, initial choice of pipe flow diameter and resultant combinations
of sustained internal pressure, surge pressure, and head loss pressure can affect pipe
selection. For non-pressure systems, piping design typically requires selecting a pipe
size that provides adequate reserve flow capacity and a wall thickness or profile
design that sufficiently resists anticipated static and dynamic earthloads. This trial
pipe is evaluated to determine if it is appropriate for the design requirements of the
application. Evaluation may show that a different size or external load capacity may
be required and, if so, a different pipe is selected then reevaluated. The Appendix to
Chapter 3 provides engineering data for PE pipes made to industry standards that are
discussed in this chapter and throughout this handbook.
Pipe ID for Flow Calculations
Thermoplastic pipes are generally produced in accordance with a dimension ratio
(DR) system. The dimension ratio, DR or IDR, is the ratio of the pipe diameter to the
respective minimum wall thickness, either OD or ID, respectively. As the diameter
changes, the pressure rating remains constant for the same material, dimension ratio
and application. The exception to this practice is production of thermoplastic pipe in
accordance with the industry established SCH 40 and SCH 80 dimensions such as
referenced in ASTM D 2447.
Flow Diameter for Outside Diameter Controlled Pipe
OD-controlled pipe is dimensioned by outside diameter and wall thickness. Several
sizing systems are used including IPS, which specifies the same ODs as iron pipe
sized (IPS) pipe: DIPS pipe which specifies the same ODs as ductile iron pipe; and
CTS, which specifies the same ODs as copper tubing sizes. For flow calculations,
inside diameter is calculated by deducting twice the average wall thickness from
the specified outside diameter. OD-controlled pipe standards include ASTM D2513,
ASTM D2737, ASTM D2447, ASTM D3035, ASTM F714, AWWA C901, AWWA C906
and API 15LE.(3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10) The Appendix to this chapter provides specific dimensional
information for outside diameter controlled PE pipe and tubing that is made to
154-264.indd 168
1/16/09 9:56:54 AM
in PPI TR-4. Two design factors, DF and FT, are used to relate
the outside
diameter.
OD-controlled
pipeto standards
include
itions
and service
temperature
conditions
the product.
SeeASTM
D2737,
ASTM
D2447,
ASTM
D3035,
ASTM
F714,
AWWA
C901,
AWWA
If the HDB at an elevated temperature is known, that HDB value
15LE.(3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10)
The
appendix
provides
specific
dimensional
Chapter 6
quation 1-3 or 1-4, and the service temperature design factor, FTDesign
,
of PE Piping Systems
outside
diameter
controlled
polyethylene
pipe
and
tubing
made
in
he elevated HDB is not known, then FT should be used, but this will
hower
selected
ASTM
and AWWA
standards.
or more
conservative
pressure
rating.
169
may be used to determine an average inside diameter for OD-controlled

pe made to dimension
ratio(DR)
(DR)
specifications
in accordance
with
the ASTM,
dimension ratio
requirements
in accordance
with a number
of different
renced standards.
In
these
standards,
pipe
dimensions
are
specified
as
AWWA,
and API
2 HDBCSA
x DF
x FTstandards.
P
Eq.
1-3
de diameter and, typically, wall thickness is specified as a minimum
DR
1 diameter for such pipes has been calculated using Equation 2-1.
The average
d a +12% tolerance
is inside
applied.
Therefore, an average ID for flow
Typically, wall thickness is specified as a minimum dimension, and a plus 12%
poses may be determined by deducting twice the average wall thickness
tolerance
is applied.
the average ID is determined by deducting
2 HDB
DF tolerance
x In
FTthis equation,
thickness plus
half
the xwall
or 6%) from the average
outside
P twice
Eq.
1-4
the average wall thickness (minimum wall thickness
plus
a tolerance of 6%)
IDR 1
from the average outside diameter.
(2-1)
DO
2
.
12
D
=
D
I
A
O
Pressure rating, psi
DR
Hydrostatic Design Basis, psi
Design Factor, Where
from Table 1-2
DI = pipe average
inside
diameter, in
Service
Temperature
Design
Factor,
=
pipe average inside
diameter,
infrom Table 1-3
D
=
specified
average
value
of
pipe
diameter, in
1.0
used.
O temperature HDB is outside
= if the
pipeelevated
outside
diameter, in
DR = dimension
ratio
OD
= -Controlled
dimension Pipe
ratio Dimension Ratio
(2-2)
DR
D
D
DRO = O
t
t
Eq. 1-1
Eq. 1-2
Eq. 1-5
t = pipe Outside
minimum
wallDiameter,
thickness,in
in in.
=
pipe minimum
wall thickness,
OD-Controlled
Pipe
Pipe Minimum Wall Thickness, in.
Pipe Dimension
Diameter for
ID Controlled Pipe
ID -Controlled Pipe
Ratio
Standards for inside diameter controlled pipes provide average dimensions for
for ID Controlled
thePipe
pipe inside diameter that are used for flow calculations. ID-controlled pipe
standards include ASTM D2104, ASTM D2239, ASTM F894 and AWWA C901. (11,12,13)
nside diameter The

controlled
pipes provide average dimensions for the pipe
terms DR and IDR identify the diameter to wall thickness dimension ratios
that are used for
flow
calculations.
ID-controlled
pipe standards
include
for outside diameter controlled
and inside diameter
controlled pipe,
respectively.
ASTM D2239, ASTM
F894
and
AWWA
C901.
(11,12,13)
When those ratios comply with standard values they are called standard dimension
ratios, that is SDR or SIDR. A discussion of standard dimension ratios is included in
Chapter
5.
are used
with outside diameter controlled and inside
R and IDR
olled pipe respectively. Certain dimension ratios that meet an ASTMber series are Fluid
standardized
ratios, that is SDR or SIDR.
Flow in PEdimension
Piping
Head Loss in Pipes Darcy-Weisbach/Colebrook/Moody
Viscous shear stresses within the liquid and friction along the pipe walls create
resistance to flow within a pipe. This resistance results in a pressure drop, or loss of
head in the piping system.
The Darcy-Weisbach formula, Equation 2-3., and the Colebrook formula, Equation
2-6, are generally accepted methods for calculating friction losses due to liquids
154-264.indd 169
1/16/09 9:56:54 AM
or Fanning
Equation
1-7,aand
Colebrook
formula,
within
a pipe. formula,
This resistance
within
pipethe
results
in a pressure
drop,
enerally
for calculating
friction
due to
stresses
within
themethods
liquid and
friction along
the losses
pipe walls
create
he pipingaccepted
system.
pipes.(15,16)
These
formulas recognize
dependence
on
pipe boredrop,
w
within a pipe.
This
resistance
within
a
pipe
results
in
a
pressure
170 Chapter 6
acteristics,
liquid
viscosity and flow velocity.
nach
the or
piping
system.
Fanning
formula, Equation 1-7, and the Colebrook formula,
e generally accepted methods for calculating friction losses due to

formula
bach
or is:
FanningThese
formula,
Equation
1-7, and
the Colebrook
formula,
ull
pipes.(15,16)
formulas
recognize
dependence
on pipe
bore
are
generally
accepted
methods
for
calculating
friction
losses
due
to
haracteristics, liquid viscosity and flow velocity.
2
full pipes.(15,16) TheseL formulas
recognize dependence on pipe bore
V
flowing
in full pipes.(15,16) These formulas recognize dependence
Eq. 1-7on pipe bore and
hliquid
f = fviscosity and flow velocity.
characteristics,
d
'
2
g
ach formula is:
pipe surface characteristics, liquid viscosity and flow velocity.
The Darcy-Weisbach formula is:
bach formula is:(2-3)

LV 2
Eq. 1-7
f
iction (head) loss, ft.h fof liquid
d
'
2
g
2
ipeline length, ft.
LV
Eq. 1-7
hf
f
ipe inside diameter, ft.
d ' 2g
Where
ow velocity, ft/sec.
= friction (head) loss, ft. of liquid
friction (head)hf loss,
ft. of liquid
L = pipeline length, ft.
pipeline length, ft.0 . 4085 Q
= pipe inside diameter, ft.
Vd
=loss,
Eq. 1-8
friction
(head)
ft.
liquid
pipe
inside
diameter,
ft. 2of
V = flow
velocity,
ft/sec.
D
l
pipeline
length,
ft. factor (dimensionless, but dependent upon pipe surface roughness and Reynolds number)
f ft/sec.
= friction
flow
velocity,
g
= constant of gravitational
acceleration (32.2ft/sec
pipe
inside
diameter,
ft.
onstant of gravitational acceleration
(32.2ft/sec2))
flow velocity,
0 . 4085 Q
ow rate,
gpm Theft/sec.
equation
Vflow velocity 2may be computed by means of the following
Eq.
1-8
ipe inside diameter, in
D
l
(2-4)
0 . 4085
Q
iction factor (dimensionless,
but dependent
upon pipe surface Eq. 1-8
V
2
constant
of
gravitational
acceleration
(32.2ft/sec2)
Dl
oughness and Reynolds number)
flow rate, gpm
2
constant
gravitational
pipe
insideofdiameter,
in acceleration (32.2ft/sec )
Where
flow rate,
gpm
Q(dimensionless,
= flow rate, gpm
friction
factor
but dependent upon pipe surface
pipe inside
diameter,
DI of
=Reynolds
pipe
insidein
diameter,
in
and
number)
willroughness
assume
one
three
flow
regimes.
The flow regime may be
friction
factor
(dimensionless,
but
dependent
upon
pipe
surface
in transition Liquid
between
laminar
turbulent.
Inflow
laminar
flow
flow in
pipes willand
assume
one of three
regimes.
The flow regime may be laminar,
roughness
and
number)
e, below
2000),
theReynolds
pipes
roughness
hasand
noturbulent.
effect and
is
turbulent
or in surface
transition
between laminar
In laminar
flow (Reynolds number, Re,
As such, the below
friction
factor,
f
,
is
calculated
using
Equation
1-9.
2000), the pipes surface roughness has no effect and is considered negligible. As such, the
es will assume friction
one offactor,
three
regimes.
The flow
, isflow
calculated
using Equation
2-5. regime may be
or in transition
between
laminar
and
turbulent.
In laminar flow
(2-5)
64
pes
will
assume
one
of
three
flow
regimes.
The
flow
may
be
r, Re, below 2000), fthe
effect
and is
= pipes surface roughness has noregime
Eq. 1-9
Re factor,
nt
in such,
transition
between
laminar
and turbulent.
In laminar
ble.or As
the friction
f, is calculated
using Equation
1-9.flow
er, Re, below 2000), the pipes surface roughness has no effect and is
Where
Reynolds
number,
Re, above
the friction
f, 1-9.
is
gible.
As such,
the friction
factor,4000),
f, is calculated
usingfactor,
Equation
64 dimensionless = < 2000 for laminar flow, see Equation 2-7
Re = Reynolds number,
actors, the Reynolds number
and pipe surface roughness. Eq.
The 1-9
f

> 4000 for turbulent flow, see Figure 2-1
Re
64
For turbulent
f flow (Reynolds number, Re, above 4000), the friction
Eq. factor,
1-9 , is
w (Reynolds number,
Re,
above
4000),
thenumber
friction
factor,
f, roughness.
is
Re
dependent on
two
factors, the
Reynolds
and pipe
surface
The
friction
factor may
determined
fromroughness.
Figure 2-1, the Moody
o factors, the resultant
Reynolds
number
andbepipe
surface
The Diagram.
(17)
ow (Reynolds This
number,
Re, to
above
theto all
friction
factor,
f, Moody
is
factor applies
all kinds4000),
of PEs and
pipe sizes
. In the
Diagram,
wo factors, therelative
Reynolds
number
The
roughness,
/d (seeand
Tablepipe
2-1 forsurface
) is usedroughness.
which is the ratio
of absolute
2
roughness to the pipe inside diameter. The friction factor may also be determined
using the Colebrook formula. The friction factor can also be read from the Moody
diagram with enough accuracy for calculation.
154-264.indd 170
1/16/09 9:56:54 AM
2Figure
.51H 2.51
2.51
ctor may1 be determined
1-1,
the Moody Diagram, which can be
1
1 H from
Eq. 1-10
Eq. 1-10
Eq. 1-10

=

+

2
log
2
log
2
log
10
10
10
various fpipe f materials
' 3.7Re
dsizes.(17)
' 3.f7Re
d ' fRe
f 3.7 dand
f the Moody Diagram, relative
In
s, /d (see Table 1-4 for ) is used. The friction factor may then be determined
Chapter 6
Colebrook
formula.
The
friction
factor
can
also
be read from the
Moody
1-10,
sand
1-91-10,
terms
and 1-10,
terms
are
as
terms
are
previously
as
are
previously
as
previously
defined,
defined,
and:
defined,
and:
and:
with enough accuracy for calculation.
esolute
roughness,
absolute
roughness,
roughness,
ft. ft.
ft.
eynolds
ds number,
Reynolds
number,
dimensionless
number,
dimensionless
dimensionless
brook formula is:
'' U Vd
Vd ' Vd
Vd
Vd
The Colebrook
formula
is: '' Vd ' U
Eq. 1-11
Eq. 1-11
Eq. 1-11
Re Re = Re =
(2-6) v
Hg
1 vP g v g P
2.51
Eq. 1-10
2 log10

f
3.7 d ' Re f
3126 Q
3126 Q3126 Q
Eq. 1-12
Eq. 1-12
Eq. 1-12
Re Re = Re
DI are
k Das
k
D
k
ulas 1-9 and 1-10, terms
previously
defined,
and:
I
I
171
For Formulas 2-5 and 2-6, terms are as previously defined, and:
=
absolute roughness,
ft. ft. (see Table 2-1)
= absolute roughness,
=
Reynolds2 Rnumber,
dimensionless
number, dimensionless (see Equation 2-5)
e = Reynolds
nematic
tic viscosity,
kinematic
viscosity,
ftviscosity,
/sec
ft2/secft2/sec
' Vd
'U
Vd
Liquid flow
a pipe
occurs
turbulent
Eq. 1-11
* g inRe
g *
g in one of three flow regimes. It can be laminar,
P g and turbulent. The nature
Q transition
= between
Q v laminar
Eq. 1-13
Eq.
Eq.depends
1-13 on
or in
of
the1-13
flow
the pipe diameter, the density and viscosity of the flowing fluid, and the velocity
3
3of flow.
value Q
of a dimensionless combination of these parameters is
3126
nsity,
id density,
fluid
lb/ft
density,
lb/ft lb/ft3 The numerical
Eq. 1-12
Re
2
2
2
known
aslb-sec/ft
the Reynolds number
DI k and the resultant value of this number is a predictor
cnamic
viscosity,
dynamic
viscosity,
lb-sec/ft
viscosity,
lb-sec/ft
of the nature of the flow. One form of the equation for the computing of this number
nematic
tic viscosity,
kinematic
viscosity,
centistokes
viscosity,
centistokes
centistokes
is as follows:
2 z Q z
z 3160
kinematic (2-7)
viscosity,
kRe =k ft= /sec
k
s k Di
s
s
Eq. 1-14
Eq. 1-14
Eq. 1-14
*g
Q
Eq. 1-13
cnamic
viscosity,
dynamic
viscosity,
centipoises
viscosity,
centipoises
centipoises
3 Where
3
3
U
ensity,
uidliquid
density,
gm/cm
density,
gm/cm
gm/cm
Q = rate of flow, gallons per minute
r,
k = kinematic
=
fluid density,
lb/ft3 viscosity, in centistokes (See Table 2-3 for values for water)
r, Re,
2 in
Di = internal diameter of pipe,
,=the dynamic viscosity, lb-sec/ft
through
ction
loss kinematic
through
loss
one
through
size
one
pipe
size
oneis
pipe
size
known,
is
pipe
known,
the
is known,
friction
the friction
the
lossfriction
through
loss through
loss
another
through
another
another
=
viscosity,
centistokes
iameter
ent
er may
diameter
be
may
found
be
may
found
by:
bethe
found
by:
by:
When
friction
loss through one size pipe is known, the friction loss through
another pipe of different size
z may be found by:
Eq. 1-14
k
5
5 s
5
(2-8)
d ' d ' d '
Eq. 1-15
Eq. 1-15
Eq. 1-15
h f 1 h ff 12 = h1f 12 h1f 2 1
=
dynamic viscosity, dcentipoises
' 23 d ' 2 d ' 2
=
liquid density, gm/cm
The subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the known and unknown pipes. Both pipes must have
the same surface roughness, and the fluid must be the same viscosity and have the
through
one
size pipe is known, the friction loss through another
same flow
rate.
friction loss
ferent diameter may be found by:
hf1
154-264.indd 171
d'
h f 2 1
d '2
Eq. 1-15
1/16/09 9:56:55 AM
172
Chapter 6
Table 2-1
Surface Roughness for Various New Pipes
Absolute Roughness of Surface, ft
Type of Pipe
Values for New

Pipe Reported by
Reference(18)
Values for New Pipe and Recommended Design

Values Reported by Reference(19)
Mean Value
Recommended
Design Value
Riveted steel
0.03 - 0.003
Concrete
0.01 0.001
Wood stave
Cast Iron Uncoated
Cast Iron Coated
Galvanized Iron
0.0003 0.0006
0.00085
0.00074
0.00083
0.00033
0.00042
0.00050
0.00033
0.00042
Cast Iron Asphalt Dipped
0.0004
Commercial Steel or Wrought Iron
0.00015
0.000005 corresponds
to smooth pipe
Drawn Tubing
Uncoated Stee
0.00009
0.00013
Coated Steel
0.00018
0.00018
Uncoated Asbestos Cement
Cement Mortar Relined Pipes

(Tate Process)
0.00167
0.00167
Smooth Pipes
(PE and other thermoplastics,
Brass, Glass and Lead)
smooth pipe
( 0.000005 feet)
(See Note)
smooth pipe
(0.000005)
(See Note)
Note: Pipes that have absolute roughness equal to or less than 0.000005 feet are considered to exhibit
smooth pipe characteristics.
Pipe Deflection Effects

Pipe flow formulas generally assume round pipe. Because of its flexibility, buried
PE pipe will deform slightly under earth and other loads to assume somewhat of an
elliptical shape having a slightly increased lateral diameter and a correspondingly
reduced vertical diameter. Elliptical deformation slightly reduces the pipes flow
area. Practically speaking, this phenomenon can be considered negligible as it
relates to pipe flow capacity. Calculations reveal that an elliptical deformation
which reduces the pipes vertical diameter by 7% results in a flow reduction of
approximately 1%.
154-264.indd 172
1/16/09 9:56:55 AM
Head Loss in Fittings

Fluids flowing through a fitting or valve will experience a friction loss that can
be directly
Chapter 6 173
expressed using a resistance coefficient, K, for the particular Design
fitting.(20)
As
shown in
of PE Piping
Systems
the discussion that follows, head loss through a fitting can be conveniently added into
system flow calculations as an equivalent length of straight pipe having the same
diameter as system piping. Table 1-5 presents K factors for various fittings.
Wh
ere
a
pip
elin
e
con
tain
sa
lar
ge
nu
mb
er
of
fitti
ngs
in
clo
se
pro
xim
ity
Note for the Moody Diagram: D = pipe inside diameter, ft
to
each other, this simplified method of predicting flow loss may not be adequate due to
Figure 2-1 The Moody Diagram
the cumulative systems effect. Where this is a design consideration, the designer
Head Loss in Fittings
Fluids flowing through a fitting or valve will experience a friction loss that can
be directly expressed using a resistance coefficient, K, which represents the loss
in terms of an equivalent length of pipe of the same diameter.(20) As shown in the
discussion that follows, this allows the loss through a fitting to be conveniently
added into the system flow calculations. Table 2-2 presents K factors for various
fittings.
Where a pipeline contains a large number of fittings in close proximity to each
other, this simplified method of predicting flow loss may not be adequate due to the
cumulative systems effect. Where this is a design consideration, the designer should
consider an additional frictional loss allowance, or a more thorough treatment of the
fluid mechanics.
The equivalent length of pipe to be used to estimate the friction loss due to fittings
may be obtained by Eq. 2-9 where LEFF = Effective Pipeline length, ft; D is pipe bore
diameter in ft.; and K is obtained from Table 2-2.
(2-9)
154-264.indd 173
LEFF = KD
1/16/09 9:56:55 AM
ping Component
K
40
174 Chapter 6
21
6
ow
32
ow
27
Table 2-2
Representative Fittings Factor, K, To Determine Equivalent Length of Pipe
ow
Piping Component
ow
90 Molded Elbow
45 Molded elbow
90 Fabricated Elbow (3 or more miters)
15 Molded Elbow
90 Fabricated Elbow (2 miters)
Run/Branch
Run/Run

21
1640
21
116
524
30
6060
25
6016
15
2012
8
entional, Fully Open

340
8
145
60
entional, Fully Open

Equal Outlet Tee, Run/Branch
in , Fully Open
entional Swing
Equal Outlet Tee, Run/Run

Globe Valve, Conventional, Fully Open
Angle Valve, Conventional, Fully Open
Butterfly Valve, >8, Fully Open
Check Valve, Conventional Swing
20
40
340
145
135
40
135
- K values are based on Crane Technical Paper No 410-C
vation Change
- K value for Molded Elbows is based on a radius that is 1.5 times the diameter.
- K value for Fabricated Elbows is based on a radius that is approximately 3 times the diameter.
e lost or gained from a change in elevation. For liquids, the

Head Loss Due to Elevation Change
evation change
is given by:
Line pressure may be lost or gained from a change in elevation. For liquids, the
pressure for a given elevation change is given by:
(2-10)
hE = h2 h1
Eq. 1-17
Elevation head, ft of liquid

where
hE = Elevation head, ft of liquid
h1 = Pipeline elevation at point 1, ft

h2 = Pipeline elevation at point 2, ft
If a pipeline is subject to a uniform elevation rise or fall along its length, the two
points would be the elevations at each end of the line. However, some pipelines
may have several elevation changes as they traverse rolling or mountainous terrain.
These pipelines may be evaluated by choosing appropriate points where the pipeline
slope changes, then summing the individual elevation heads for an overall pipeline
elevation head.
154-264.indd 174
1/16/09 9:56:55 AM
vation changes as they traverse rolling or mountainous terrain. These

e conveying liquids and running full, pressure in the pipe due to elevation
may be evaluated by choosing appropriate points where the pipeline slope
her or not liquid is flowing. At any low point in the line, internal pressure will
hen summing the individual elevation heads for an overall pipeline elevationChapter 6
the height of the liquid above the point multiplied by the specific Design
weight
of Systems
of PE Piping
If liquid is flowing in the line, elevation head and head loss due to liquid flow
are added to determine the pressure in the pipe at a given point in the
e conveying liquids and running full, pressure in the pipe due to elevation
her or not liquid is flowing. At any low point in the line, internal pressure will
the height of the
liquid above
theliquids
pointand
multiplied
by pressure
the specific
weight
of
In a pipeline
conveying
running full,
in the pipe
due to
If liquid is flowing
in
the
line,
elevation
head
and
head
loss
due
to
liquid
flow
elevation exists whether or not liquid is flowing. At any low point in the line,
are of
added
determine
thewill
pressure
the
pipe
at liquid
a given
in multiplied
the
pressure
be equal tointhe
height
of the
abovepoint
the point
low
Watertointernal
Hazen-Williams
175
by the specific weight of the liquid. If liquid is flowing in the line, elevation head and
head loss due to liquid flow in the pipe are added to determine the pressure in the
method
of flow resistance calculation may be applied to liquid and
pipe at a given point in the pipeline.
Weisbach
its solution can be complex. For many applications, empirical formulas are
nd, when used within their limitations, reliable results are obtained with
low of Water Pressure
Hazen-Williams
Flow
of and
Water
Hazen-Williams
venience. For example,
Hazen
Williams
developed Equation
an empirical formula
of water in pipes
60 F.
TheatDarcy-Weisbach
method of flow resistance calculation may be applied to liquid
Weisbach method
of flow
calculation
be applied
to liquid
andformulas
and gases,
butresistance
its solution can
be complex.may
For many
applications,
empirical
its solution canarebeavailable
complex.
For
many
applications,
empirical
formulas
are
and,
within
their
results
obtained
-Williams formula for water
at when
60Fused
(16C)
can
belimitations,
applied reliable
to water
andare
other
nd, when usedwith
within
limitations,
reliable
results
are obtained
with
2
greatertheir
convenience.
For example,
Hazen
and Williams
developed
an
empirical
/sec),
or
ng
the same
viscosity
of
1.130
centistokes
(0.00001211
ft
venience.
Forkinematic
example,
Hazen
and
Williams
developed
an
empirical
formula
formula for the flow of water in pipes at 60 F.
The
viscosity
of water
with temperature, so some error can occur at
of water
in pipes
at 60varies
F.
The Hazen-Williams
formula for water at 60 F (16C) can be applied to water
es other than 60F
(16C).
and other liquids having the same kinematic viscosity of 1.130 centistokes which
2
-Williams formula
for 0.00001211
water at ft
60F
(16C)
can
be applied
to waterThe
and
other of
/sec or
31.5 SSU
(Saybolt
Second Universal).
viscosity
equals
2
water varies
with temperature,
some error can
occur at temperatures
other
ng the same kinematic
viscosity
of 1.130socentistokes
(0.00001211
ft /sec),
or
ams viscosity
formula for
friction
(head)with
loss temperature,
in feet:
60F (16C).
The
ofthan
water
varies
so some error can occur at
es other than 60F
(16C).formula for friction (head) loss in feet of water head:
Hazen-Williams
(2-11)
1.85
0.002083 L 100 Q
hf
4.8655
DI
C
ams formula for friction (head) loss in feet:
ams formula forHazen-Williams
friction (head)
loss
in(head)
psi:loss in psi:
formula for
friction
(2-12)
Eq. 1-18
1.85
0.0009015L
0.002083 L 100 Q
hpf =
1.85
4.8655
0.0009015
L 100
C Q
DI
pf
4.8655
DI
C
are as previously
ams formula forTerms
friction
(head)defined,
loss and:
in psi:
Eq. 1-18
Eq. 1-19
hf = friction (head) loss, ft. of water.

pf = friction (head) loss, psi
1.85
0.diameter,
0009015
DI = pipe inside
in L 100 Q
Eq. 1-19
pf =
4.8655
C = Hazen-Williams
c = 150-155 for PE , (not related to Darcy-Weisbach
C
DFriction Factor,
dimensionless

friction factor, )I
Q = flow rate, gpm
The Hazen-Williams Friction Factor, C, for PE pipe was determined in a hydraulics

laboratory using heat fusion joined lengths of pipe with the inner bead present.
Other forms of these equations are prevalent throughout the literature.(21) The reader
is referred to the references at the end of this chapter.
154-264.indd 175
1/16/09 9:56:56 AM
176
Chapter 6
Table 2-3
Properties of Water
Temperature, F/C
Specific Weight, lb/ft3
Kinematic Viscosity,
Centistokes
32 / 0
62.41
1.79
60 / 15.6
62.37
1.13
75 / 23.9
62.27
0.90
100 / 37.8
62.00
0.69
120 / 48.9
61.71
0.57
140 / 60
61.38
0.47
14 14 14
14
Water flow through pipes having different Hazen-Williams factors and different
equation
ng
equation
1-21
1-21
and
and
C =1-21
C150,
=C
150,
Using
Using
equation
equation
1-21
and
and
= 150,
C = 150,
flow diameters may be determined using the following equations:
(2-13)
pf
1.85
1.85
1.85
1.85
0.0009015
0.0009015
(15000
) (15000
100
) D
100
((50
50) (50
C
.0009015
0(.15000
0009015
15000
)I2)(100
100
(350
).3 psi
2) =
p f =p f %p0flow
11
.
11
psi
!
= 100 4D
11.3 psi
11.3 psi

.86554.8655
150
3.938
3.f4938
I1
.8655
3.93834..8655
938150
150
C 1150
ermine
determine
the
elevation
elevation
head,
head,
assume
assume
point
point
1 is
1atisthe
atisthe
bottom
the
ofbottom
the
To determine
Tothe
determine
the elevation
the
elevation
head,
head,
assume
assume
point
point
1
at
1 bottom
is
theatof
bottom
the
of theof the
Where the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the designated properties for two separate pipe
on,
vation,
and
and
point
point
2
is
2
at
is
the
at
the
top.
top.
Using
Using
Equation
Equation
1-17,
1-17,
elevation,
elevation,
and profiles,
point
and point
2inisthis
at
2 case,
is
theattop.
the top.
UsingUsing
Equation
Equation
1-17,1-17,
the pipe inside diameter (D in inches) of the one pipe (1) versus
I
that of the second pipe (2) and the Hazen-Williams factor for each respective profile.
hE h150
E 0 150
0 = ft0of
ft150
water
h150
0of ftwater
150
of water
ft of water
E =h150
E 150
Pipe Flow Design Example
3
3
3is a is
3pressure
eecific
specific
weight
weight
of
water
ofweight
water
60F
at
is 60F
62.37
isat62.37
lb/ft
, which
pressure
of 62.37
lb 62.37
The
specific
The
specific
weight
ofatwater
of 60F
water
at
60F
islb/ft
62.37
is, which
62.37
lb/ft
,lb/ft
which
,a
which
is
a pressure
isofa 62.37
pressure
oflb62.37
of
lb lb
2
2
A PE pipeline conveying water at 60F is 15,000 feet long
and
is2 laid 2on a uniform
er1over
aft 1square
ft
square
area,
area,
or
a
or
pressure
a
pressure
of
62.37
of
62.37
/
144
/
144
=
0.43
=
0.43
lb/in
lb/in
.
Therefore,
.
Therefore,
over
a 1 ftasquare
1 ft square
area,area,
or a pressure
or a pressure
of 62.37
of 62.37
/ 144/ =144
0.43
= 0.43
lb/in lb/in
. Therefore,
. Therefore,
grade that rises 150 feet. What is the friction head loss in 4 IPS DR 17 PE 3408 pipe
14
14
14
for a 50 gpm flow? What is the elevation head? What is the internal pressure at the
hE of
hE150
=hpipe
150
0 h0when
150
.43
0 0.water
43
64
.05.64
psi.5 psi
150
0640=..543
0flowing
43
64.5 psi
bottom
the
ispsi
uphill?
When flowing downhill? When full
E
E
not
flowing?
uation
uation 1-21
1-21 and
andbut
C
C=
= 150,
150,
( )
Using
equation
1-21
and
C =head
150,
water
en
water
iswater
flowing,
is water
flowing,
elevation
elevation
and
the
the
friction
friction
head
are
are
added.
added.
Theadded.
The The The
When
When
isUsing
flowing,
is flowing,
elevation
head
head
and
and
the
friction
thehead
friction
head
head
are
added.
are
equation
2-12
and Celevation
=head
150and
um
ximum
friction
friction
head
head
acts
acts
at
the
at
the
source
source
point,
point,
and
and
the
the
maximum
maximum
elevation
elevation
head
head
1
.
85
1
1
.
85
.
85
maximum
maximum
friction
friction
headhead
acts acts
at theatsource
the source
point,1point,
and the
andmaximum
the maximum
elevation
elevation
headhead
.85
00..0009015
0009015
(15000
))when
100
((50
50)))uphill,
100
0(Therefore,
.15000
0009015
(flowing
15000
100uphill,
(flowing
50
).3uphill,
psi
he
owest
point.
Therefore,
Therefore,
when
flowing
the
the
pressure,
pressure,
P,
at
P,
the
at
the
bottom
bottom
at lowest
theat
lowest
the
lowest
point.
point.
Therefore,
when
when
flowing
uphill,
the
pressure,
the
pressure,
P,
at
P,
the
at
bottom
the
bottom
pppoint.
11
11
.
3
psi
p f 444.8655
11.3 psi
fff
8655
..8655
8655
938
150
150
33the
..938
head
4.head
ation
levation
head
head
plus
plus
the
friction
friction
head
because
because
thebecause
the
flow
flow
is
from
is
from
the
the
bottom
bottom
to
the
to
the
150
3.938
is elevation
is elevation
head
head
plus
plus
the
friction
the
friction
head
because
the
flow
the
flow
is
from
is
from
the
bottom
the
bottom
to
the
to the
. top. top.
mine
mine
the
the elevation
elevation
head,
head, assume
assume
point
11 is
ispoint
at
at the
the1bottom
bottom
of
ofbottom
the
the of the
To determine
the
elevation
head,point
assume
is at the
To determine the elevation head, assume point 1 is at the bottom of the elevation,
,elevation,
and
and point
pointand
22 is
ispoint
at
at the
the2top.
top.
Using
Using
Equation
Equation
1-17,
1-17,
is2 at
the top.
Using
Equation
1-17,
is at the
Using
Equation
2-10,
PandP
hpoint
.h5ptop.
64

11
.
5
+
.
3
11
.
75
3
=
.
8
75
psi
.
8
psi
PEp f+hpPE64

p
64
.
5

64
11
.
5
.
3

11
75
.
3
.
8
psi
75.8 psi
E=h
f =
Ef
f
hhEEE 150
150h00E 150
150
ft
ft
of
of
water
water
150 0 150 ft of water
flowing
en
flowing
downhill,
downhill,
water
water
flows
flows
from
from
the
the
topfrom
top
to the
to
bottom.
bottom.
Friction
Friction
head
head
When
When
flowing
flowing
downhill,
downhill,
waterwater
flows
flows
from
the
top
thethe
to
topthe
to bottom.
the
bottom.
Friction
Friction
headhead
333
3
3 lb/ft
cific
The
specific
weight
of
water
at
60F
is
62.37
(see
Table
2-3),
which,
for
each
foot
ific
ific
weight
weight
of
of
water
water
at
at
60F
60F
is
is
62.37
62.37
lb/ft
lb/ft
,
,
which
which
is
is
a
a
pressure
pressure
of
of
62.37
62.37
lb
lb
plies
from
from
thefrom
the
source
source
point
point
atpoint
the
the
top,
top,
so
so the
pressure
pressure
developed
developed
from
from
the
the
The
specific
weight
of water
at 60F
is
lb/ftthe
, which
is
a
pressure
of
62.37
lb the
applies
applies
from
the
source
the
source
point
at the
at62.37
top,
the
top,
so
so
pressure
the
pressure
developed
developed
from
from
the
222
2a pressure of 62.37/144
of
head
exerts
a
pressure
of
62.37
lb
over
a
1
ft
square
area,
or
ft
t
square
square
area,
area,
or
or
a
a
pressure
pressure
of
of
62.37
62.37
/
/
144
144
=
=
0.43
0.43
lb/in
lb/in
.
.
Therefore,
Therefore,
wnhill
lldownhill
flow
flow
applied
is flow
applied
in
the
in athe
opposite
opposite
direction
asdirection
the
the
elevation
elevation
head.
head.
over
adownhill
1 is
ft square
pressure
ofdirection
62.37
/direction
144
=as
0.43
lb/in
. the
Therefore,
flow
is area,
applied
is or
applied
in
the
in
the
opposite
opposite
as
the
as
elevation
elevation
head.
head.
= 0.43 lb/in2. Therefore, for a 150 ft. head,
erefore,
ore,
Therefore,
Therefore,
150hE0000..43
hhEEE 150
43 64
64
psi
psig
150
0..505.psi
43 64.5 psi
P Ph E=P
h Ep
pE 64
.11
564
.f311
53
311
=..52.53
.253
psi
h.p5E64
.5 .
64
3psi
11
.3 .2 psi
53 .2 psi
f hP
f =
f p
ater
ater
is
is flowing,
flowing,
elevation
head
head and
andhead
the
the friction
friction
head
are
arehead
added.
added.
The
When
water
is elevation
flowing, elevation
and
thehead
friction
are The
added.
The
m
mmaximum
friction
friction
head
head
acts
acts
at
at
the
the
source
source
point,
point,
and
and
the
the
maximum
maximum
elevation
elevation
head
head
acts
at
and
the
maximum
elevation
en
he
the
pipe
pipe
is friction
full,
is
but
but
water
iswater
not
is the
not
flowing,
flowing,
no
friction
no
friction
head
head
develops.
develops.
When
When
the
pipe
thefull,
pipe
ishead
full,
iswater
but
full,
but
water
is source
notisflowing,
notpoint,
flowing,
no
friction
no
friction
head
head
develops.
develops.head
west
point.
Therefore,
when flowing
flowing
uphill,
theuphill,
pressure,
P, at
at the
the bottom
bottom
estthe
point.
Therefore,
when
the
pressure,
P,
at
lowest
point. Therefore,
whenuphill,
flowing
the pressure,
P,
at the bottom
on
on
head
head
plus
plus
the
the
friction
friction
head
head
because
because
the
the
flow
flow
is
is
from
from
the
the
bottom
bottom
to
to
the
the
is elevation
head
154-264.indd
176 plus the friction head because the flow is from the bottom to the 1/16/09 9:56:56 AM
P P
h =hp + p 64=.564
.05 + 64
0 =.564
psi
.5 psi
hE 150
0 0is
.4362.37
64.5lb/ft
psi3, which is a pressure of 62.37 lb
pecific weight of water
at 60F
2
a 1 ft square area, orh a pressure
150 00of.4362.37
64.5/ 144
psi = 0.43 lb/in . Therefore,
E
water is flowing, elevation head and the friction head are added. The Chapter 6
friction
acts
at
and
the maximum
elevation
numwater
is head
flowing,
head are
added.head
The
)0.43point,
hEelevation
= (the
150 source
0head
=and
64.5the
psi friction
owestfriction
point. head
Therefore,
flowingpoint,
uphill,and
thethe
pressure,
P, at
the bottom
mum
acts atwhen
the source
maximum
elevation
head
head
plus Therefore,
the elevation
friction when
head
because
thefriction
flow
from
bottom
the
eation
lowest
point.
flowing
the is
pressure,
P,
at theto
bottom
water
is
flowing,
head
and uphill,
the
head the
are
added.
The
vation
head head
plus the
because
the the
flowmaximum
is from the
bottom to
the
mum
friction
actsfriction
at the head
source
point, and
elevation
head
lowest point. Therefore,
flowing
uphill,
pressure,
P, at
bottom
When water iswhen
flowing,
elevation
head the
and the
friction head
arethe
added.
The
Pmaximum
hE friction
pfriction
64
.
5

11
.
3
75
.
8
psi
vation head plus
the
head
because
the
flow
is
from
the
bottom
to
the head
head acts at the source point, and the maximum elevation
f
atPthe h
lowest
point.64
Therefore,
.5 11.3when
75.flowing
8 psi uphill, the pressure, P, at the bottom is
E pf
elevation
plus from
the friction
because
flow is from
the bottom
flowing downhill,
waterhead
flows
the head
top to
the the
bottom.
Friction
headto the top.
from
the
source
point
at
the
top,
so
the
pressure
developed
from
the
P = hwater
= 64.5from
+ 11.3the
= 75top
.8 psig
psi
n flowing downhill,
to the bottom. Friction head
E + p f flows
ll flow
theat opposite
direction
as thedeveloped
elevation from
head.
es
from is
theapplied
source in
point
the top, so
the pressure
the
ore,
nhill
flow downhill,
is applied
in flows
the
opposite
direction
the
head.
Whenwater
flowing
downhill,
water
theas
top
to
the elevation
bottom.
Friction
head
flowing
from
theflows
topfrom
to the
bottom.
Friction
head
efore,
appliespoint
from the
pointso
at the
so the pressure
developed
from the
the
es
from the source
at source
the top,
thetop,pressure
developed
from
is
applied
in
the
opposite
direction
as
the
elevation
head.
Therefore,
P downhill
h E in
pflow
64
.
5

11
.
3
53
.
2
psi
hill flow is applied
the
opposite
direction
as
the
elevation
head.
f
fore,
P h E p f 64 .5 11 .3 53 .2 psig
psi
he pipe is full, but water is not flowing, no friction head develops.
full,
but
water
not
no friction
head develops.
PWhen
= h Ethe
pipe
p f is
=is not
64
.5flowing,
11
.3 =isno
53
.friction
2flowing,
psi head
n the pipe is full,
but
water
develops.
P hE p f 64.5 0 64.5 psig
psi
the pipe is full, but
water
is
not
flowing,
no
P hE p f 64.5 0 64.5friction
psi head develops.
derations
Pressure Flow of Liquid Slurries
siderations Liquid
P = hslurry
+ ppiping
= 64systems
.5 + 0 =transport
64.5 psisolid particles entrained in a liquid carrier.
177
m must be designed forE continuous

operating pressure and for transient (surge)
f
Water application.
is typically used
as a liquid
carrier,and
and solid particles are
commonly
osed
by
the
particular
Surge
allowance
effects
vary granular
tem
must be designed for continuous operating
pressuretemperature
and for transient
(surge)
iderations
materials
such
as sand, conclusions
fly-ash or coal.may
Key design
considerations
involve the nature
erial
to pipe
material,
andapplication.
erroneous
be drawn
when comparing
posed
by the
particular
Surge
allowance
and
temperature
effects
vary
lass
(PC)
of
different
pipe
materials.
of
the
solid
material,
its
particle
size
and
the
carrier
liquid.
aterial
to
pipe
material,
and
erroneous
conclusions
may
be
drawn
when
comparing
em must be designed for continuous operating pressure and for transient (surge)
Class by
(PC)
different
pipe
Turbulent
flowmaterials.
is preferred
to ensure
that particles
are suspended
in thevary
liquid.
posed
theofparticular
application.
Surge
allowance
and temperature
effects
Turbulent
flow
also
reduces
pipeline
wear
because
particles
suspended
in
terial
to
pipe
material,
and
erroneous
conclusions
may
be
drawn
when
comparing
andle temporary pressure surges is a major advantage of polyethylene. Due tothe carrier
Class
(PC)ofofpolyethylene,
different
pipebounce
materials.
liquid will
off thesystem
pipe inside surface.
pipe has viscoelastic
properties
chandle
nature
piping
safelyPEwithstand
momentarily
temporary pressurea surges
is a majorcan
advantage
of polyethylene.
Due to
that are
combine
with high molecular
weight
toughness
to provide
service
life
um
pressures
that
significantly
above
the
pipes
PC.
The
strain
from
an that can
stic nature of polyethylene, a piping system can safely withstand momentarily
significantly
exceed
many
metal
piping
materials.
Flow
velocity
that
is
too
low to
ited
load of short that
duration
met with anabove
elasticthe
response,
whichThe
is relieved
uponan
mum
are is
significantly
pipes PC.
strain from
handlepressures
temporary
pressure
surges
is
a
major
advantage
of
polyethylene.
Due
to
maintain fully turbulent flow for a given particle size can allow solids to drift to the
mited
load of
duration isa met
withsystem
an elastic
response,
which is relieved
upon
tic nature
of short
polyethylene,
piping
can
safelyHowever,
withstand
momentarily
bottom of the pipe
and slide
along the
surface.
compared
to metals, PE is a
mum pressures that are significantly above the pipes PC. The strain from an
softer material. Under sliding bed and direct impingement conditions, PE may wear
mited load of short duration is met with an elastic response, which is relieved upon
appreciably. PE directional fittings are generally unsuitable for slurry applications
because the change of flow direction in the fitting results in direct impingement.
Directional fittings in liquid slurry applications should employ hard materials that
are resistant to wear from direct impingement.
Particle Size
As a general recommendation, particle size should not exceed about 0.2 in (5 mm),
but larger particles are occasionally acceptable if they are a small percentage of
the solids in the slurry. With larger particle slurries such as fine sand and coarser
particles, the viscosity of the slurry mixture will be approximately that of the
carrying liquid. However, if particle size is very small, about 15 microns or less, the
slurry viscosity will increase above that of the carrying liquid alone. The rheology
154-264.indd 177
1/16/09 9:56:57 AM
178
Chapter 6
of fine particle slurries should be analyzed for viscosity and specific gravity before
determining flow friction losses. Inaccurate assumptions of a fluids rheological
properties can lead to significant errors in flow resistance analysis. Examples of fine
particle slurries are water slurries of fine silt, clay and kaolin clay.
Slurries frequently do not have uniform particle size, and some particle size nonuniformity can aid in transporting larger particles. In slurries having a large
proportion of smaller particles, the fine particle mixture acts as a more viscous
carrying fluid that helps suspend larger particles. Flow analysis of non-uniform
particle size slurries should include a rheological characterization of the fine particle
mixture.
Solids Concentration and Specific Gravity
Equations 2-14 through 2-17 are useful in determining solids concentrations and
23 23
23
23specific
mixture specific gravity. Tables 2-4, 2-5, and 2-6 provide information about
gravity and particle size of some slurries.
SS SS
CCV V= CCMV M SSMLMLSSLL
SVSS SSSSSL LSS
Eq.1-31
1-31
Eq.
Eq. 1-31
1-31
Eq.
CC
SSS C
SCVSS S
VV
V S
CC
CWW
WW= C
SSMM SS
Eq.1-32
1-32
Eq.
Eq. 1-32
1-32
Eq.
(2-14)
SS
(2-15)
LL
MM
SCS SVSSSSLSL)+SSSSLLLSS L

SMM= SC
S(2-16)
SC
V V( SC
M
M
SSL L SS L
(2-17)
L
SSMM= SS M
M CC (
SS SSSSSL L)SS
C
WW S
C
LL
11 11 WW SS
SSS S SS
Eq.1-33
1-33
Eq.
Eq. 1-33
1-33
Eq.
Eq.1-34
1-34
Eq.
Eq. 1-34
1-34
Eq.
SS
Where
Sspecific
liquid
specific gravity
liquid
gravity
carrier
liquid
specific
gravity
L = carrier
=carrier
carrier
liquid
specific
gravity
=
carrier
liquid
specific
gravity
S
=
solids
specific
gravity
Sgravity
solids
specific
gravity
solids
specific
=
solids
specific
gravity
=
solids specific gravity
Sspecific
= slurry mixture
specific gravity
Mspecific
mixture
gravity
slurry
mixture
gravity
=slurry
slurry
mixture
specific
gravity
=
slurry
mixture
specific
gravity
Cconcentration
= percent solids concentration
by volume
V concentration
percent
solids
byvolume
volume
percent
solids
by
=
percent
solids
concentration
by volume
volume
=
percent solids
concentration
by
CW = percent solids concentration by weight
percent
solids
concentration
by
weight
percent
solids
concentration
by
weight
percent solids
solids concentration
concentration by
by weight
weight
== percent
ty
ty
Critical Velocity
As pointed out above, turbulent flow is preferred to maintain particle suspension.

A turbulent flow regime avoids the formation of a sliding bed of solids, excessive
pipeline wear and possible clogging. Reynolds numbers above 4000 will generally
insure turbulent flow.
bove,
turbulent
flowflow
ispreferred
preferred
maintain
particle
suspension.
ove,
turbulent
flow
is
totomaintain
particle
suspension.
AA AA
ut
above,
turbulent
flow
is preferred
preferred
to maintain
maintain
particle
suspension.
ut
above,
turbulent
is
to
particle
suspension.
ime
avoids
the
formation
of
a
sliding
bed
of
solids,
excessive
pipeline
me
avoids
the
formation
of
a
sliding
bed
of
solids,
excessive
pipeline
regime avoids
avoids the
the formation
formation of
of aa sliding
sliding bed
bed of
of solids,
solids, excessive
excessive pipeline
pipeline
regime
ble
clogging.
Reynolds
numbers
above
4000
will
generally
insure
e
clogging.
Reynolds
numbers
above
4000
will
generally
insure
ossible clogging.
clogging. Reynolds
Reynolds numbers
numbers above
above 4000
4000 will
will generally
generally insure
insure
ossible
.
154-264.indd 178
1/16/09 9:56:58 AM
ut above, turbulent flow is preferred to maintain particle suspension. A

regime avoids the formation of a sliding bed of solids, excessive pipeline Chapter 6
ossible clogging. Reynolds numbers above 4000 will generallyDesign
insure
.
179
he flow velocity of a slurry at about 30% above the critical settlement

ood practice. This insures that the particles will remain in suspension
the flow
velocity wear.
of a slurry
about 30% above
the critical
critical settlement
ing the potentialMaintaining
for excessive
pipeline
Forathorizontal
pipes,
velocity
is a good1-35.
practice. This insures that the particles will remain in suspension
be estimated using
Equation
thereby avoiding the potential for excessive pipeline wear. For horizontal pipes,
perience with this

equation
relationships
critical
velocityvaries.
may be Other
estimated
using Equationare
2-18.offered in the
e Thompson and Aude (26). A test section may be installed to verify
Individual
experience
with this equation varies. Other relationships are offered in
f this equation for
specific
projects.
24
to verify
the literature. See Thompson and Aude(26). A test section may be installed
applicability of this equation for specific projects.
(2-18)
FL 2 gd ' S S 1
VC
Eq. 1-35
inimum
velocitydefined
for fineand
particle slurries (below 50 microns, 0.05 mm)
are
previously
24
terms
previously definedA
andguideline minimum velocity for
ovided turbulentWhere
flow
isaremaintained.
V
=
critical
settlement
velocity,
ft/sec
C
ries
(oversettlement
150 microns,
0.15 mm)
critical
velocity,
ft/secis provided by Equation 1-36.
FL = velocity coefficient (Tables 2-7 and 2-8)
velocity coefficient
(Tables 1-11 and 1-12)
d = pipe inside diameter, ft
pipe inside diameter,
ft 14 d '
V
Eq.
13650 microns,
min particle
minimum
velocity
for fine
slurries
(below
inimum velocityAnforapproximate
fine
slurries
(below
50particle
microns,
0.05
mm)
mm)isismaintained.
4 to 7 ft/sec, provided
turbulent
flow is maintained.
guideline
ovided turbulent0.05
flow
A guideline
minimum
velocityAfor
minimum
velocity
for
larger
particle
slurries
(over
150
microns,
0.15
mm) is provided
ies (over 150 microns, 0.15 mm) is provided by Equation 1-36.
by Equation 2-19.
(2-19) velocity, ft/sec

proximate minimum
V = 14 d '
Eq. 1- 36
min
Where
minimum velocity,
min = approximate
t velocity and Vminimum
velocity
for ft/sec
turbulent flow increases with
Critical settlement
velocity1-37
and minimum
velocity
for turbulent
flow increases with
ore. The relationship
in Equation
is derived
from
the Darcyproximate
minimum
velocity, ft/sec
increasing pipe bore. The relationship in Equation 2-20 is derived from the Darcyn.
Weisbach equation. (Equation 2-3)

(2-20)
d '2
velocity and minimum
velocity
for turbulent flow increases
Eq. 1-with
37
V2
V1
ore. The relationship in Equation
1-37 is derived from the Darcyd '1
n.
The subscripts 1 and 2 are for the two pipe diameters.
V2 =
d '2
V1
d '1
nd 2 are for the two pipe diameters.
Eq. 1- 37
Table 1-8: Scale of Particle Sizes

U.S. Standard
Mesh
Inches
nd 2 are for the two pipe

1.3 diameters.
2.5
Table 1-8:
5
U.S. Standard
10
Mesh
18
35
60
154-264.indd
179
Microns
33,000 63,500
0.6 1.3
15,200 32,000
0.321
8,000
Scale
of Particle Sizes
0.157
4,000
0.079
2,000
Inches
Microns
0.039
1,000
1.3
2.5
33,000500
63,500
0.0197
0.6
1.3
15,200250
32,000
0.0098
Class
Very coarse gravel
Coarse gravel
Medium gravel
Fine gravel
VeryClass
fine gravel
Very coarse sand
Very
coarsesand
gravel
Coarse
Coarse
Mediumgravel
sand
1/16/09 9:56:58 AM
180
Chapter 6
Table 2-4
Scale of Particle Sizes
Tyler Screen Mesh
U.S. Standard Mesh
Inches
Microns
Class
Very coarse gravel
1.3 2.5
33,000 63,500
0.6 1.3
15,200 32,000
Coarse gravel
2.5
0.321
8,000
Medium gravel
0.157
4,000
Fine gravel
10
0.079
2,000
Very fine gravel

Very coarse sand
16
18
0.039
1,000
32
35
0.0197
500
Coarse sand
60
60
0.0098
250
Medium sand
115
120
0.0049
125
Fine sand
250
230
0.0024
62
Very fine sand
400
0.0015
37
Coarse silt
0.0006 0.0012
16 31
Medium silt
8 13
Fine silt
48
Very fine silt
24
Coarse clay
12
Medium clay
0.5 - 1
Fine clay
Table 2-5
Typical Specific Gravity and Slurry Solids Concentration (Water Slurries)
154-264.indd 180
Typical Solids Concentration
Material
Specific Gravity
Gilsonite
1.05
40 45
39 44
Coal
1.40
45 55
37 47
% by Weight
% by Volume
Sand
2.65
43 43
23 30
Limestone
2.70
60 65
36 41
Copper Concentrate
4.30
60 65
26 30
Iron Ore
4.90
Iron Sands
1.90
Magnetite
4.90
60 - 65
23 - 27
1/16/09 9:56:58 AM
Chapter 6 181
Table 2-6
Water-Base Slurry Specific Gravities
Concentration by
Weight Percent,
CW
Solid Specific Gravity, SS

1.4
1.8
2.2
2.6
3.0
3.4
3.8
4.2
4.6
5.0
1.01
1.02
1.03
1.03
1.03
1.04
1.04
1.04
1.04
1.04
10
1.03
1.05
1.06
1.07
1.07
1.08
1.08
1.08
1.08
1.09
15
1.04
1.07
1.09
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.12
1.13
1.13
1.14
20
1.05
1.10
1.12
1.14
1.15
1.16
1.17
1.18
1.19
1.19
25
1.08
1.13
1.16
1.18
1.20
1.21
1.23
1.24
1.24
1.25
30
1.09
1.15
1.20
1.23
1.25
1.27
1.28
1.30
1.31
1.32
35
1.11
1.18
1.24
1.27
1.30
1.33
1.35
1.36
1.38
1.39
40
1.13
1.22
1.28
1.33
1.36
1.39
1.42
1.44
1.46
1.47
45
1.15
1.25
1.33
1.38
1.43
1.47
1.50
1.52
1.54
1.56
50
1.17
1.29
1.38
1.44
1.50
1.55
1.58
1.62
1.64
1.67
55
1.19
1.32
1.43
1.51
1.58
1.63
1.69
1.72
1.76
1.79
60
1.21
1.36
1.49
1.59
1.67
1.73
1.79
1.84
1.89
1.92
65
1.23
1.41
1.55
1.67
1.76
1.85
1.92
1.98
2.04
2.08
70
1.25
1.45
1.62
1.76
1.88
1.98
2.07
2.14
2.21
2.27
Table 2-7
Velocity Coefficient, FL (Uniform Particle Size)
Velocity Coefficient, FL
Particle Size,
mm
CV = 2%
CV = 5%
CV = 10%
CV = 15%
0.1
.76
0.92
0.94
0.96
0.2
0.94
1.08
1.20
1.28
0.4
1.08
1.26
1.41
1.46
0.6
1.15
1.35
1.46
1.50
0.8
1.21
1.39
1.45
1.48
1.0
1.24
1.04
1.42
1.44
1.2
1.27
1.38
1.40
1.40
1.4
1.29
1.36
1.67
1.37
1.6
1.30
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.8
1.32
1.34
1.34
1.34
2.0
1.33
1.34
1.34
1.34
2.2
1.34
1.34
1.34
1.34
2.4
1.34
1.34
1.34
1.34
2.6
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.35
2.8
1.36
1.36
1.36
1.36
3.0
1.36
1.36
1.36
1.36
154-264.indd 181
1/16/09 9:56:58 AM
182
Chapter 6
1-12: Velocity Coefficient, FL (50% Passing Particle Size)

CV = 5%
0.48
0.58
0.70
0.77
0.83
0.85
0.97
1.09
1.15
1.21
1.24
1.33
1.36
Velocity Coefficient, FL
CV = 10%
CV = 20%
CV = 30%
0.48
0.48
Table 2-8
0.59
1.60
Velocity Coefficient, FL (50% Passing Particle Size)
0.72
0.79
0.86
CV = 5%
0.88
0.48
1.00
0.58
1.13
0.70
1.21
0.77
1.25
0.83
1.29
0.85
1.36
0.97
1.38
1.09
Particle Size,
mm
0.01
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.20
0.40
0.74
Velocity Coefficient,
0.81 FL
CV = 10%
0.48
0.59
0.72
0.79
0.86
0.88
1.00
1.13
C0.86
V = 20%
0.92
0.48
1.05
0.60
1.18
0.74
1.26
0.81
1.31
0.86
1.33
0.92
1.38
1.05
1.39
1.18
CV = 30%
0.48
0.61
0.76
0.83
0.91
0.95
1.08
1.23
0.60
1.15
1.21
1.26
1.30
0.80
1.21
1.25
1.31
1.33
1.0
1.24
1.29
1.33
1.35
2.0
1.33
1.36
1.38
1.40
3.0
1.36
1.38
1.39
1.40
0.48
0.61
0.76
0.83
0.91
0.95
0.18
1.23
1.30
1.33
1.35
1.40
1.40
arcy-Weisbach, and Equations 1-18 and 1-19, Hazen-Williams, may be

27
Equation
and flows
Equations
2-11 and 2-12,
may be
ne friction head
loss 2-3,
for Darcy-Weisbach,
pressure slurry
provided
the Hazen-Williams,
viscosity
to determine
friction Elevation
head loss forhead
pressure
slurry
flows provided
equations are used
taken
into account.
loss
is increased
by the viscosity
limitations
of
the
equations
are
taken
into
account.
Elevation
head
loss
is increased
ity
of the slurry
mixture.
Equations
for High
Pressure Gas Flow
by the specific gravity of the slurry mixture.
(2-21)
27
h2 h1 equations used in industry
hE areS Mempirical
Eq. for
1- 38
s 1-39 through 1-42
pressure
han 1 psig. (26) Calculated results may vary due to the assumptions inherent
Compressible Gas Flow
of the
livation
Equations
forequation.
High
Pressure Gas Flow
Flow equations for smooth pipe may be used to estimate compressible gas flow
Gas Flow
through PE pipe.
squation
1-39 through 1-42 are empirical equations used in industry for pressure
Equations
for High
Gas to
Flow
han 1 psig. (26)Empirical
Calculated
results
mayPressure
vary due
the assumptions inherent
or smooth pipe may be used to estimate compressible
gas flow through
0
.
575
rivation of the equation.
2 empirical
2
2.725
Equations
2-22
through
2-25
are
equations
used in industry for pressure
e.
p1 p 2
2826 DI
vary due to the assumptions
results may
Eq.inherent
1-39 in
Qhthan 1 psig.0.425
greater
Calculated
L
S
g
the derivation of the equation.

Equation
Mueller Equation
(2-22)
Qh =
h Equation
2826 DI
Sg
2.725
0.425
0.575
p1 2 p 2 2
p1 2 p 2 2
Eq. 1-39
Weymouth Equation
(2-23)
Qh
th Equation
bution Equation
154-264.indd 182
Qh =
2034 DI
Sg
2.667
0.5
2034 DI
Sg
2.667
Eq. 1-40
0.5
p1 2 p 2 2
L
2
2 0.555
2.667
0.5
0.5
Eq. 1-40
1/16/09 9:56:59 AM
th Equation
p1 2 p 2 2
Qh =
0.5 2
2 0L.5
2.667
S
g p1 p 2
2034 DI
0.5
L
Sg
2034 DI
Qh
2.667
0.5
Eq. 1-40
Chapter 6 183
Eq. 1-40
T Distribution Equation
ibution Equation
p1 2 p 2 2
Qh =
0.444 2
2 0.555
2.667
S
2679 DI g p1 p 2 L
0.444
L
Sg
IGT Distribution Equation

(2-24)
Qh
2679 DI
2.667
0.555
Eq. 1-41
Eq. 1-41
itzglass Equation
s Equation
Spitzglass Equation
(2-25)
2
2
5
D I 0.5
3410 p1 p 2
Qh =
5 3.6
20.5 2 0.5
3410 Sp1g p 2 L D
+ 0.03 D I
1+
I
Qh
DI
0.5
3
.
6
L
Sg
1
0.03 D I
DI
Where:
Where
0.5
(Equations 2-22 through 2-25) 3
0.5
Eq. 1-42
Eq. 1-42
28
28
flow, standard ft /hour

here: Qh =
flow, standard ft 3/hour
Sg = Qh =gas
specific
3 gravity
Sg standard
= gas specific gravity
Qh =p flow,
ft
/hourlb/in2 absolute
=
inlet pressure,
1
2 absolute
p
=
inlet
pressure,
lb/in
Sg =p gas
gravity
2
1
= pspecific
outlet
pressure,
lb/in
absolute
2
pirical
Equations
for
Low
Pressure
Gas Flow
= outlet
pressure,
lb/in22 absolute
absolute
Equations
Low
Pressure
Gas
Flow
p1 = L for
inlet
lb/in
2pressure,
= L = length,
length,
ft
2
ft
p2 =D outlet
lb/in
absolute
= D =pressure,
pipe
inside
diameter,
in
I
inside diameter,
in
I pipe
applications
where
internal
pressures
arethan
less 1than
psig, as
such
as landfill
L
=
length,
ft
ations where internal pressures are less
psig,1 such
landfill
gas gas
hering
or
wastewater
odor
control,
Equations
1-43
or
1-44
may
be
used.
=
pipe
inside
diameter,
in
D
I
or wastewater
odor
control,
Equations
or 1-44
Empirical
Equations
for Low1-43
Pressure
Gasmay
Flow be used.
eller
Equation
quation
For applications where internal pressures are less than 1 psig, such as landfill gas
gathering or wastewater odor control, Equations 2-26 or 2-27 may be used.
Mueller Equation
2.725
(2-26)
Qh
0.575
2.725 D
2971
2971
hI1 h2 h1 h2
Qh D I
0.425 L
0.425 S
g
L
Sg
0.575
Eq. 1-43
Eq. 1-43
zglass
Equation
Equation
Spitzglass Equation
(2-27)
Qh
0.5
0
.
5
5
3350h h10.5h2 D 5 DI
3350
I
2
Qh h1
0.5
L
3
.
6
0.5
S
3
.
6
S g g L 1 10.03 D
0.03 DI
I
D
I
DI
0.5
Eq. 1-44
Eq. 1-44
Where terms are previously defined, and
h1are
= inletpreviously
pressure, in H2O defined, and
terms
ereWhere
terms are
previously
defined, and
h2 = outlet pressure, in H2O
= pressure,
inlet pressure,
h1 =h1 inlet
in H2Oin H2O
=
outlet pressure,
h2 =h2 outlet
pressure,
in H2Oin H2O
seation
Permeation
154-264.indd 183
1/16/09 9:57:00 AM
inlet pressure, in H2O

outlet pressure, in H2O
184 Chapter 6
Permeation gasses may deliver slightly less gas due

pelines carryingGas
compressed
on through the Long
pipedistance
wall. Permeation
losses
are small,
but deliver
it mayslightly
be less gas
pipelines carrying
compressed
gasses may
inguish between
losses
andthe
possible
leakage.
1- but it
duepermeation
to gas permeation
through
pipe wall.
PermeationEquation
losses are small,
ed to determine
volumeto distinguish
of a gasbetween
that will
permeate
through
maythe
be necessary
permeation
losses and
possible leakage.
e of a given wallEquation
thickness:
2-28 may be used to determine the volume of a gas that will permeate
through PE pipe of a given wall thickness:
(2-28)
qP =
K P As PA
t'
Eq. 1-45
Where
3 (gas at standard temperature and pressure)
qP = permeated,
volume of gas permeated,
volume of gas
cm3 cm
(gas
at standard
temperature and
Cm3 mil
pressure) K P = permeability constant (Table 2-9); units: 100 in2 atm day
wall area in
units of 100 square inches
permeabilityAconstant
1-13)
s = pipe outside(Table
2
surface areaPAof
the
outside
wall
of the (1pipe,
100= in
= pipe internal pressure, atmospheres
atmosphere
14.7 lb/in2 )
pipe internal pressure,
atmospheres (1 atmosphere = 14.7 lb/in2 )
= elapsed time, days
t = wall thickness, mils
Table 2-9
Permeability Constants (28)
154-264.indd 184
Gas
KP
Methane
85
Carbon Monoxide
80
Hydrogen
425
1/16/09 9:57:00 AM
Chapter 6 185
Table 2-10
Physical Properties of Gases (Approx. Values at 14.7 psi & 68F)
Gas
Acetylene (ethylene)
Air
Ammonia
Chemical
Formula
Molecular Weight
Weight Density,
lb/ft3
Specific Gravity,
(Relative to Air) Sg
C2H2
26.0
0.0682
0.907
29.0
0.0752
1.000
NH3
17.0
0.0448
0.596
Argon
39.9
0.1037
1.379
Butane
C4H10
58.1
0.1554
2.067
Carbon Dioxide
CO2
44.0
0.1150
1.529
Carbon Monoxide
CO
28.0
0.0727
0.967
Ethane
C2H6
30.0
0.0789
1.049
Ethylene
C2H4
28.0
0.0733
0.975
Helium
He
4.0
0.0104
0.138
Hydrogen Chloride
HCl
36.5
0.0954
1.286
2.0
0.0052
0.070
Hydrogen
Hydrogen Sulphide
H2S
34.1
0.0895
1.190
Methane
CH4
16.0
0.0417
0.554
Methyl Chloride
CH3Cl
50.5
0.1342
1.785
Natural Gas
19.5
0.0502
0.667
Nitric Oxide
NO
30.0
0.0708
1.037
Nitrogen
N2
28.0
0.0727
0.967
N2O
44.0
0.1151
1.530
Oxygen
O2
32.0
0.0831
1.105
Propane
C3H8
44.1
0.1175
1.562
Propene (Propylene)
C3H6
42.1
0.1091
1.451
Sulfur Dioxide
SO2
64.1
0.1703
2.264
Landfill Gas (approx. value)
1.00
Carbureted Water Gas
0.63
Nitrous Oxide
Coal Gas
0.42
Coke-Oven Gas
0.44
Refinery Oil Gas
0.99
Oil Gas (Pacific Coast)
0.47
Wet Gas (approximate value)
0.75
Gravity Flow of Liquids

In a pressure pipeline, a pump of some sort, generally provides the energy required
to move the fluid through the pipeline. Such pipelines can transport fluids across a
level surface, uphill or downhill. Gravity flow lines, on the other hand, utilize the
energy associated with the placement of the pipeline discharge below the inlet.
Like pressure flow pipelines, friction loss in a gravity flow pipeline depends on
viscous shear stresses within the liquid and friction along the wetted surface of the
pipe bore.
154-264.indd 185
1/16/09 9:57:00 AM
placement of the pipeline discharge below the inlet. Like pressure

friction
nes,
friction
loss in
loss
a gravity
in the
a gravity
flow pipeline
flow
pipeline
depends
depends
on bore.
viscous
on viscous
shearshear
stresses
stresses
, and
along
surface
of the
on
lossfriction
in a gravity
flowwetted
pipeline
depends
on pipe
viscous
shear stresses
d,liquid,
and friction
and friction
alongalong
the wetted
the wetted
surface
surface
of theofpipe
the bore.
pipe bore.
d friction along the wetted surface of the pipe bore.
186 Chaptermay
6
ow piping systems
become very complex, especially if the pipeline
vity
ow
piping
flow
piping
systems
systems
may
become
may along
become
very
complex,
very
complex,
especially
especially
if the
ifpipeline
the pipeline
ecause
frictionmay
loss become
will vary
with
theespecially
varying
grade.
Sections
of
iping systems
very complex,
if the pipeline
ies,
ecause
because
friction
friction
loss
will
loss
vary
will
along
vary
along
with
the
with
varying
the
varying
grade.
grade.
Sections
Sections
of of
internal
pressure,
or
vacuum,
and
may
have
varying
liquid
ay
develop
se friction loss will vary along with the varying grade. Sections of
ne
ay
may
develop
develop
internal
internal
pressure,
pressure,
or vacuum,
or vacuum,
and may
and may
have have
varying
varying
liquidliquid
e bore.
evelop
internal pressure, or vacuum, and may have varying liquid
pe
he bore.
pipe bore.
re.
Some gravity flow piping systems may become very complex, especially if the
pipeline grade varies, because friction loss will vary along with the varying grade.
nel water flow under
ofmay
constant
and uniform
channel
Sectionsconditions
of the pipeline
develop grade,
internal pressure,
or vacuum,
and may have
nel
channel
water
water
flow
under
flow
under
conditions
conditions
of
constant
of
constant
grade,
grade,
and
uniform
and
uniform
channel
channel
varying
liquid be
levels
in the(28,29,30)
pipegrade,
bore. and
he Manning
equation
may
Open
channel
flow exists
water
flow under
conditions
of used.
constant
uniform
channel
ion,
the Manning
equation
equation
may
be
may
used.
beHazen-Williams
used.
(28,29,30)
(28,29,30)
Open
Open
channel
channel
flow
exists
flow exists
nhe
itManning
runs
partially
full.be
Like
the
formula,
theexists
Manning
anning
equation
may
used.
(28,29,30)
Open channel
flow
ned
when
ittoruns
it runs
partially
partially
full.with
Like
full.
Like
the Hazen-Williams
the viscosity
Hazen-Williams
formula,
formula,
the Manning
the Manning
Manning
Flow
water
or full.
liquids
aEquation
kinematic
equal
tothe
water.
runs
partially
Like
the
Hazen-Williams
formula,
Manning
ted
s limited
to water
to water
or liquids
or
liquids
with
a
with
kinematic
a
kinematic
viscosity
viscosity
equal
equal
to
water.
to
water.
Forwith
openachannel
waterviscosity
flow underequal
conditions
of constant grade, and uniform
o water or liquids
kinematic
to water.
ion
Equation
ion
channel cross section, the Manning equation may be used.(29,30) Open channel flow
exists in a pipe when it runs partially full. Like the Hazen-Williams formula,
the Manning equation is applicable to water or liquids with a kinematic viscosity
equal to water.
Manning Equation
(2-29)
1.486 2 / 3 1 / 2
V 1.486 1rH.486
S 2/3
2/3
1V
.486
= Vn2 / 3 rH1 / 2 SrH1 / 2 S 1 / 2
rHn S n
n
ere
Where
=
flow velocity,
ft/sec
V = flow velocity, ft/sec
=
V
flow
=
velocity,
flow
velocity,
ft/secft/sec
=flow velocity,
roughness
dimensionless
ft/sec
n coefficient,
= roughness coefficient, dimensionless
=
n
roughness
=
roughness
coefficient,
coefficient,
dimensionless
dimensionless
=roughness
hydraulic
radius,
ft
coefficient,
dimensionless
rH = hydraulic
radius, ft
=
=
hydraulic
radius,
radius,
ft
ft
rH hydraulic
SH =fthydraulic slope, ft/ft
hydraulic radius,
AC
rH
A
AC
(2-30)
rAHC = PrWHC
rH
PW PW
W pipe bore, ft2
=
cross-sectional areaPof
A
=C perimeter
cross-sectional
=
cross-sectional
area
of
area
pipe
bore,
pipe
bore,
ft2 ft2
=
flow,
ftof
area
of flow
C = cross-sectional
cross-sectionalAwetted
area
ofby
pipe
bore,
ft2bore, ft2
P
=W hydraulic
perimeter
=
perimeter
wetted
by wetted
flow,
by flow,
ft
ft
Pwetted
perimeter
=
slope,
ft/ft
W=
perimeter wetted
by
flow,
ft by flow, ft
S
=H hydraulic
=
hydraulic
slope,slope,
ft/ft ft/ft
hydraulic slope, ft/ft
(2-31)
hf
h h
S H hUU hhDDU hDf
hf
= hSDH L h f = L
ShHU
SH
L
L L
L
Lpipe elevation,
=
upstream hpipe
elevation,
ftL ft
U = upstream
h
=U downstream
upstream
=
upstream
elevation,
pipe
elevation,
ft ft ftft
hpipe
downstream
pipe elevation,
D =pipe
=
elevation,
upstream pipe elevation,
ft
h
=D to friction
downstream
=
downstream
pipe
elevation,
pipe
elevation,
ft with
ft
hf = friction
(head)
loss,
ft of liquid
ent
combine
the
Manning
equation
=
(head)
loss,
ft of
downstream
pipe
elevation,
ftliquid
ombine
Manning
equation
with
L = length,
ft loss,
=
hf friction
= thefriction
(head)
(head)
loss,
ft of liquid
ft of liquid
friction (head) loss,
ft of liquid
It is convenient to combine the Manning equation with
Q ACV
(2-32) Q
ACV
Eq. 1- 46
Eq. 1-Eq.
461- 46
Eq. 1- 46
Eq. 1- 47
Eq. 1-Eq.
471- 47
Eq. 1- 47
Eq. 1-48
Eq. 1-48
Eq. 1-48
Eq. 1-48
31
31
Eq. 1-49
Eq. 1-49
To obtain
1.486 A
2/3
1/ 2
1.486
Q AC 2 / 3 C r1H/ 2 S H
Q
rH n S H
n
are as defined above, and
defined above, and
=
flow, ft3/sec
flow, ft3/sec
ular pipe is running full or half-full,
e is running full or half-full,
(2-33)
154-264.indd 186
d'
DI
Eq. 1-50
Eq. 1-50
1/16/09 9:57:01 AM
ACV
Q = ACV
Eq. 1-49
Eq. 1-49
1.486 AC 2 / 3 1 / 2
rH S H
n 1.486 AC 2 / 3 1 / 2
1.486QA=C 2 / n3 1 /r2H S H
re as defined above,
and rH S H
Q
n
3
rms
as ftdefined
/sec above, and
= are
flow,
as defined above,3and
/sec
flow,Where
ftfull
rQpipe =is running
or half-full,
terms
flow, ft3/sec Q = flow, ft3/sec
ircular pipe is running full or half-full,
d ' DI
pe is running full or half-full,
rH
When a circular
pipe 4
is running
' orDhalf-full,
d full
48
I
r
=
H
(2-34)
d ' DI 4 = 48
rH
48 equation with
onvenient
to
combine
the 4Manning
ere
=
pipe inside diameter, ft
=d pipe
diameter,
in
= inside
pipewhere
inside
diameter,
ft
d = pipe inside diameter, ft Q
ACV
3 = inside
diameter,
ft
DIpipe
pipe
inside diameter,
in
insideestimated
diameter, in using:
n ft per secondDmay
I = pipe be
pipe inside
in
3 thediameter,
otain
combine
Manning
equation
with using:
second
may
be estimated
flow
in ft per
Chapter 6
Eq.Design
1-50
Eq. 1-50
Eq. 1-50
187
Eq. 1-51
31
Eq. 1-51
Eq. 1-51
31
Eq. 1-49
8/3
Full pipe
in ft 3 per second
may be estimated
S 1 / 2 using:
per second may
beflow
estimated
4 DI
using:
6
.
136
u
10
Eq. 1-52
Q(2-35)
1
.
486
A
28/ /33 11/ 2/ 2
FPS
C
Q Q
ACV
Eq. 1-49 Eq. 1-50
SSH
4n rD
HI
810
Eq. 1-52
QFPS = 6.136
n/ 3 S 1 / 2
4 DI
n
6may
.136 ube
10
Eq. 1-52
Qminute
FPS
ne gallons
peras
terms are
defined
above,estimated
and n using:
Full pipe flow in gallons per minute may be estimated using:
low in gallons per minute
may be estimated using:
3
486 A
Q =
flow,
2 /83/ 3 11/ 2/ 2
(2-36) ft1./sec
C
rD
SSHusing:
Eq. 1-50
allons per minuteQmay be estimated
H I
'
0
.
275
Eq. 1-53
Q
n full or half-full,
8 / 3 1/ 2
a circular pipe is running
DI S
n
8 / 3 1/ 2
Eq. 1-53
S
as defined above, and QD' =I 0.275
n
'
0
.
275
Eq.
1-53
Q
DI more liquid
' carry
ular pipes will
carry more liquid than
ad completely
full pipe.
When slightly
than a completely
full pipe.
rH will
Eq.When
1-51
flow, ft3/secNearly full circularnpipes
slightly
less
than
full,
the
perimeter
wetted
by
flow
is
reduced,
but
the
actual
flow
he
hydraulic
radius
is
significantly
reduced,
but
the
actual
flow
area
is
4
48
l circular pipes will carry more liquid than a completely full pipe. When slightly
pipe
isthe
running
or
half-full,
area
is
only
slightly
lessened.
results
in pipe.
abut
larger
hydraulic
radius
than
when
ssened.
Maximum
flow
is
achieved
atThis
about
93%
of
full
pipe
flow,
and
pipes
will
carryfull
more
liquid
than
a completely
full
When
slightly
full,
hydraulic
radius
is
significantly
reduced,
the
actual
flow
area
is
where
the
pipe
is
running
full.
Maximum
flow
is
achieved
at
about
93%
of
full
pipe
flow,
city
at
about
78%
of
full
pipe
flow.
hydraulic
radius
is significantly
reduced, at
butabout
the actual
flow
tly
lessened.
Maximum
flow is achieved
93% of
fullarea
pipe isflow, and
DI at
' pipe
d velocity
dMaximum
= about
pipe
inside
diameter,
and
maximum
at ft
about
78%93%
of fullof
pipe
flow.
Mannings
n is often assumed
ned.
flow
is
achieved
about
full
pipe
flow,
velocity
at
78%
of
full
flow.
rH
Eq. and
1-51
DI =
diameter,
in Actually, n has been found to be slightly larger in
to be
constant
4with flow
48 depth.
at about
78% pipe
of
fullinside
pipe flow.
non-full flow.
ipe flow in ft per second may be estimated using:

Table 1-15: Values of n for Use with Manning Equation
pipe
inside
diameter,
ft
8 / 3n, typical
Table
1-15:
Values
Manning
Table
2-11 of n for Use with
S 1 / 2 Equation
Surface
4 DI
pipe
inside
diameter,
in
design
6.136Equation
u 10
Eq. 1-52
QUse
ble 1-15: Values
ofofnn for
for
Use
with
Manning
Equation
Values
with Manning
n, typical
FPS
Surface
n 0.009design
3
Polyethylene
pipe
n,
typical
ft per Uncoated
secondSurface
may
estimated
using:
Surface
n, typical0.013
design
castPolyethylene
orbe
ductile
ironpipe
pipe
design 0.009
PE
pipe
0.009
pe flow in Polyethylene
gallons
per
minute
may
be
estimated
using:
Corrugated
steel
0.024 0.013
Uncoated cast
ductile iron8 /pipe
pipeorpipe
0.009
Uncoated cast or ductile iron
pipe 3 S 1 / 2
0.013
D
Concrete
pipe
0.013 0.024
4

I
pipe
Uncoated cast
orCorrugated
ductile
iron
pipe
0.013
6.136
usteel
10
Eq. 1-52
Q
Corrugated
steel
pipe
8 / 3 1 / 2 0.024
FPS
Vitrified
clay
pipe
0.013 0.013
Concrete
pipe
n DI S 0.024
Corrugated steel
pipe pipe
Concrete
0.013
' 0.275
Eq. 1-53
Q
Brick and
cement
mortar sewers
0.015 0.013
Vitrified
pipe
Concrete
pipe
Vitrifiedclay
clay pipe
0.013
n 0.013
Brick Brick
and
cement
mortar
sewers
0.015
clay
pipe
0.013
gallons perVitrified
minute
may
be estimated
using:
and
cement
mortar sewers
0.015
Brick
and
cement
mortar
sewers
0.015
Wood stave
y full circular pipes will carry
more liquid than a 0.011
completely full pipe. When slightly
8 / 3 1/ 2
Rubble masonry
0.021
DI is significantly
S
han full, the hydraulic radius
reduced, but the actual flow area is
' n-value
0.275of 0.009
Eq. 1-53
Note:Q
The
for PE pipe is for clear water applications.
lightly lessened.
Maximum
flow
is
achieved
at such
about
93% of full pipe flow, and
n utilized for applications
An n-value of 0.010 is typically
as sanitary sewer, etc.
mum velocity at about 78% of full pipe flow.
ar pipes will carry more liquid than a completely full pipe. When slightly
e hydraulic radius is significantly reduced, but the actual flow area is
ened. Maximum flow is achieved at about 93% of full pipe flow, and
y at about
78%1-15:
of full Values
pipe flow.
Table
of n for Use with Manning Equation
154-264.indd 187
Surface
n, typical
1/16/09 9:57:02 AM
32
188
Chapter 6
Wood stave
Rubble masonry
0.011
0.021
Note: The n-value of 0.009 for polyethylene pipe is for clear water applications.
An n-value of 0.010 is typically utilized for applications such as sanitary sewer, etc.
tive Flows for Slipliners

Comparative Flows for Slipliners
Deteriorated gravity flow pipes may be rehabilitated by sliplining with PE pipe. This
ted gravity flowprocess

pipesinvolves
may be
pipe.pipe
therehabilitated
installation of aby
PE sliplining
liner inside with
of thepolyethylene
deteriorated original
cess involves the
installation
of a polyethylene
liner
deteriorated
as described
in subsequent
chapters within
this inside
manual. of
Forthe
conventional
sliplining,
ipe as described
in
subsequent
chapters
within
this
manual.
For
conventional
clearance between the liner outside diameter and the existing pipe bore is required
clearance between
liner thus
outside
diameter and
thechannel
existing
pipe than
borethat
is of
to installthe
the liner;
after rehabilitation,
the flow
is smaller
to install the liner;
thus after
the
flow channel
is smaller
theand
the original
pipe. rehabilitation,
However, it is often
possible
to rehabilitate
with a PEthan
slipliner,
pipe. However, regain
it is often
possible
to rehabilitate
with
slipliner,
all or most
of the original
flow capacity
dueatopolyethylene
the extremely smooth
inside
surface
of the PE pipe
its resistance
or build-up.
Because
PE pipe
in all or most of
the original
flowand
capacity
due totodeposition
the extremely
smooth
inside
is mostly joined
means
thisto
results
in no effective
of
of the polyethylene
pipe byand
itsof butt-fusion,
resistance
deposition
or reduction
build-up.
flow diameter
at joint
locations
flow capacities
of circular pipes may be
tive flow capacities
of circular
pipes
mayComparative
be determined
by the following:
determined by the following:
(2-37)
D I 18 / 3
n1
Q1
= 100
% flow = 100
8/3
Q2
DI 2
n2
Eq. 1-54
Table 2-12 was developed using Equation 2-36 where D I1 = the inside diameter (ID)
16 was developed
using Equation 1-54 where DI1 = the inside diameter (ID) of
of the liner, and D I2 = the original inside diameter of the deteriorated host pipe.
and DI2 = the original
inside diameter of the deteriorated host pipe.
ine
r
OD,
n.
.50
0
.50
0
.37
5
.62
5
.12
5
.62
5
0.7
50
2.7
50
Table 1-16: Comparative Flows for Slipliners
Liner DR 32.5
% flow
%
Line
vs.
flow
r ID,
concre
vs.
in.
te
clay
3.27
84.5
97.5%
2
%
4.20
56.0
64.6%
6
%
5.02
90.0
103.8%
4
%
6.19
73.0
84.2%
3
%
6.66
88.6
102.2%
0
%
8.06
81.3
93.8%
2
%
10.0
90.0
103.8%
49
%
11.9
78.2
90.3%
18
%
154-264.indd 188
Liner DR 26
% flow
%
Line
vs.
flow
r ID,
concre
vs.
in.
te
clay
3.21
80.6
93.0%
5
%
4.13
53.5
61.7%
3
%
4.93
85.9
99.1%
7
%
6.08
69.6
80.3%
5
%
6.54
84.5
97.5%
4
%
7.92
77.6
89.5%
2
%
9.87
85.9
99.1%
3
%
11.7
74.6
86.1%
10
%
Liner DR 21
% flow
%
Line
vs.
flow
r ID,
concre
vs.
in.
te
clay
3.14
76.2
87.9%
7
%
4.04
50.5
58.3%
6
%
4.83
81.1
93.6%
2
%
5.95
65.8
75.9%
6
%
6.40
79.9
92.1%
6
%
7.75
73.3
84.6%
4
%
9.66
81.1
93.6%
5
%
11.4
70.5
81.4%
63
%
Liner DR 17
% flow
%
Line
vs.
flow
r ID,
concre
vs.
in.
te
clay
3.06
70.9
81.8%
4
%
3.93
47.0
54.3%
9
%
4.70
75.5
87.1%
5
%
5.79
61.2
70.7%
9
%
6.23
74.4
85.8%
6
%
7.54
68.3
78.8%
9
%
9.40
75.5
87.1%
9
%
11.1
65.6
75.7%
60
%
1/16/09 9:57:02 AM
Chapter 6 189
Table 2-12
Comparative Flows for Slipliners
Liner DR 32.5
Liner DR 26
Liner DR 21
Liner DR 17
Existing Liner
% flow
% flow
% flow
% flow
Liner ID,
% flow Liner ID,
% flow Liner ID,
% flow Liner ID,
% flow
vs.
vs.
vs.
vs.
Sewer
OD,
in.
vs. clay
in.
vs. clay
in.
vs. clay
in.
vs. clay
concrete
concrete
concrete
concrete
ID, in
in.
4
3.500
3.272
97.5%
84.5%
3.215
93.0%
80.6%
3.147
87.9%
76.2%
3.064
81.8%
70.9%
4.500
4.206
64.6%
56.0%
4.133
61.7%
53.5%
4.046
58.3%
50.5%
3.939
54.3%
47.0%
5.375
5.024
103.8%
90.0%
4.937
99.1%
85.9%
4.832
93.6%
81.1%
4.705
87.1%
75.5%
6.625
6.193
84.2%
73.0%
6.085
80.3%
69.6%
5.956
75.9%
65.8%
5.799
70.7%
61.2%
7.125
6.660
102.2%
88.6%
6.544
97.5%
84.5%
6.406
92.1%
79.9%
6.236
85.8%
74.4%
10
8.625
8.062
93.8%
81.3%
7.922
89.5%
77.6%
7.754
84.6%
73.3%
7.549
78.8%
68.3%
12
10.750
10.049 103.8%
90.0%
9.873
99.1%
85.9%
9.665
93.6%
81.1%
9.409
87.1%
75.5%
15
12.750
11.918
78.2%
11.710
86.1%
74.6%
11.463
81.4%
70.5%
11.160
75.7%
65.6%
90.3%
15
13.375
12.503 102.5%
88.9%
12.284
97.8%
84.8%
12.025
92.4%
80.1%
11.707
86.1%
74.6%
16
14.000
13.087
84.5%
2.858
93.0%
80.6%
12.587
87.9%
76.2%
12.254
81.8%
70.9%
97.5%
18
16.000
14.956 101.7%
88.1%
14.695
97.0%
84.1%
14.385
91.7%
79.4%
14.005
85.3%
74.0%
21
18.000
16.826
92.3%
80.0%
16.532
88.1%
76.3%
16.183
83.2%
72.1%
15.755
77.5%
67.1%
24
20.000
18.695
85.6%
74.2%
18.369
81.7%
70.8%
17.981
77.2%
66.9%
17.506
71.9%
62.3%
24
22.000
20.565 110.4%
95.7%
20.206 105.3%
91.3%
19.779
99.5%
86.2%
19.256
92.6%
80.3%
88.1%
22.043
27
24.000
22.434 101.7%
97.0%
84.1%
21.577
91.7%
79.4%
21.007
85.3%
74.0%
30
28.000
26.174 115.8% 100.4% 25.717 110.5%
95.8%
25.173 104.4%
90.5%
24.508
97.2%
84.2%
33
30.000
28.043 108.0%
93.6%
27.554 103.0%
89.3%
26.971
97.3%
84.3%
26.259
90.6%
78.5%
36
32.000
29.913 101.7%
88.1%
29.391
84.1%
28.770
91.7%
79.4%
28.009
85.3%
74.0%
97.0%
36
34.000
31.782 119.5% 103.6% 31.228 114.1%
98.9%
30.568 107.7%
93.4%
29.760 100.3%
86.9%
42
36.000
33.652
92.3%
76.3%
32.366
72.1%
31.511
67.1%
80.0%
33.065
88.1%
83.2%
77.5%
48
42.000
39.260
97.5%
84.5%
38.575
93.0%
80.6%
37.760
87.9%
76.2%
36.762
81.8%
70.9%
54
48.000
44.869 101.7%
88.1%
44.086
97.0%
84.1%
43.154
91.7%
79.4%
42.014
85.3%
74.0%
60
54.000
50.478 105.1%
91.1%
49.597 100.3%
86.9%
48.549
94.8%
82.1%
47.266
88.2%
76.5%
Liner ID calculated per Equation 2-1.
Flow Velocity
Acceptable flow velocities in PE pipe depend on the specific details of the system.
For water systems operating at rated pressures, velocities may be limited by surge
allowance requirements. See Tables 1-3A and 1-3B. Where surge effects are reduced,
higher velocities are acceptable, and if surge is not possible, such as in many gravity
flow systems, water flow velocities exceeding 25 feet per second may be acceptable.
Liquid flow velocity may be limited by the capabilities of pumps or elevation head
to overcome friction (head) loss and deliver the flow and pressure required for
the application. PE pipe is not eroded by water flow. Liquid slurry pipelines may
be subject to critical minimum velocities that ensure turbulent flow and maintain
particle suspension in the slurry.
Gravity liquid flows of 2 fps (0.6 m/s) and higher can help prevent or reduce solids
deposition in sewer lines. When running full, gravity flow pipelines are subject to
the same velocity considerations as pressure pipelines.
154-264.indd 189
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190 Chapter 6
Flow velocity in compressible gas lines tends to be self-limiting. Compressible

gas flows in PE pipes are typically laminar or transitional. Fully turbulent flows
are possible in short pipelines, but difficult to achieve in longer transmission and
distribution lines because the pressure ratings for PE pipe automatically limit flow
capacity and, therefore, flow velocity.
Pipe Surface Condition, Aging
Aging acts to increase pipe surface roughness in most piping systems. This in
turn increases flow resistance. PE pipe resists typical aging effects because PE
does not rust, rot, corrode, tuberculate, or support biological growth, and it resists
the adherence of scale and deposits. In some cases, moderate flow velocities are
sufficient to prevent deposition, and where low velocities predominate, occasional
high velocity flows will help to remove sediment and deposits. As a result, the
initial design capabilities for pressure and gravity flow pipelines are retained as the
pipeline ages.
Where cleaning is needed to remove depositions in low flow rate gravity flow
pipelines, water-jet cleaning or forcing a soft (plastic foam) pig through the
pipeline are effective cleaning methods. Bucket, wire and scraper-type cleaning
methods will damage PE pipe and must not be used.
154-264.indd 190
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Chapter 6 191
Section 3
Buried PE Pipe Design
Introduction
This section covers basic engineering information for calculating earth and live-load
pressures on PE pipe, for finding the pipes response to these pressures taking into
account the interaction between the pipe and its surrounding soil, and for judging
that an adequate safety factor exists for a given application.
Soil pressure results from the combination of soil weight and surface loads. As
backfill is placed around and over a PE pipe, the soil pressure increases and the
pipe deflects vertically and expands laterally into the surrounding soil. The lateral
expansion mobilizes passive resistance in the soil which, in combination with the
pipes inherent stiffness, resists further lateral expansion and consequently further
vertical deflection.
During backfilling, ring (or hoop) stress develops within the pipe wall. Ring
bending stresses (tensile and compressive) occur as a consequence of deflection,
and ring compressive stress occurs as a consequence of the compressive thrust
created by soil compression around the pipes circumference. Except for shallow pipe
subject to live load, the combined ring stress from bending and compression results
in a net compressive stress.
The magnitude of the deflection and the stress depends not only on the pipes
properties but also on the properties of the surrounding soil. The magnitude of
deflection and stress must be kept safely within PE pipes performance limits.
Excessive deflection may cause loss of stability and flow restriction, while excessive
compressive stress may cause wall crushing or ring buckling. Performance limits for
PE pipe are given in Watkins, Szpak, and Allman(1) and illustrated in
Figure 3-1.
The design and construction requirements can vary somewhat, depending on
whether the installation is for pressure or non-pressure service. These differences
will be addressed later in this chapter and in Chapter 7, Underground Installation
of PE Pipe.
154-264.indd 191
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192
Chapter 6
Calculations
Section 3 describes how to calculate the soil pressure acting on PE pipe due to soil
weight and surface loads, how to determine the resulting deflection based on pipe
and soil properties, and how to calculate the allowable (safe) soil pressure for wall
compression (crushing) and ring buckling for PE pipe.
Detailed calculations are not always necessary to determine the suitability of a
particular PE pipe for an application. Pressure pipes that fall within the Design
Window given in AWWA M-55 PE Pipe Design and Installation regarding
pipe DR, installation, and burial depth meet specified deflection limits for PE pipe,
have a safety factor of at least 2 against buckling, and do not exceed the allowable
material compressive stress for PE. Thus, the designer need not perform extensive
calculations for pipes that are sized and installed in accordance with the Design
Window.
AWWA M-55 Design Window
AWWA M-55, PE Pipe Design and Installation, describes a Design Window.

Applications that fall within this window require no calculations other than
constrained buckling per Equation 3-15. It turns out that if pipe is limited to DR 21
or lower as in Table 3-1, the constrained buckling calculation has a safety factor of at
least 2, and no calculations are required.
The design protocol under these circumstances (those that fall within the AWWA
Design Window) is thereby greatly simplified. The designer may choose to proceed
with detailed analysis of the burial design and utilize the AWWA Design Window
guidelines as a means of validation for his design calculations and commensurate
safety factors. Alternatively, he may proceed with confidence that the burial design
for these circumstances (those outlined within the AWWA Design Window) has
already been analyzed in accordance with the guidelines presented in this chapter.
The Design Window specifications are:
Pipe made from stress-rated PE material.
Essentially no dead surface load imposed over the pipe, no ground water above
the surface, and provisions for preventing flotation of shallow cover pipe have
been provided.
The embedment materials are coarse-grained, compacted to at least 85% Standard
Proctor Density and have an E of at least 1000 psi. The native soil must be stable;
in other words the native soil must have an E of at least 1000 psi. See Table 3-7.
The unit weight of the native soil does not exceed 120 pcf.
The pipe is installed in accordance with manufacturers recommendations for
controlling shear and bending loads and minimum bending radius, and installed
154-264.indd 192
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Chapter 6 193
in accordance with ASTM D2774 for pressure pipes or ASTM D2321 for nonpressure pipes.
Minimum depth of cover is 2 ft (0.61 m); except when subject to AASHTO H20
truck loadings, in which case the minimum depth of cover is the greater of 3 ft
(0.9 m) or one pipe diameter.
Maximum depth of cover is 25 ft (7.62 m).
Table 3-1
AWWA M-55 Design Window Maximum and Minimum Depth of
Cover Requiring No Calculations
DR
Min. Depth of
Cover With H20
Load
Min. Depth of
Cover Without
H20 Load
Maximum
Depth of Cover
7.3
3 ft
2 ft
25 ft
3 ft
2 ft
25 ft
11
3 ft
2 ft
25 ft
13.5
3 ft
2 ft
25 ft
17
3 ft
2 ft
25 ft
21
3 ft
2 ft
25 ft
* Limiting depths where no calculations are required. Pipes are suitable for deeper depth provided
a sufficient E (1,000 psi or more) is accomplished during installations. Calculations would be required
for depth greater than 25 ft.
Installation Categories
For the purpose of calculation, buried installations of PE pipe can be separated
into four categories depending on the depth of cover, surface loading, groundwater
level and pipe diameter. Each category involves slightly different equations for
determining the load on the pipe and the pipes response to the load. The boundaries
between the categories are not definite, and engineering judgment is required to
select the most appropriate category for a specific installation. The categories are:
1. Standard Installation-Trench or Embankment installation with a maximum
cover of 50 ft with or without traffic, rail, or surcharge loading. To be in this

category, where live loads are present the pipe must have a minimum cover of
at least one diameter or 18 whichever is greater. Earth pressure applied to the
pipe is found using the prism load (geostatic soil stress). The Modified Iowa
Formula is used for calculating deflection. Crush and buckling are performance
limits as well. The Standard Installation section also presents the AWWA Design
Window.
2. Shallow Cover Vehicular Loading Installation applies to pipes buried at a
depth of at least 18 but less than one pipe diameter. This installation category
154-264.indd 193
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194 Chapter 6
uses the same equations as the Standard Installation but with an additional
equation relating wheel load to the pipes bending resistance and the soils
supporting strength.
3. Deep Fill Installation applies to embankments with depths exceeding 50 ft.
The soil pressure calculation may be used for profile pipe in trenches less
than 50 ft. The Deep Fill Installation equations differ from the Standard
Installation equations by considering soil pressure based on armored, calculating
deflection from the Watkins-Gaube Graph, and calculating buckling with the
Moore-Selig Equation.
4. Shallow Cover Flotation Effects applies to applications where insufficient
cover is available to either prevent flotation or hydrostatic collapse. Hydrostatic

buckling is introduced in this chapter because of its use in subsurface design.
Section 3 of the Design Chapter is limited to the design of PE pipes buried in

trenches or embankments. The load and pipe reaction calculations presented may
not apply to pipes installed using trenchless technologies such as pipe bursting
and directional drilling. These pipes may not develop the same soil support as
pipe installed in a trench. The purveyor of the trenchless technology should be
consulted for piping design information. See the Chapter on PE Pipe for Horizontal
Directional Drilling and ASTM F1962, Use of Maxi-Horizontal Directional Drilling
(HDD) for Placement of Polyethylene Pipe or Conduit Under Obstacles, Including River
Crossings for additional information on design of piping installed using directional
drilling.
37
Figu
re 21.
Perf
orm
ance
Limi
ts
for
Buri
ed
PE
Pipe
Figure 3-1 Performance Limits for Buried PE Pipe

Design Process
The interaction between pipe and soil, the variety of field-site soil conditions, and the
Dimension Ratios make the design of buried pipe seem
challenging. This section of the Design Chapter has been written with the intent of
The
interaction
between
pipe
and
soil,
the variety
ofapproaches
field-sitefor
soil conditions, and
easing
the designers
task. While
some
very
sophisticated
design
buried pipe systems may be justified in certain applications, the simpler, empirical
the
range
of
available
pipe
Dimension
Ratios
make
the
design
methodologies presented herein have been proven by experience to provide reliableof buried pipe seem
results for virtuallyThis
all PEsection
pipe installations.
challenging.
of the Design Chapter has been written with the intent
range of Process
available pipe
Design
of
easing
the designers
task.
While
some very sophisticated design approaches for
The
design process
consists of the
following
steps:
1) Determine the vertical soil pressure acting at the crown of the pipe due to
earth, live, and surcharge loads.
2) Select a trial pipe, which means selecting a trial dimension ratio (DR) or, in the
case of profile pipe, a trial profile as well.
154-264.indd 194
3) Select an embedment material and degree of compaction. As will be described

later, soil type and compaction are relatable to a specific modulus of soil
1/16/09 9:57:03 AM
Chapter 6 195
buried pipe systems may be justified in certain applications, the simpler, empirical
methodologies presented herein have been proven by experience to provide reliable
results for virtually all PE pipe installations.
The design process consists of the following steps:
1. Determine the vertical soil pressure acting at the crown of the pipe due to earth,
live, and surcharge loads.
2. Select a trial pipe, which means selecting a trial dimension ratio (DR) or, in the
case of profile pipe, a trial profile.
3. Select an embedment material and degree of compaction. As will be described
later, soil type and compaction are relatable to a specific modulus of soil reaction
value (E) (Table 3-8). (As deflection is proportional to the combination of pipe
and soil stiffness, pipe properties and embedment stiffness can be traded off to
obtain an optimum design.)
4. For the trial pipe and trial modulus of soil reaction, calculate the deflection due
to the vertical soil pressure. Compare the pipe deflection to the deflection limit. If
deflection exceeds the limit, it is generally best to look at increasing the modulus
of soil reaction rather than reducing the DR or changing to a heavier profile.
Repeat step 4 for the new E and/or new trial pipe.
5. For the trial pipe and trial modulus of soil reaction, calculate the allowable soil
pressure for wall crushing and for wall buckling. Compare the allowable soil
pressure to the applied vertical pressure. If the allowable pressure is equal to or
higher than the applied vertical pressure, the design is complete. If not, select a
different pipe DR or heavier profile or different E, and repeat step 5.
Since design begins with calculating vertical soil pressure, it seems appropriate to
discuss the different methods for finding the vertical soil pressure on a buried pipe
before discussing the pipes response to load within the four installation categories.
Earth, Live, and Surcharge Loads on Buried Pipe
Vertical Soil Pressure
The weight of the earth, as well as surface loads above the pipe, produce soil
pressure on the pipe. The weight of the earth or earth load is often considered
to be a dead-load whereas surface loads are referred to as surcharge loads and
may be temporary or permanent. When surcharge loads are of short duration they
are usually referred to as live loads. The most common live load is vehicular load.
Other common surcharge loads include light structures, equipment, and piles of
stored materials or debris. This section gives formulas for calculating the vertical
154-264.indd 195
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196 Chapter 6
soil pressure due to both earth and surcharge loads. The soil pressures are normally
calculated at the depth of the pipe crown. The soil pressures for earth load and each
surcharge load are added together to obtain the total vertical soil pressure which is
then used for calculating deflection and for comparison with wall crush and wall
buckling performance limits.
Earth Load
In a uniform, homogeneous soil mass, the soil load acting on a horizontal plane
within the mass is equal to the weight of the soil directly above the plane. If the
mass contains areas of varying stiffness, the weight of the mass will redistribute
itself toward the stiffer areas due to internal shear resistance, and arching will
occur. Arching results in a reduction in load on the less stiff areas. Flexible pipes
including PE pipes are normally not as stiff as the surrounding soil, so the resulting
earth pressure acting on PE pipe is reduced by arching and is less than the weight
of soil above the pipe. (One minor exception to this is shallow cover pipe under
dynamic loads.) For simplicity, engineers often ignore arching and assume that the
earth load on the pipe is equal to the weight of soil above the pipe, which is referred
to as the prism load or geostatic stress. Practically speaking, the prism load is
a conservative loading for PE pipes. It may be safely used in virtually all designs.
Equation 3-1 gives the vertical soil pressure due to the prism load. The depth of cover
is the depth from the ground surface to the pipe crown.
(3-1)
P E = wH
Where
PE = vertical soil pressure due to earth load, psf
w = unit weight of soil, pcf

H = depth of cover, ft
UNITS CONVENTION: To facilitate calculations for PE pipes, the convention used with
rigid pipes for taking the load on the pipe as a line load along the longitudinal axis in
units of lbs/lineal-ft of pipe length is not used here. Rather, the load is treated as a soil
pressure acting on a horizontal plane at the pipe crown and is given in units of lbs/ft2
or psf.
Soil weight can vary substantially from site to site and within a site depending
on composition, density and load history. Soil weights are often found in the
construction site geotechnical report. The saturated unit weight of the soil is used
when the pipe is below the groundwater level. For design purposes, the unit
weight of dry soil is commonly assumed to be 120 pcf, when site-specific information
is not available.
154-264.indd 196
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Chapter 6 197
Generally, the soil pressure on profile pipe and on DR pipe in deep fills is
significantly less than the prism load due to arching. For these applications, soil
pressure is best calculated using the calculations that account for arching in the
40
Deep Fill Installation section.
Figure
2-2.
Figure
3-2 Prism
LoadPrism
Load
Live Load
Even though wheel loadings from cars and other light vehicles may be frequent,
these loads generally have little impact on subsurface piping compared to the less
frequent but significantly heavier loads from trucks, trains, or other heavy vehicles.
h wheel loadings
cars
andunder
other
lightand
vehicles
may
these
Forfrom
design
of pipes
streets
highways,
onlybe
thefrequent,
loadings from
these heavier
ally have little impact
on
subsurface
piping
compared
to
the
less
frequent
vehicles are considered. The pressure transmitted to a pipe by a vehicle depends
ntly heavier loads
from
trucks,
or other
heavy
vehicles.
Forsize,
design
ofspeed,
on the
pipes
depth,trains,
the vehicles
weight,
the tire
pressure and
vehicle
streets and highways,
then,
only
the
loadings
from
these
heavier
vehicles
surface smoothness, the amount and type of paving, the soil, and the distance from
red. The pressure
transmitted
toofaloading.
pipe by
vehicle
depends
onsuch
theaspipes
the pipe
to the point
Forathe
more common
cases,
AASHTO, H20
vehicle's weight,
the
tire
pressure
and
size,
vehicle
speed,
surface
HS20 truck traffic on paved roads and E-80 rail loading, this information
has been
, the amount and
type ofand
paving,
soil,
andand
the3-5distance
theFor
pipe
to cases,
simplified
put intothe
Table
3-3, 3-4,
to aid thefrom
designer.
special
loading. For the
more
common
cases,
asvehicles,
H20 (HS20)
truck
traffic
on be used.
such
as mine
trucks, cranes,
or such
off-road
Equations
3-2 and
3-4 may
s and E-80 rail loading, this information has been simplified and put into
load under
a wheel
occurs
at the surface
andmine
diminishes
with depth.
2-3, and 2-4 toThe
aidmaximum
the designer.
For
special
cases,
such as
trucks,
PE
pipes
should
be
installed
a
minimum
of
one
diameter
or
18,
whichever
is greater,
ff-road vehicles, Equations 2-2 and 2-4 may be used.
beneath the road surface. At this depth, the pipe is far enough below the wheel load
to significantly reduce soil pressure and the pipe can fully utilize the embedment
a wheel occurs at the surface and diminishes with depth.
soil for load resistance. Where design considerations do not permit installation with
um load under
e pipes should be installed a minimum of one diameter or 18, whichever is
eath the road surface. At this depth, the pipe is far enough below the wheel
ificantly reduce soil pressure and the pipe can fully utilize the embedment
resistance. Where design considerations do not permit installation with at
ameter of cover, additional calculations are required and are given in the
cussing154-264.indd
"Shallow
Cover Vehicular Loading Installation." State highway
197
1/16/09 9:57:03 AM
198
Chapter 6
at least one diameter of cover, additional calculations are required and are given
in the section discussing Shallow Cover Vehicular Loading Installation. State
highway departments often regulate minimum cover depth and may require 2.5 ft to
5 ft of cover depending on the particular roadway.
During construction, both permanent and temporary underground pipelines may
be subjected to heavy vehicle loading from construction equipment. It may be
advisable to provide a designated vehicle crossing with special measures such as
temporary pavement or concrete encasement, as well as vehicle speed controls to
limit impact loads.
The following information on AASHTO Loading and Impact Factor is not needed
to use Tables 3-3 and 3-4. It is included to give the designer an understanding of the
surface loads encountered and typical impact factors. If the designer decides to use
Equations 3-2 or 3-4 rather than the tables, the information will be useful.
AASHTO Vehicular Loading
Vehicular loads are typically based on The American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) standard truck loadings. For calculating the
soil pressure on flexible pipe, the loading is normally assumed to be an H20 (HS20)
truck. A standard H20 truck has a total weight of 40,000 lbs (20 tons). The weight is
distributed with 8,000 lbs on the front axle and 32,000 lbs on the rear axle. The HS20
truck is a tractor and trailer unit having the same axle loadings as the H20 truck but
with two rear axles. See Figure 3-3. For these trucks, the maximum wheel load is
found at the rear axle(s) and equals 40 percent of the total weight of the truck.
The maximum wheel load may be used to represent the static load applied by either
a single axle or tandem axles. Some states permit heavier loads. The heaviest tandem
axle loads normally encountered on highways are around 40,000 lbs (20,000 lbs per
wheel). Occasionally, vehicles may be permitted with loads up to 50 percent higher.
154-264.indd 198
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Chapter 6 199
4242
AASHTO
H20
Wheel
AASHTO
H20
Load
AASHTO
H20Wheel
WheelLoad
Load
AASHTO
Wheel
AASHTO
HS20
Wheel
Load
AASHTO HS20
HS20
Wheel
Load Load
Figure 3-3 AASHTO H20 and HS20 Vehicle Loads
Figure
2-3.AASHTO
AASHTO
H20
HS20
VehicleLoads
Loads
Figure
2-3.
H20
&&
HS20
Vehicle
Impact Factor
Road surfaces are rarely smooth or perfectly even. When vehicles strike bumps in
the road, the impact causes an instantaneous increase in wheel loading. Impact load
Impact
Factor
Impact
Factor
may
be found by multiplying the static wheel load by an impact factor. The factor
varies with depth. Table 3-2 gives impact factors for vehicles on paved roads. For
Road
surfaces
rarely
smooth
or perfectly
even.When
When vehiclesstrike
strikebumps
bumpsininthe
the
Road
surfaces
areare
rarely
smooth
even.
unpaved roads,
impact
factorsor
ofperfectly
2.0 or higher
may occur, vehicles
depending on the
road
road,
the
impact
causes
an
instantaneous
increase
in
wheel
loading.
Impact
load
may
road, the
impact causes an instantaneous increase in wheel loading. Impact load may
surface.
found
multiplying
static
wheel
load
impact
factor.The
Thefactor
factorvaries
varieswith
with
be be
found
by by
multiplying
thethe
static
wheel
load
byby
anan
impact
factor.
depth. Table 2-1 gives impact factors for vehicles on paved roads. For unpaved roads,
depth. Table 2-1 gives impact factors for vehicles on paved roads. For unpaved roads,
impact factors of 2.0 or higher may occur, depending on the road surface.
impactTable
factors3-2
of 2.0 or higher may occur, depending on the road surface.
Typical Impact Factors for Paved Roads
Cover Depth, ft
1
2
Impact Factor, If
Table1.35
2-1: Typical Impact Factors for Paved Roads
Table 2-1:
Typical Impact Factors for Paved Roads
1.30
1.25Cover
1.20
Depth, ft
Cover Depth, ft
1.10
1.00
Impact Factor, If
Impact Factor, If
Derived from Illinois DOT dynamic load2formula (1996).
2
3
Vehicle Loading through Highway Pavement (Rigid)
1.35
1.35
1.30
1.30
1.25
1.25
1.20A stiff, rigid pavement

Pavement reduces the live load4 pressure reaching a pipe.
4
1.20
spreads load out over a large subgrade area thus significantly reducing the vertical
6
1.10
6
1.10
154-264.indd 199
1/16/09 9:57:04 AM
200 Chapter 6
soil pressure. Table 3-3 gives the vertical soil pressure underneath an H20 (HS20)
truck traveling on a paved highway (12-inch thick concrete). An impact factor is
incorporated. For use with heavier trucks, the pressures in Table 3-3 can be adjusted
proportionally to the increased weight as long as the truck has the same tire area as
an HS20 truck.
Table 3-3
Soil Pressure under H20 Load (12 Thick Pavement)
Depth of cover, ft.
Soil Pressure, lb/ft2
1800
1.5
1400
800
600
400
250
200
175
100
Over 8
Neglect
Note: For reference see ASTM F7906. Based on axle load equally distributed
over two 18 by 20 inch areas, spaced 72 inches apart. Impact factor included.
Vehicle Loading through Flexible Pavement or Unpaved Surface
Flexible pavements (or unpaved surfaces) do not have the bridging ability of rigid
pavement and thus transmit more pressure through the soil to the pipe than given
by Table 3-3. In many cases, the wheel loads from two vehicles passing combine
to create a higher soil pressure than a single dual-tire wheel load. The maximum
pressure may occur directly under the wheels of one vehicle or somewhere in
between the wheels of the two vehicles depending on the cover depth. Table
3-4 gives the largest of the maximum pressure for two passing H20 trucks on
an unpaved surface. No impact factor is included. The loading in Table 3-3 is
conservative and about 10% higher than loads found by the method given in
AASHTO Section 3, LRFD Bridge Specifications Manual based on assuming a
single dual-tire contact area of 20 x 10 inches and using the equivalent area method
of load distribution.
154-264.indd 200
1/16/09 9:57:04 AM
Chapter 6 201
Table 3-4
Soil Pressure Under H20 Load (Unpaved or Flexible Pavement)
Depth of cover, ft.
1.5
2000
2.0
1340
2.5
1000
3.0
710
3.5
560
4.0
500
6.0
310
8.0
200
10.0
140
Note: Based on integrating the Boussinesq equation for two H20 loads spaced 4 feet apart
or one H20 load centered over pipe. No pavement effects or impact factor included.
Off-Highway Vehicles
Off-highway vehicles such as mine trucks and construction equipment may be

considerably heavier than H20 trucks. These vehicles frequently operate on unpaved
construction or mine roads which may have very uneven surfaces. Thus, except
for slow traffic, an impact factor of 2.0 to 3.0 should be considered. For off-highway
vehicles, it is generally necessary to calculate live load pressure from information
supplied by the vehicle manufacturer regarding the vehicle weight or wheel load,
tire footprint (contact area) and wheel spacing.
The location of the vehicles wheels relative to the pipe is also an important factor in
determining how much load is transmitted to the pipe. Soil pressure under a point
load at the surface is dispersed through the soil in both depth and expanse. Wheel
loads not located directly above a pipe may apply pressure to the pipe, and this
pressure can be significant. The load from two wheels straddling a pipe may produce
a higher pressure on a pipe than from a single wheel directly above it.
For pipe installed within a few feet of the surface, the maximum soil pressure
will occur when a single wheel (single or dual tire) is directly over the pipe. For
deeper pipes, the maximum case often occurs when vehicles traveling above the
pipe pass within a few feet of each other while straddling the pipe, or in the case
of off-highway vehicles when they have closely space axles. The minimum spacing
between the centerlines of the wheel loads of passing vehicles is assumed to be
four feet. At this spacing for H20 loading, the pressure on a pipe centered midway
between the two passing vehicles is greater than a single wheel load on a pipe at or
below a depth of about four feet.
For design, the soil pressure on the pipe is calculated based on the vehicle location
(wheel load locations) relative to the pipe that produces the maximum pressure. This
154-264.indd 201
1/16/09 9:57:04 AM
46
PL =
202 Chapter 6
PL =
I f W w
H
1
1.5
2
aC ( r T + H 2 )
3
I f W w
H
1
2
2 1.5
aC ( r T + H ) Where:
46 Eq. 2-2
PLunder
= vertical
pressure
to live
generally involves comparing the pressure
a singlesoil
wheel
with that due
occurring
with two wheels straddling the pipe. TheITimoshenko
= impact Equation
factor can be used to find
Where:
3
under a single wheelf load, whereas the Boussinesq Equation
pressureHdirectly
I f W wthe
1 Eq. 2-2
2
PL =
=towheel
load,
lb
W
pressure
be( used
2 1.5the
P2L+=to vertical
soil pressure
due
live load,
lb/ft
w not
find
from wheels
directly
above
the pipe.
a can
)
H
C
Where:
rT
If = impact factor
Timoshenkos Equation
aC = contact area, ft2
load, lb/ft2
46
The Timoshenko
Equation
gives
at a point directly
radius,under
ft a
rT = equivalent
load,
lbthe soil pressure
Ww = wheel
distributed surface load, neglecting
2 any pavement.
aC = contact area, ft
PL(3-2)
= vertical
soil pressure due
to live load, lb/ft2
3
I f W w
H
Eq. 2-2
1radius,
ft
P L r=T = equivalent
2
If = impact
factor
aC ( r T + H 2 )1.5
The equivalent
H = depth
of cover, ftradius is given by:
Ww = wheel load, lb
Where
aC
2 to live load, lb/ft2
vertical soilarea,
pressureft
due
aCP=L =contact
rT =
Where:
S
If =radius
impact factor
The equivalent
is given by:
ft soil pressure due to live load, lb/ft2
rT =
Wwequivalent
= wheel load, P
lb Lradius,
= vertical
a
contact area, ft 2
Ha=C =depth
of Icover,
= ft C factor
Eq. 2-3
r Tftimpact
f =
rT = equivalent radius,
S
For standard
H2O and HS20 highway vehicle loading, the contact area
load,
lb
Wtaken
for dual
wheels,
that is, 16,000 lb over 10 in. by 20 in. area.
w = wheel
uivalent radius is
given by: is given by:
The equivalent radius
aC = contact area, ft2
For standard H2O
and
HS20
highway vehicle loading, the contact area is normally
(3-3)
a
C
=
equivalent
radius,
r
Calculation
taken for dual wheels,
is, 16,000 lbExample
over
10 ftin.
by 20 in. area.
Eq. 2-3
r T = thatTTimoshenko
HFind
= depth
of cover,
ft
the vertical
pressure
on a 24" polyethylene pipe buried 3 ft ben
For standard
H2O
andwhen
HS20 highway
vehicle
thethe
contact
areaThe
is normally
road
an R-50
truckloading,
is over
pipe.
manufacturer lists the
Timoshenko Example
Calculation
taken
for
dual
wheels,
that
is,
16,000
lb
over
a
10
in.
by
20
in.
area.
weight
ofby:
183,540
21X35
E3 is
tires,
each having a 30,590 lb loa
ndard H2O
and HS20 radius
highway
vehicle
loading,lbs
theon
contact
area
normally
The equivalent
is given
2
Find
the
vertical
pressure
on
a
24"
polyethylene
pipe
buried
3
ft
beneath
an unpaved
area
of 370
or dual wheels, that is, 16,000
lb over
10inin.. by 20 in. area.
Timoshenko Example Calculation
road when an R-50 truck is over the pipe.
The manufacturer lists the truck with a gross
aC
Use
Equations
2-2
and an
2-3.
Sinceroad
the vehicleEq.
is operatin
Find the verticalSOLUTION:
pressure
on a 24
PE pipe
buried 3 ft
beneath
unpaved
2-3
r
T =
weight of 183,540 lbs on 21X35 E3 tires,
each having a 30,590 lb load over an imprint
S
when
an
R-50
off-road
truck
is
over
the
pipe.
The
manufacturer
lists
the
truck
with
road, an impact factor of 2.0 is appropriate.
2
enko
.
areaExample
of 370 inCalculation
a gross weight of 183,540 lbs on 21X35 E3 tires, each having a 30,590 lb load over an
imprint
area of 370 2-2
in2. and 2-3. Since the vehicle is operating on an unpaved
Use
Equations
e SOLUTION:
vertical pressure
on
a 24" polyethylene
pipe buried 3 ft beneath an unpaved
For
H2O and
HS20
highway vehicle
loading,
the contact area is normally
road,
an standard
impact
factor
2.0Equations
is appropriate.
370 /the
144
SOLUTION:
3-2 and
3-3. Since
vehicle
is operating
on an
unpaved
hen
an R-50
truck
is overofUse
the
pipe.
The
manufacturer
lists
the
truck with
a gross
= over 10 in. =
r T lb
taken for road,
dualan
wheels,
that is,
16,000
by0.90ft
20 in. area.
impact
factor
of
2.0
is
appropriate.
S
of 183,540 lbs on 21X35 E3 tires, each having a 30,590
lb load over an imprint
2
370 in .
3
(2.0)(30,590)
370 / 144
3
1=
=
=
0.90ft
P L vehicle
47
r T Example
1.5
ION: Timoshenko
Use Equations
2-2SandCalculation
2-3. Since the
is
operating
on
an
unpaved
2
2
370
( 0.90 + 3 )
n impact factor of 2.0 is appropriate.
144 pipe buried 3 ft beneath an unpaved
Find the vertical pressure on a 24" 3 polyethylene
(2.0)(30,590)
2
3
/ ft is
road whenP LLan
R-50 truck
pipe.
The manufacturer lists the truck with a gross
= 2890lb
1-over the
2
2 1.5
370
(
+
)
0.90
3
weight of 183,540 lbs on 21X35 E3 tires, each having a 30,590 lb load over an imprint
370 / 144 144
area
r T = of 370 in2. = 0.90ft
S
Boussinesq Equation
SOLUTION: Use Equations 2-2 and 2-3. Since the vehicle is operating on an unpaved
3
(2.0)(30,590)factor
3 is appropriate.
road,
2.0
1- ofgives
P L = an impact
The Boussinesq
Equation
the
1.5 pressure at any point in a soil mass under a
2
2
370
154-264.indd 202
1/16/09 9:57:04 AM
( 0.90 + 3 )
sq Equation gives the

pressure at any point in a soil mass under a
ft 2
L = 2890lb
urface Pload.
The /Boussinesq
Equation may be used to find the pressure
m a wheel load to a point that is not along the line of action of the load.
Chapter 6
cts are neglected.
esq Equation
203
3 the pressure at any point in a soil mass under a

ussinesq Equation
gives
3I f W
w H
Eq.
=
rated surface
The
Boussinesq Equation may be used to find
the2-4
pressure
P Lload.
Boussinesq
5 Equation
2
S
r
ted from a wheel
to a Equation
point that
is the
notpressure
along atthe
of the
load.
The load
Boussinesq
gives
anyline
pointofinaction
a soil mass
under
a
ent effects are neglected.
concentrated surface load. The Boussinesq Equation may be used to find the pressure
transmitted from a wheel load to a point that is not along the line of action of the
load. Pavement effects are neglected.
3
= vertical soil (3-4)
pressure3I
due
to live
load lb/ft2
f Ww H
PL =
Ww = wheel load, lb
2S r 5
Eq. 2-4
H = vertical depth to pipe crown, ft

Where
= impact factorPL = vertical soil pressure due to live load lb/ft

Where:
=
Ww = wheel load, lb
= vertical
depthof
to pipe
crown,
ftto live load
distance
fromH the
point
load
application
to pipe
soil
pressure
due
lb/ft2crown,
PL = vertical
If = impact factor
Ww = wheel
load,from
lb the point of load application to pipe crown, ft
r = distance
(3-5)
H = vertical
depth
to2 pipe
r= X
+ H 2 crown, ft
ft
4848
Eq. 2-5
If = impact factor
r = distance from the point of load application to pipe crown, ft
r = X 2+ H2
Eq. 2-5
Figure 3-4 Illustration of Boussinesq Point Loading
Figure
Figure2-4:
2-4:Illustration
IllustrationofofBoussinesq
BoussinesqPoint
PointLoading
Loading
Example Using Boussinesq Point Loading Technique
Example
Example
Using
Using
Boussinesq
Boussinesq
Point
Point
Loading
Loading
Technique
Technique
Determine
the
vertical soil
pressure
applied
to a 12 pipe located 4 ft deep under a
dirt road when two vehicles traveling over the pipe and in opposite lanes pass each
Determine
Determine
the
thevertical
verticalsoil
soilpressure
pressureapplied
appliedtotoa a12"
12"pipe
pipelocated
located4 4ft ftdeep
deepunder
undera adirt
dirt
other. Assume center lines of wheel loads are at a distance of 4 feet. Assume a wheel
road
roadwhen
whentwo
twovehicles
vehiclestraveling
travelingover
overthe
thepipe
pipeand
andininopposite
oppositelanes
lanespass
passeach
eachother.
other.
load of 16,000 lb.
Assume
Assume
center
centerlines
linesofofwheel
wheelloads
loadsare
areatata adistance
distanceofof4 4feet.
feet. Assume
Assumea awheel
wheelload
loadofof
16,000
16,000lb.lb.
SOLUTION:
SOLUTION:Use
UseEquation
Equation2-4,
2-4,and
andsince
sincethe
thewheels
wheelsare
aretraveling,
traveling,a a2.0
2.0impact
impactfactor
factor
isisapplied.
applied.The
Themaximum
maximumload
loadwill
willbebeatatthe
thecenter
centerbetween
betweenthe
thetwo
twowheels,
wheels,sosoXX= =2.0
2.0
ft.ft.Determine
Determiner from
r fromEquation
Equation2-5.
2-5.
2 2
r=
r = 424+2 +
.47ft ft
2.20.0==4.447
154-264.indd 203
1/16/09 9:57:05 AM
when two vehicles traveling over the pipe and in opposite lanes pass each other.
me center lines of wheel loads are at a distance of 4 feet. Assume a wheel load of
mine
0 lb. the vertical soil pressure applied to a 12" pipe located 4 ft deep under a dirt
when two vehicles
traveling
over the pipe and in opposite lanes pass each other.
204 Chapter
6
me center lines of wheel loads are at a distance of 4 feet. Assume a wheel load of
UTION: Use Equation 2-4, and since the wheels are traveling, a 2.0 impact factor
0 lb.
plied. The maximum load will be at the center between the two wheels, so X = 2.0
etermine r from Equation 2-5.
UTION: Use Equation 2-4, and since the wheels are traveling, a 2.0 impact factor
plied. The maximum load will be at the center between the two wheels, so X = 2.0
etermine r from SOLUTION:
Equation 2-5.
Use Equation 3-4, and since the wheels are traveling, a 2.0 impact
2
rfactor
= is
+ 2.02 =The
4.47
ft
4 applied.
maximum
load will be at the center between the two wheels,
so X = 2.0 ft. Determine r from Equation 3-5.
2
2
= for
= load
4.47 ftdue to a single wheel.
4 +P2L,.0the
solve Equation r2-4
Then solve Equation 3-4 for PL, the load due to a single wheel.
solve Equation 2-4 for PL, the load due

3 to a single wheel.
3( 2.0)( 16,000 )( 4 )
PL =
2S ( 4.47 )5
3
3( 2.0)( 16,2000 )( 4 )
=
lb
/
548
ft
PL
2 ( 4.47 )5
49
The load on the pipe crown

2 is from both wheels, so
/ ft both wheels, so
L = 548
oad on the pipe Pcrown
islbfrom
2 P L = 2( 548 ) = 1096 lb / ft 2
load is
calculated
in this
exampleso
is higher than that given in Table 3-4 for a
oad on the pipeThe
crown
from both
wheels,
comparable depth even after correcting for the impact factor. Both the Timoshenko
oad calculatedand
inBoussinesq
this example
is higher than that given in Table 2-3 for a
Equations give the pressure applied at a point in the soil. In solving
arable depth even
after correcting for the impact factor. Both the Timoshenko and
for pipe reactions it is assumed that this point pressure is applied across the entire
sinesq Equations
give
pressure
at a the
point
in applied
the soil.
In solving
foraway
pipe
surface ofthe
a unit
length ofapplied
pipe, whereas
actual
pressure
decreases
ons it is assumed
thisofpoint
applied
across
the entire
surfaceover
of a
fromthat
the line
action pressure
of the wheelisload.
Methods
that integrate
this pressure
ength of pipe, whereas
the
actual
applied
pressure
decreases
away
from
the
line
of
the pipe surface such as used in deriving Table 3-4 gives more accurate loading
n of the wheel values.
load. However,
Methods
that
integrate
this
pressure
over
the
pipe
surface
the error in the point pressure equations is slight and conservative,
as used in deriving
Table
2-3
giveequations
more accurate
so they are still effective
for design. loading values. However, the
in the point pressure equations is slight and conservative, so they are still effective
ions for design.Railroad Loads
Table
The live loading configuration used for pipes under railroads is the Cooper E-80
loading, which is an 80,000 lb load that is uniformly applied over three 2 ft by 8 ft
areas on 5 ft centers. The area represents the 8 ft width of standard railroad ties and
the standard spacing between locomotive drive wheels. Live loads are based on
2-4:
Live
Load
Pressure
forbyE-80
Railroad and
Loading
the axle
weight
exerted
on the track
two locomotives
their tenders coupled
together in doubleheader fashion. See Table 3-5. Commercial
railroads frequently
Depth of cover, ft.
require casings for pressure pipes if they are within 25 feet of the tracks, primarily
for safety reasons in the event of a washout. Based upon design and permitting
2.0
3800
requirements,
the designer should determine
whether or not a casing is required.
154-264.indd 204
5.0
2400
8.0
1600
10.0
1100
12.0
800
15.0
600
1/16/09 9:57:06 AM
der fashion. See Table 2-4. Commercial railroads frequently require casings
e pipes if they are within 25 feet of the tracks, primarily for safety reasons in
f a washout. Based upon design and permitting requirements,
the6 designer
Chapter
205
ermine whether or not a casing is required.
Load
Table 3-5
Live Load Pressure for E-80 Railroad Loading
loads may be distributed loads, such as a footing, foundation, or an ash pile,

Depth of cover, ft.
Soil Pressure*, lb/ft
concentrated loads,2.0such as vehicle 3800
wheels. The load will be dispersed
e soil such that there5.0is a reduction in 2400
pressure with an increase in depth or
8.0
1600
distance from the surcharged
area. Surcharge
loads not directly over the
10.0
1100
12.0
800
exert pressure on the pipe as well. The pressure at a point beneath a
oad depends on the15.0
load magnitude 600
and the surface area over which the
20.0
300
100
s applied. Methods 30.0
for calculating vertical
pressure on a pipe either located
Over 30.0
Neglect
eath a surcharge or located near a surcharge are given below.
2
For referecne see ASTM A796. *The values shown for soil pressure include impact.
Surcharge Load
loads may
be distributed loads, such as a footing, foundation, or an ash
y Beneath aSurcharge
Surcharge
Load
pile, or may be concentrated loads, such as vehicle wheels. The load will be dispersed
through the soil such that there is a reduction in pressure with an increase in depth
or horizontal
from the surcharged
area. Surcharge
loadsanot
directly over area with
n method is for
findingdistance
the vertical
soil pressure
under
rectangular
the pipe may exert pressure on the pipe as well. The pressure at a point beneath a
distributed surcharge load. This may be used in place of Tables 2-2 to 2-4
surcharge load depends on the load magnitude and the surface area over which
ons 2-2 and the
2-4surcharge
to calculate
vertical soil pressure due to wheel loads. To do
is applied. Methods for calculating vertical pressure on a pipe either
s knowledgelocated
of the
tire beneath
imprint
area and
impact
factor. are given below.
directly
a surcharge
or located
near a surcharge
Pipe Directly Beneath a Surcharge Load
pressure onThisthe
pipe
atis for
depth,
H,vertical
is found
byunder
dividing
thearearectangular
design
method
finding the
soil pressure
a rectangular
with
a
uniformly
distributed
surcharge
load.
This
may
be
used
in
place
of
Tables
area (ABCD) into four sub-area rectangles (a, b, c, and d) which have a
3-3 to 3-5 and Equations 3-3 and 3-5 to calculate vertical soil pressure due to wheel
orner, E, in the
surcharge area, and over the pipe. The surcharge pressure,
loads. This requires knowledge of the tire imprint area and impact factor.
int directly under E is the sum of the pressure due to each of the four subThe point pressure on the pipe at depth, H, is found by dividing the rectangular
Refer to Figure
2-5 A.
surcharge area (ABCD) into four sub-area rectangles (a, b, c, and d) which have a
common corner, E, in the surcharge area, and over the pipe. The surcharge pressure,
PL, at a point directly under E is the sum of the pressure due to each of the four
re due to each
sub-area is calculated by multiplying the surcharge pressure
sub-area loads. Refer to Figure 3-5 A.
ce by an Influence Value, IV. Influence Values are proportionality constants
The pressure due to each sub-area is calculated by multiplying the surcharge
re what portion
of a surface load reaches the subsurface point in question.
pressure at the surface by an Influence Value, IV. Influence Values are proportionality
derived usingconstants
the Boussinesq
Equation
and are
giventheinsubsurface
Table point
2-5.in
that measure what
portion of a surface
load reaches
question. They were derived using the Boussinesq Equation and are given in
Table 3-6.
(3-6)
Where:
154-264.indd
205
P L = p a + pb + pc + p d
Eq. 2-6
1/16/09 9:57:06 AM
51
pa = pressure
to sub-area a, lb/ft2
206 Chapterdue
6
pb = pressure
due to sub-area b, lb/ft2
pc = pressure due to sub-area c, lb/ft2
pd = pressure due to sub-area d, lb/ft2
51
pa = pressure
due to
to the
sub-area
a, lb/ft2 equals:
o the surcharge
applied
i-th sub-area
Where
pb = pressure
due to sub-area b, lb/ft2
PL = vertical soil pressure due to surcharge 2pressure, lb/ft 2
pc = pressure
due to sub-area c, lb/ft
pa = pressure due to sub-area a, lb/ft 2
pd = pressure
due to tosub-area
d,2 lb/ft2
pb = pressure
sub-area
b,
lb/ft
pi = Idue
V wS
o the
pc = pressure due to sub-area c, lb/ft 2

surchargepdapplied
to tothe
i-th d,sub-area
= pressure due
sub-area
lb/ft 2
Where:
Eq. 2-7
equals:
Pressure due to the surcharge applied to the i-th sub-area equals:
(3-7)
Eq. 2-7
pValue
IV = Influence
wS Table 2-5
i = I V from
wS = distributed pressure of surcharge load at ground surface, lb/ft2
Where
IV = Influence Value from Table 3-6
Where:
areas are equivalent,
thenpressure
Equation
12 may
be simplified
wS = distributed
of surcharge
load at ground
surface, lb/ft 2 to
IV = Influence Value from Table 2-5
If the four sub-areas
are equivalent,
then Equationload
3-7 may
simplified to:
wS = distributed
pressure
of surcharge
atbeground
surface, lb/ft2
(3-8)
Eq. 2-8
P L = 4I V wS
The influence
is dependent
upon
dimensions
areas are equivalent,
thenvalue
Equation
12 may
bethe
simplified
toof the rectangular area and
upon the depth to the pipe crown, H. Table 3-6 Influence Value terms depicted in
Figure
3-6, are
as:
dependent
upon
thedefined
dimensions
of the rectangular area and upon
value is
H = Table
depth of
ftInfluence Value terms depicted in Figure
e pipe crown, H.
2-5
4I
Eq.2-5,
2-8
P L =cover,
V wS
M
=
horizontal
distance,
normal
to
the
pipe
centerline,
from
the
center
of
the
load
to
the load edge, ft
:
N = horizontal distance, parallel to the pipe centerline, from the center of the load to the load edge, ft
value is dependent
upon the
the rectangular
area
and
Interpolation
maydimensions
be used to findofvalues
not given in Table
3-6.
Theupon
influence value
th
of
cover,
ft
e pipe crown, H.
Table
2-5 Influence
Value
depicted
Figure
gives
the portion
(or influence)
of the terms
load that
reaches a in
given
depth2-5,
beneath the
normal
the pipe
:izontal distance,corner
of thetoloaded
area. centerline, from the center of the load
he load edge, ft
zontal distance, parallel to the pipe centerline, from the center of the load
he
edge,
th load
of cover,
ft ft
5252
izontal distance, normal to the pipe centerline, from the center of the load
he load edge, ft
may be used to find values not given in Table 2-5. The influence value
zontal
parallel
the pipe
center
of the load
ion
(ordistance,
influence)
of thetoload
that centerline,
reaches a from
giventhedepth
beneath
the
he
load
edge,
ft
oaded area.
may be used to find values not given in Table 2-5. The influence value
ion (or influence) of the load that reaches a given depth beneath the
oaded area.
Figure 3-5 Illustration of Distributed Loads
Figure
Figure2-5:
2-5: Illustration
IllustrationofofDistributed
DistributedLoads
Loads
154-264.indd 206
1/16/09 9:57:07 AM
Chapter 6 207
Table 3-6
Influence Values, IV for Distributed Loads*
N/H
M/H
0.062
0.089
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.2
1.5
2.0
0.1
0.005 0.009 0.013 0.017 0.020 0.022 0.024 0.026 0.027 0.028 0.029 0.030 0.031 0.032
0.2
0.009 0.018 0.026 0.033 0.039 0.043 0.047 0.050 0.053 0.055 0.057 0.060 0.061 0.062
0.3
0.013 0.026 0.037 0.047 0.056 0.063 0.069 0.073 0.077 0.079 0.083 0.086 0.089 0.090
0.4
0.017 0.033 0.047 0.060 0.071 0.080 0.087 0.093 0.098 0.101 0.106 0.110 0.113 0.115
0.5
0.020 0.039 0.056 0.071 0.084 0.095 0.103 0.110 0.116 0.120 0.126 0.131 0.135 0.137
0.6
0.022 0.043 0.063 0.080 0.095 0.107 0.117 0.125 0.131 0.136 0.143 0.149 0.153 0.156
0.7
0.024 0.047 0.069 0.087 0.103 0.117 0.128 0.137 0.144 0.149 0.157 0.164 0.169 0.172
0.8
0.026 0.050 0.073 0.093 0.110 0.125 0.137 0.146 0.154 0.160 0.168 0.176 0.181 0.185
0.9
0.027 0.053 0.077 0.098 0.116 0.131 0.144 0.154 0.162 0.168 0.178 0.186 0.192 0.196
1.0
0.028 0.055 0.079 0.101 0.120 0.136 0.149 0.160 0.168 0.175 0.185 0.194 0.200 0.205
1.2
0.029 0.057 0.083 0.106 0.126 0.143 0.157 0.168 0.178 0.185 0.196 0.205 0.209 0.212
1.5
0.030 0.060 0.086 0.110 0.131 0.149 0.164 0.176 0.186 0.194 0.205 0.211 0.216 0.223
2.0
0.031 0.061 0.088 0.113 0.135 0.153 0.169 0.181 0.192 0.200 0.209 0.216 0.232 0.240
53
0.032
0.062 0.156
0.089 0.116
0.137 0.185
0.156 0.172
0.185 0.196
0.212 0.223
0.250
0.116
0.137
0.172
0.196
0.2050.2050.212
0.2230.2400.240
0.250
* H, M, and N are per Figure 3-5.
Vertical Surcharge
Example # 1
al Surcharge Example
#1
Find the vertical surcharge load for the 4 x 6, 2000 lb/ft2 footing shown below.
he vertical surcharge load for the 4' x 6', 2000 lb/ft2 footing shown below.
SOLUTION: Use equations 3-6 and 3-7, Table 3-6, and Figure 3-5. The 4 ft x 6 ft
footing is divided into four sub-areas, such that the common corner of the sub-areas
equations
2-6the
and
2-7,
Figure
The
4 ft xa 6
is directly over
pipe.
SinceTable
the pipe2-5,
is notand
centered
under2-5.
the load,
sub-areas
TION: Use
ft
g is divided into four sub-areas, such that the common corner of the sub-areas is
y over the pipe. Since the pipe is not centered under the load, sub-areas a and b
dimensions of 3 ft x 2.5 ft, and sub-areas c and d have dimensions of 3 ft x 1.5 ft.
154-264.indd 207
1/16/09 9:57:07 AM
208 Chapter 6
and b have dimensions of 3 ft x 2.5 ft, and sub-areas c and d have dimensions of
3 ft x 1.5 ft.
54
pi
Determine sub-area dimensions for M, N, and H, then calculate M/H and N/H. Find
, pb, pc, pd, and
the 190
Influence Value from190
Table 3-6, then solve126
for each sub area, pa126
sum for PL.
Sub-area
re: PL = 632 lbs/ft
2M
2.5
2.5
1.5
1.5
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
M/H
0.5
0.5
0.3
0.3
N/H
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
pi
190
190
126
126
jacent to, but Not Directly

Beneath,
a0.095
Surcharge
IV
0.095
0.063 Load 0.063
sign method may

be used
find
the surcharge load on buried pipes near, but
2
Therefore:
PL = 632 to
lbs/ft
ctly below, uniformly distributed loads such as concrete slabs, footings and
r other rectangular area loads, including wheel loads that are not directly over
Pipe Adjacent to, but Not Directly Beneath, a Surcharge Load
.
This design method may be used to find the surcharge load on buried pipes near, but
not directly below, uniformly distributed loads such as concrete slabs, footings and
tical pressure is found by first adding an imaginary loaded area that covers the
floors, or other rectangular area loads, including wheel loads that are not directly
en determiningover
thethesurcharge
pressure due to the overall load (actual and
pipe.
ry) based on the previous section, and finally by deducting the pressure due to
vertical
is foundload.
by first adding an imaginary loaded area that covers
ginary load fromThe
that
due pressure
to the overall
the pipe, then determining the surcharge pressure due to the overall load (actual and
imaginary) based on the previous section, and finally by deducting the pressure due
Since there is no surcharge directly above the pipe centerline, an
to the imaginary load from that due to the overall load.
Figure 2-5 B.
ry surcharge load, having the same pressure per unit area as the actual load, is
B. Since there
is no surcharge
directly above
theand
pipe b+c
centerline,
to sub-areas c Refer
and tod.Figure
The3-5
surcharge
pressure
for sub-areas
a+d
are
an imaginary
surcharge
the same
pressure
perdunit
as the actual
ned, then the surcharge
loads
fromload,
the having
imaginary
areas
c and
arearea
deducted
to
load,
is
applied
to
sub-areas
c
and
d.
The
surcharge
pressure
for
sub-areas
a+d
and
ne the surcharge pressure on the pipe.
b+c are determined, then the surcharge loads from the imaginary areas c and d are
deducted to determine the surcharge pressure on the pipe.
(3-9)
P L = p a+d + pb+c - p d - p c
Eq. 2-9
Where terms are as previously defined above, and

2
Pa+dare
= surcharge
load of combined
sub-areas above,
a and d, lb/ftand
where terms
as previously
defined
Pb+c = surcharge load of combined sub-areas b and c, lb/ft 2
pa+d = surcharge load of combined sub-areas a and d, lb/ft2

pb+c = surcharge load of combined sub-areas b and c, lb/ft2
Surcharge Example # 2
154-264.indd 208
1/16/09 9:57:08 AM
Chapter 6 209
55
nd the vertical surcharge pressure for the 6' x 10', 2000 lb/ft2 slab shown below.
Vertical Surcharge Example # 2
Find the vertical surcharge pressure for the 6 x 10, 2000 lb/ft2 slab shown below.
SOLUTION: Use Equations 3-7 and 3-9, Table 3-6, and Figure 3-5 B. The surcharge
area is divided into two sub-areas, a and b. The area between the surcharge and the
lineEquations
of the pipe crown
divided
two sub-areas,
c and
d, as well.
TheB.
imaginary
OLUTION: Use
2-7 isand
2-9,into
Table
2-5, and
Figure
2-5
The surcharge
load
is
applied
to
sub-areas
c
and
d.
Next,
the
four
sub-areas
are
treated
as
a
single
ea is divided into two sub-areas, a and b. The area between the surcharge and the
surcharge area. Unlike the previous example, the pipe is located under the edge
e of the pipe crown
is divided into two sub-areas, c and d, as well. The imaginary
of the surcharge area rather than the center. So, the surcharge pressures for the
ad is applied tocombined
sub-areas
c and d. Next, the four sub-areas are treated as a single
sub-areas a+d and b+c are determined, and then for the sub-areas c and
rcharge area. d.Unlike
the previous example, the pipe is located under the edge of the
The surcharge pressure is the sum of the surcharge pressure due to the surcharge
rcharge area rather
thea+d
center.
the
surcharge
pressures
for the combined
acting onthan
sub-areas
and b+c, So,
less the
imaginary
pressure
due to the imaginary
b-areas a+d and
b+c
are
determined,
and
then
for
the
sub-areas
c and d. The
surcharge acting on sub-areas c and d.
rcharge pressure is the sum of the surcharge pressure due to the surcharge acting on
Sub-area
b-areas a+d and b+c, less the imaginary
pressure due to the imaginary surcharge
a+d
b+c
c
d
ting on sub-areas Mc and d.10
10
4
4
N
M/H
2.0
2.0
0.8
0.8
N/H
1.0
1.0
1.0
IV
0.200
0.200
0.160
400
400
pi
a+d
Therefore PL = 160 lb/ft 2
(320)
b+c
1.0
Sub-area
0.160
(320)
10
10
M/H
2.0
2.0
0.8
0.8
N/H
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
IV
0.200
0.200
0.160
0.160
pi
400
400
(320)
(320)
154-264.indd 209
1/16/09 9:57:08 AM
210
Chapter 6
Installation Category 1: Standard Installation - Trench or

Embankment
Pipe Reaction to Earth, Live, and Surcharge Loads
Now might be a good time to review the Design Process that appeared earlier in
Section 3. After calculating the vertical pressure applied to the pipe the next design
step is to choose a trial pipe (DR or profile). Then, based on the Installation Category
and the selected embedment and compaction, calculate the anticipated deflection
and resistance to crush and buckling.
The Standard Installation category applies to pipes that are installed between 18
inches and 50 feet of cover. Where surcharge, traffic, or rail load may occur, the
pipe must have at least one full diameter of cover. If such cover is not available,
then the application design must also consider limitations under the Shallow Cover
Vehicular Loading Installation category. Where the cover depth exceeds 50 ft an
alternate treatment for dead loads is given under the Deep Fill Installation category.
Where ground water occurs above the pipes invert and the pipe has less than two
diameters of cover, the potential for the occurrence of flotation or upward movement
of the pipe may exist. See Shallow Cover Flotation Effects.
While the Standard Installation is suitable for up to 50 feet of cover, it may be used
for more cover. The 50 feet limit is based on A. Howards (3) recommended limit
for use of E values. Above 50 feet, the E values given in Table B.1.1 in Chapter 3
Appendix are generally thought to be overly conservative as they are not corrected
for the increase in embedment stiffness that occurs with depth as a result of the
higher confinement pressure within the soil mass. In addition, significant arching
occurs at depths greater than 50 feet.
The Standard Installation, as well as the other design categories for buried PE pipe,
looks at a ring or circumferential cross-section of pipe and neglects longitudinal
loading, which is normally insignificant. They also ignore the re-rounding effect of
internal pressurization. Since re-rounding reduces deflection and stress in the pipe,
ignoring it is conservative.
Ring Deflection
Ring deflection is the normal response of flexible pipes to soil pressure. It is also
a beneficial response in that it leads to the redistribution of soil stress and the
initiation of arching. Ring deflection can be controlled within acceptable limits by
the selection of appropriate pipe embedment materials, compaction levels, trench
width and, in some cases, the pipe itself.
The magnitude of ring deflection is inversely proportional to the combined stiffness
of the pipe and the embedment soil. M. Spangler (4) characterized this relationship
154-264.indd 210
1/16/09 9:57:08 AM
57
approach for soil characterization, thus developing the Modified Iowa Formula. In 1964,
Burns and Richards [6] published a closed-form solution for ring deflection and pipe
stress
based
linear elasticity.
In 1976 M.
Katona
et. al.
[7] Formula.
developed
finite
Chapter 6 211
approach
for on
soilclassical
characterization,
thus developing
the
Modified
Iowa
Ina1964,
element
program
called
(Culvert
Analysis and
Design)
is now available
in
Burns and
Richards
[6]CANDE
published
a closed-form
solution
for which
ring deflection
and pipe
astress
PC version
and
can
be
used
to
predict
pipe
deflection
and
stresses.
based on classical linear elasticity. In 1976 M. Katona et. al. [7] developed a finite
element program called CANDE (Culvert Analysis and Design) which is now available in
The
recent
maytomake
better
the Iowa Formula, but they
a PCmore
version
andsolutions
can be used
predict
pipepredictions
deflection than
and stresses.
require detailed
information
on soil
and pipe
properties,
e.g. more
soil
lab testing. Often
(5)
in the Iowa
Formula in 1941.
R. Watkins
modified
this equation
to allow
a simpler
the
improvement
in
precision
is
all
but
lost
in
construction
variability.
Therefore,
the
soil characterization,
developing
the Modified
Formula.
In
The moreapproach
recent for
solutions
may makethus
better
predictions
than Iowa
the Iowa
Formula,
but they
(6)
Modified
Iowa
Formula
remains
the
most
frequently
used
method
of
determining
ring
1964, Burns
and Richards
closed-form
solution
for more
ring deflection
require detailed
information
on published
soil and apipe
properties,
e.g.
soil laband
testing. Often
(7)
deflection.
pipe stress based
on classical
elasticity.
M. Katona et.variability.
al. developed
a
the improvement
in precision
islinear
all but
lost In
in 1976
construction
Therefore,
the
program
called CANDE
(Culvert
Analysis used
and Design)
whichofis determining
now
Modified finite
Iowaelement
Formula
remains
the most
frequently
method
ring
available
in
a
PC
version
and
can
be
used
to
predict
pipe
deflection
and
stresses.
Spangler's
deflection. Modified Iowa Formula can be written for use with conventionally extruded
DR pipe as:
The more recent solutions may make better predictions than the Iowa Formula,
butModified
they require
detailed
information
and pipe
properties,
e.g.conventionally
more soil lab
Spangler's
Iowa
Formula
canon
besoilwritten
for
use with
extruded
testing. Often the improvement in precision is all but lost in construction variability.
DR pipe as:
Therefore, the Modified Iowa Formula remains the most frequently used method of
determining ring deflection.
Iowa Formula can be writtenfor use with solid wall PE pipe as:
Spanglers Modified
(3-10)
1 K BED LDL PE + K BED PL
3
D M 144 2E 1

+0.061F
SE
K
P
L-DL1 P
1 3KBED
'X
E
BED
L
DR
=
3
D M 144 2E 1
3 DR - 1 + 0.061FS E c
Eq. 2-10
Eq. 2-10
and for use

ASTM
F894F894
profile
wall
as:
and with
for use
with ASTM
profile
wallpipe
pipe as:
(3-11)
F894 profile wall pipe as:

and for use with
ASTM
K BED LDL
X
P
1.24(RSC)
144
DI
+ 0.061FS E
'X
P
D M K BED LDL
1.24(RSC)
144
WhereD I
+ 0.061FS E c
Where:
in
X = Horizontal deflection,
DM
Eq. 2-11
Eq. 2-11
K BED = Bedding factor, typically 0.1

LDL = X
Deflection
factor
Where:
= lag
Horizontal
deflection, in
PE = Vertical
soil
pressure
due
to
earth
load, typically
psf
0.1
KBED = Bedding factor,
PL = Vertical soil pressure due to live load, psf
=
Deflection
lag
factor
LX
DL
Horizontal
deflection,
in 2
E = Apparent=modulus
of elasticity of
pipe material, lb/in
P
=
Vertical
soil
pressure
due
to earth load, psf
E
KBEDof Soil
= Bedding
E =Modulus
reaction, psi factor, typically 0.1
P
=
Vertical
soil
pressure
due
to
live load, psf
L
= Factor
Deflection lag factor
LDL
FS = Soil
Support
ERing=Stiffness
Apparent
modulus of elasticity of pipe material, lb/in2
RSC = P
Constant,soil
lb/ft pressure due to earth load, psf
E = Vertical
E'
Modulus of Soil reaction, psi
PL== Vertical
DR = Dimension
Ratio, OD/t soil pressure due to live load, psf
F
=
Soil
Support
Factorof elasticity of pipe material, lb/in2
DM = Mean
(DI+2z or DOmodulus
-t), in
ES =diameter
Apparent
RSC
= Ring
Stiffness
Constant,
z = Centroid
section,
in of Soil
E' =of wall
Modulus
reaction,lb/ft
psi
DR
Ratio,
OD/t
t = Minimum
wall Dimension
thickness,
in
FS ==
Soil Support
Factor
D
= =diameter,
Mean
(DI+2z or lb/ft
DO-t),
M
DI = pipe
inside
indiameterConstant,
RSC
Ring Stiffness
DO = pipe
diameter, in
DRoutside
= Dimension
Ratio, OD/t
in
DM = Mean diameter (DI+2z or DO-t), in
154-264.indd 211
1/16/09 9:57:08 AM
212
Chapter 6
Deflection is reported as a percent of the diameter which can be found by

multiplying 100 times X/DM or X/DI. (When using RSC, the units of conversion
are accounted for in Equation 3-11.)
Apparent Modulus of Elasticity for Pipe Material, E
59
The apparent modulus of PE is dependent on load-rate or, duration of laoding and

temperature.Apparent elastic modulus values for high and medium density PE
may be found in Table B.1.1 in Chapter 3 Appendix. These values can be used in
Spanglers Iowa Formula. It has long been an industry practice to use the short-term
modulus in the Iowa Formula for thermoplastic pipe. This is based on the idea that,
in granular embedment soil, deformation is a series of instantaneous deformations
consisting
rearrangement
and fracturing
of grains while
bending stress in
2-6: Design Values
forofApparent
Modulus
of Elasticity,
E @the73F
the pipe wall is decreasing due to stress relaxation. Use of the short-term modulus
has proven10
effective 100
and reliable
for corrugated
uration
Short1000
1 yearand profile
10 wall pipes.
50 These pipes
typically
have
pipe
stiffness
values
of
46
psi
or
less
when
measured
per ASTM
Term
hours hours hours
years
years
D2412. Conventional DR pipes starting with DR17 or lower have significantly higher
stiffness and therefore they may carry a greater proportion of the earth and live load
PE
110,000
57,500 51,200 43,700 38,000 31,600 28,200
than corrugated or profile pipe; so it is conservative to use the 50-year modulus for
lus of
DR pipes that have low DR values when determining deflection due to earth load.
ity, psi
PE
lus of
ity, psi
s Constant,
Vehicle loads are generally met with a higher modulus than earth loads, as load
duration may be nearly instantaneous for moving vehicles. The deflection due
88,000
46,000 41,000 35,000 30,400 25,300 22,600
to a combination of vehicle or temporary loads and earth load may be found by
separately calculating the deflection due to each load using the modulus appropriate
for the expected load duration, then adding the resulting deflections together to get
the total deflection. When doing the deflection calculation for vehicle load, the Lag
Factor will be one. An alternate, but conservative, method for finding deflection for
combined vehicle and earth load is to do one calculation using the 50-year modulus,
RSC
but separate the vertical soil pressure into an earth load component and a live load
component and apply the Lag Factor only to the earth load component.
pes manufactured to ASTM F894, Standard Specification for Polyethylene

Diameter ProfileRing
Wall
Sewer and Drain Pipe, are classified on the basis of
Stiffness Constant, RSC
ffness ConstantProfile
(RSC).
2-12 gives
the F894,
RSC.Standard Specification for
wall Equation
pipes manufactured
to ASTM
Polyethylene (PE) Large Diameter Profile Wall Sewer and Drain Pipe, are classified
on the basis of their Ring Stiffness Constant (RSC). Equation 3-12 gives the RSC.
(3-12)
RSC
6 . 44 EI
D M2
Eq. 2-12
Where:
E =
Apparent modulus of elasticity of pipe material (Short-term

value Table 2-6) @73oF
I = Pipe wall moment of inertia, in4/in (t3/12, if solid wall
construction)
z = Pipe
wall centroid in
154-264.indd
212
1/16/09 9:57:09 AM
Chapter 6 213
Where
E = Apparent modulus of elasticity of pipe material @73F (See Chapter 3 Appendix)
I = Pipe wall moment of inertia, in4/in (t 3/12, if solid wall construction)
z = Pipe wall centroid in

DI = Pipe inside diameter in
DM = Mean diameter (DI + 2z or DO-t), in
t = Minimum wall thickness, in
Modulus of Soil Reaction, E
The soil reaction modulus is proportional to the embedment soils resistance

to the lateral expansion of the pipe. There are no convenient laboratory tests to
determine the soil reaction modulus for a given soil. A. Howard (8) determined E
values empirically from numerous field deflection measurements by substituting
site parameters (i.e. depth of cover, soil weight) into Spanglers equation and backcalculating E. Howard developed a table for the Bureau of Reclamation relating
E values to soil types and compaction efforts. See Table 3-7. In back-calculating
E, Howard assumed the prism load was applied to the pipe. Therefore, Table 3-7
E values indirectly include load reduction due to arching and are suitable for use
only with the prism load. In 2006, Howard published a paper reviewing his original
1977 publication from which Table 3-7 is taken. For the most part the recent work
indicates that the E values in Table 3-7 are conservative.
Due to differences in construction procedures, soil texture and density, pipe
placement, and insitu soil characteristics, pipe deflection varies along the length of a
pipeline. Petroff (9) has shown that deflection measurements along a pipeline typically
fit the Normal Distribution curve. To determine the anticipated maximum deflection
using Eq. 3-10 or 3-11, variability may be accommodated by reducing the Table 3-7 E
value by 25%, or by adding to the calculated deflection percentage the correction for
accuracy percentage given in Table 3-7.
In shallow installations, the full value of the E given in Table 3-7 may not develop.
This is due to the lack of soil confining pressure to hold individual soil grains
tightly together and stiffen the embedment. Increased weight or equivalently,
depth, increases the confining pressure and, thus, the E. J. Hartley and J. Duncan (10)
published recommended E values based on depth of cover. See Table 3-8. These are
particularly useful for shallow installations.
Chapter 7, Underground Installation of PE Pipe covers soil classification for pipe
embedment materials and preferred methods of compaction and installation for
selected embedment materials. Some of the materials shown in Table 3-7 may not be
appropriate for all pipe installation. One example would be fine-grained soils in wet
ground, which would not be appropriate embedment, under most circumstances,
for either profile pipe or pipes with high DRs. Such limitations are discussed in
Chapter 7.
154-264.indd 213
1/16/09 9:57:09 AM
214 Chapter 6
Table 3-7
Values of E for Pipe Embedment (See Howard (8))
E for Degree of Embedment Compaction, lb/in2
Slight,
Dumped
Soil Type-pipe Embedment Material
(Unified Classification System)1
Fine-grained Soils (LL > 50)2 Soils with
medium to high plasticity; CH, MH, CH-MH
<85% Proctor,
<40% Relative
Density
Moderate,
85%-95%
Proctor,
40%-70%
Relative Density
High,
>95% Proctor,
>70% Relative
Density
No data available: consult a competent soils engineer,

otherwise, use E = 0.
Fine-grained Soils (LL < 50) Soils with

medium to no plasticity, CL, ML, MLCL, with less than 25% coarse grained
particles.
50
200
400
1000
Fine-grained Soils (LL < 50) Soils with

medium to no plasticity, CL, ML, ML-CL,
with more than 25% coarse grained
particles; Coarse-grained Soils with Fines,
GM, GC, SM, SC3 containing more than
12% fines.
100
400
1000
2000
Coarse-grained soils with Little or No Fines

GW, GP, SW, SP3 containing less than 12%
fines
200
1000
2000
3000
Crushed Rock
1000
3000
3000
3000
Accuracy in Terms of Percentage

Deflection4
2%
2%
1%
0.5%
ASTM D-2487, USBR Designation E-3

LL = Liquid Limit
3 Or any borderline soil beginning with one of these symbols (i.e., GM-GC, GC-SC).
4 For 1% accuracy and predicted deflection of 3%, actual deflection would be between 2% and 4%.
2
Note: Values applicable only for fills less than 50 ft (15 m). Table does not include any safety factor. For use in
predicting initial deflections only; appropriate Deflection Lag Factor must be applied for long-term deflections.
If embedment falls on the borderline between two compaction categories, select lower E value, or average the
two values. Percentage Proctor based on laboratory maximum dry density from test standards using 12,500
ft-lb/cu ft (598,000 J/m2) (ASTM D-698, AASHTO T-99, USBR Designation E-11). 1 psi = 6.9 KPa.
154-264.indd 214
1/16/09 9:57:09 AM
Chapter 6 215
Table 3-8
Values of E for Pipe Embedment (See Duncan and Hartley(10))
Type of Soil
Fine-grained soils with less than
25% sand content (CL, ML, CL-ML)
Coarse-grained soils with fines

(SM, SC)
Coarse-grained soils with little or no

fines (SP, SW, GP, GW)
Depth of
Cover, ft
E for Standard AASHTO Relative Compaction, lb/in2

85%
90%
95%
100%
0-5
500
700
1000
1500
5-10
600
1000
1400
2000
10-15
700
1200
1600
2300
15-20
800
1300
1800
2600
0-5
600
1000
1200
1900
5-10
900
1400
1800
2700
10-15
1000
1500
2100
3200
15-20
1100
1600
2400
3700
0-5
700
1000
1600
2500
5-10
1000
1500
2200
3300
10-15
1050
1600
2400
3600
15-20
1100
1700
2500
3800
Soil Support Factor, FS
Ring deflection and the accompanying horizontal diameter expansion create lateral
earth pressure which is transmitted through the embedment soil and into the
trench sidewall. This may cause the sidewall soil to compress. If the compression
is significant, the embedment can move laterally, resulting in an increase in pipe
deflection. Sidewall soil compression is of particular concern when the insitu soil
is loose, soft, or highly compressible, such as marsh clay, peat, saturated organic
soil, etc. The net effect of sidewall compressibility is a reduction in the soil-pipe
systems stiffness. The reverse case may occur as well if the insitu soil is stiffer than
the embedment soil; e.g. the insitu soil may enhance the embedment giving it more
resistance to deflection. The Soil Support Factor, FS, is a factor that may be applied to
E to correct for the difference in stiffness between the insitu and embedment soils.
Where the insitu soil is less stiff than the embedment, FS is a reduction factor. Where
it is stiffer, FS is an enhancement factor, i.e. greater than one.
The Soil Support Factor, FS, may be obtained from Tables 3-9 and 3-10 as follows:
Determine the ratio Bd/DO, where Bd equals the trench width at the pipe
springline (inches), and DO equals the pipe outside diameter (inches).
Based on the native insitu soil properties, find the soil reaction modulus for the
insitu soil, EN in Table 3-9.
Determine the ratio EN/E.
Enter Table 3-10 with the ratios Bd/DO and EN/E and find FS.
154-264.indd 215
1/16/09 9:57:09 AM
216 Chapter 6
Table 3-9
Values of EN, Native Soil Modulus of Soil Reaction, Howard(3)
Native In Situ Soils
Granular
Cohesive
Std. Pentration
ASTM D1586
Blows/ft
Description
Unconfined
Compressive
Strength (TSF)
Description
>0-1
very, very loose
> 0 - 0.125
very, very soft
50
1-2
very loose
0.125 - 0.25
very soft
200
EN (psi)
2-4
very loose
0.25 - 0.50
soft
700
4-8
loose
0.50 - 1.00
medium
1,500
8 - 15
slightly compact
1.00 - 2.00
stiff
3,000
15 - 30
compact
2.00 - 4.00
very stiff
5,000
30 - 50
dense
4.00 - 6.00
hard
10,000
> 50
very dense
> 6.00
very hard
20,000
Rock
50,000
Table 3-10
Soil Support Factor, FS
EN/E
Bd/DO
1.5
Bd/DO
2.0
Bd/DO
2.5
Bd/DO
3.0
Bd/DO
4.0
Bd/DO
5.0
0.1
0.15
0.30
0.60
0.80
0.90
1.00
0.2
0.30
0.45
0.70
0.85
0.92
1.00
0.4
0.50
0.60
0.80
0.90
0.95
1.00
0.6
0.70
0.80
0.90
0.95
1.00
1.00
0.8
0.85
0.90
0.95
0.98
1.00
1.00
1.0
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.5
1.30
1.15
1.10
1.05
1.00
1.00
2.0
1.50
1.30
1.15
1.10
1.05
1.00
3.0
1.75
1.45
1.30
1.20
1.08
1.00
5.0
2.00
1.60
1.40
1.25
1.10
1.00
Lag Factor and Long-Term Deflection
Spangler observed an increase in ring deflection with time. Settlement of the backfill
and consolidation of the embedment under the lateral pressure from the pipe
continue to occur after initial installation. To account for this, he recommended
applying a lag factor to the Iowa Formula in the range of from 1.25 to 1.5. Lag
occurs in installations of both plastic and metal pipes. Howard (3, 11) has shown that
the lag factor varies with the type of embedment and the degree of compaction.
Many plastic pipe designers use a Lag Factor of 1.0 when using the prism load as it
154-264.indd 216
1/16/09 9:57:09 AM
factor
to the
Formula
in the range
of fromfor
1.25
to 1.5.
Lag occurs in applying
installations
of
to
occur
afterIowa
initial
installation.
To account
this,
he recommended
a lag
both plastic
and metal
pipes.
Howard
11] has
lag factor
varies with
factor
to the Iowa
Formula
in the
range [3,
of from
1.25shown
to 1.5.that
Lagthe
occurs
in installations
of
the type
of embedment
and the
degree[3,
of 11]
compaction.
Many
designers
use
both
plastic
and metal pipes.
Howard
has shown
that plastic
the lagpipe
factor
varies with
Chapter 6 217
Design
of PE Piping
Systems
a Lag
of 1.0 when
the prism
load as it accounts
for
backfill
settlement.
the
typeFactor
of embedment
and using
the degree
of compaction.
Many plastic
pipe
designers
use
This
makes
even
more
sense
when
the
Soil
Support
Factor
is
included
in
the
a Lag Factor of 1.0 when using the prism load as it accounts for backfill settlement.
calculation.
This
makes even more sense when the Soil Support Factor is included in the
calculation.
Vertical Deflection Example
accounts
for backfill settlement. This makes even more sense when the Soil Support
Vertical Deflection
Example
Estimate the vertical
deflection
ofcalculation.
a 24 diameter HDPE DR 26 pipe installed under 18
Factor is included
in the
feet of cover.
The embedment
material
is a well-graded
sandy
gravel,
compacted
a
Estimate
the vertical
deflection of
a 24 diameter
HDPE DR
26 pipe
installed
underto18
Vertical
Deflection
Example
minimum
90 percent
of Standardmaterial
Proctorisdensity,
and thesandy
nativegravel,
groundcompacted
is a saturated,
feet
of cover.
The embedment
a well-graded
to a
Estimate
the
vertical deflection
of
a density,
24 diameter
DRthe
26 pipe
produced
fromisa PE4710
soft clayey90soil.
The anticipated
trench
width
is 42.and
minimum
percent
of Standard
Proctor
native
ground
a saturated,
material
is installedtrench
under 18
feet ofiscover.
soft clayey soil.
The that
anticipated
width
42.The embedment material is a wellgraded sandy gravel, compacted to a minimum 90 percent of Standard Proctor
Use
theand
prism
load,ground
Equation
2-1, Tables
2-7,soil.
2-9,The
and
2-10, and
Equation
density,
the native
is a saturated,
soft clayey
anticipated
trench
widththe
is 42.
2-7
gives
an E'
for Equation
a compacted
sandy 2-7,
gravel
GW-SW
soil Equation
as 2000
Use
prism
load,
2-1, Tables
2-9,orand
2-10, and
SOLUTION:
2-10. Table
SOLUTION:
lb/in2. To
estimate
maximum
due to variability,
this or
value
will besoil
reduced
by
2-10.
Table
2-7
gives
an E' deflection
for a compacted
sandy gravel
GW-SW
as 2000
SOLUTION:
2 Use the prism load, Equation 3-1, Tables 3-7, 3-9, and 3-10, and Equation
25%,2. or
1500
lb/in
.
Table
2-9
gives
an
E
of
700
psi
for
soft
clay.
Since
B
/D
To to
estimate
maximum
deflection
due
to
variability,
this
value
will
be
reduced
by
lb/in
N
d
3-10. Table23-7 gives an E for a compacted sandy gravel or GW-SW soil as 2000 lb/in 2.
equals
1.75
and
E
/E
equals
0.47,
F
is
obtained
by
interpolation
and
equal
0.60.
25%, or to 1500
lb/in
. Table
2-9Modulus
gives
anElasticity
EN offor700
psi material
for softobtained
clay. from
Since Bd/D
N
S
The Short-Term
Apparent
of
PE 4710
equals 1.75 and
E
/E
equals
0.47,
F
is
obtained
by
interpolation
and
equal
0.60.
N
S
Table B.2.1 equals 130,000 psi. To estimate maximum deflection due to variability,
this value will be reduced by 25%, or to 1500 lb/in 2. Table 3-9 gives an E of 700
N
The prism loadpsion
the pipe is equal to:
for soft clay. Since Bd/D equals 1.75 and EN/E equals 0.47, FS is obtained by
The prism loadinterpolation
on the pipe
is equal to:
and equal 0.60.
The prism load on the pipe is equal to:
P E = (120)(18) = 2160lb / ft
2
P E = (120)(18) = 2160lb / ft
Substituting these
values
into into
Equation
2-10
Substituting
these values
Equation 3-10
gives:gives:
Substituting these values into Equation 2-10 gives:
X 2160
(0.1)(1.0 )
'
0)
110,000)
1(0.1)(1.
144 2((130,000)
3
DXM = 2160
2(110,000) ( 1 ) + (0.061)(0.60)(1500)
144
3
DM
( 26 1) 3 + (0.061)(0.60)(1500)
3
26 1
X
= 0.025 = 2.5 %
'
DXM = 0.025 = 2.5 %
DM
Deflection Limits
The designer limits ring deflection in order to control geometric stability of the pipe,
wall bending strain, pipeline hydraulic capacity and compatibility with cleaning
equipment, and, for bell-and-spigot jointed pipe, its sealing capability. Only the
limits for geometric stability and bending strain will be discussed here. Hydraulic
capacity is not impaired at deflections less than 7.5%.
Geometric stability is lost when the pipe crown flattens and loses its ability to
support earth load. Crown flattening occurs with excessive deflection as the increase
in horizontal diameter reduces crown curvature. At 25% to 30% deflection, the
154-264.indd 217
1/16/09 9:57:09 AM
218
Chapter 6
crown may completely reverse its curvature inward and collapse. See Figure 3-1A.
A deflection limit of 7.5% provides at least a 3 to 1 safety factor against reverse
curvature.
Bending strain occurs in the pipe wall as a result of ring deflectionouter-fiber
tensile strain at the pipe springline and outer-fiber compressive strain at the crown
and invert. While strain limits of 5% have been proposed, Jansen (12) reported
that, on tests of PE pipe manufactured from pressure-rated resins and subjected
to soil pressure only, no upper limit from a practical design point of view seems
to exist for the bending strain. In other words, as deflection increases, the pipes
performance limit will not be overstraining but reverse curvature collapse.
Thus, for non-pressure applications, a 7.5 percent deflection limit provides a
large safety factor against instability and strain and is considered a safe design
deflection. Some engineers will design profile wall pipe and other non-pressure pipe
applications to a 5% deflection limit, but allow spot deflections up to 7.5% during
field inspection.
The deflection limits for pressurized pipe are generally lower than for nonpressurized pipe. This is primarily due to strain considerations. Hoop strain from
pressurization adds to the outer-fiber tensile strain. But the internal pressure acts to
reround the pipe and, therefore, Eq. 3-10 overpredicts the actual long-term deflection
for pressurized pipe. Safe allowable deflections for pressurized pipe are given in
Table 3-11. Spangler and Handy(13) give equations for correcting deflection to account
for rerounding.
Table 3-11
Safe Deflection Limits for Pressurized Pipe
DR or SDR
Safe Deflection as % of Diameter
32.5
7.5
26
7.5
21
7.5
17
6.0
13.5
6.0
11
5.0
4.0
7.3
3.0
*Based on Long-Term Design Deflection of Buried Pressurized Pipe given in ASTM F1962.
154-264.indd 218
1/16/09 9:57:09 AM
Chapter 6 219
Compressive Ring Thrust
Earth pressure exerts a radial-directed force around the circumference of a pipe that
results in a compressive ring thrust in the pipe wall. (This thrust is exactly opposite
to the tensile hoop thrust induced when a pipe is pressurized.) See Figure 3-1B.
Excessive ring compressive thrust may lead to two different performance limits:
crushing of the material or buckling (loss of stability) of the pipe wall. See Figure
3-1C. This section will discuss crushing, and the next section will discuss buckling.
As is often the case, the radial soil pressure causing the stress is not uniform around
the pipes circumference. However, for calculation purposes it is assumed uniform
and equal to the vertical soil pressure at the pipe crown.
Pressure pipes often have internal pressure higher than the radial pressure applied
by the soil. As long as there is pressure in the pipe that exceeds the external
pressure, the net thrust in the pipe wall is tensile rather than compressive, and wall
crush or buckling checks are not necessary. Whether one needs to check this or
not can be quickly determined by simply comparing the internal pressure with the
vertical soil pressure.
67
Crushing occurs when the compressive stress in the wall exceeds the compressive
yield stress of the pipe material. Equations 3-13 and 3-14 give the compressive stress
67
resulting from( earth
DRload pressure for conventional extruded DR pipe and
P E + and
P L )live
S =F894 profile wall PE Pipe:
Eq. 2-13
for ASTM
(3-13)
( P E + P L ) DO
288A
( P E + P L ) DO
S=
Where
288A due to earth load, psf
PE = vertical soil pressure
(3-14)
Where:
288
( P E + P L ) DR
S =
288
S=
Eq. 2-13
Eq. 2-14
Eq. 2-14
PL = vertical soil pressure due to live-load, psf
PSE ==pipe
vertical
soil pressure
wall compressive
stress, lb/in2 due to earth load, psf
Where: PDR
soilDpressure
due to live-load, psf
Dimension Ratio,
L ==vertical
O/t
2
S
=
pipe
wall
compressive
stress,
D
=
pipe
outside
diameter
(for
profile
pipe
DOto
= Dearth
2HP), load,
in
I +lb/in
PE =O vertical soil pressure due
psf
D=I ==
pipe
inside diameter,Ratio,
in
/t
Dimension
D
O
PDR
vertical
soil
pressure
due
to
live-load,
psf
L
wall
height, in diameter (for profile2 pipe DO = DI + 2HP), in
== profile
pipe
outside
SD=HOPpipe
wall
compressive stress, lb/in
2
AI =
= profile
wall
average diameter,
cross-sectional area,
D
pipe
inside
DR =(Obtain
Dimension
Ratio,
D /tin in /in
the profile wall area fromOthe manufacturer of the profile pipe.)
profile
wall height,
in (for profile pipe DO = DI + 2HP), in
DHOP==pipe
outside
diameter
(Note:
These equations
contain a factor
of 144 in the denominator
for correct
units conversions.)
A
=
profile
wall
average
area,
in2/in
DI = pipe inside diameter,cross-sectional
in
HP = profile wall height, in
A = profile
walla average
cross-sectional
area,
in2/in units conversions.)
(Note: These equations
contain
factor of 144
in the denominator
for correct
Note: These equations contain a factor of 144 in the denominator for correct units conversions.)
on 2-14 may overstate the wall stress in profile pipe. Ring deflection in profile
pe induces arching. The "Deep Fill Installation" section of this chapter discusses
gn and
for calculating
earth pressure
resulting
frominarching,
2-14gives
may equations
overstate
the
wall stress the
in profile
pipe. Ring
deflection
profile 1/16/09
154-264.indd
219
9:57:10 AM
220 Chapter 6
68
Equation 3-14PE
may
overstate the wall stress in profile
2406
800 pipe. Ring deflection in profile
wall pipe induces arching. The Deep Fill Installation section of this chapter
68
discusses arching and gives equations for calculating the earth pressure resulting
from arching, PRD. PRD is given by Equation 3-23 and may be substituted for PE to
long-termdetermine
compressive
stress
value
should
be
PE
2406
800reduced
the
wall
compressive
stress
when arching
occurs. for elevated temperature
The
pipeline operation. Temperature design factors used for hydrostatic pressure may be
The compressive stress in the pipe wall can be compared to the pipe material
used, i.e. 0.5 @ 140F. Additional temperature design factors may be obtained by
allowable compressive stress. If the calculated compressive stress exceeds the
reference to Table 1-11 in Section 1 of this chapter.
stress, then
a lower
DR (heavier
wall
thickness)
or heavier
profile wall
is
The long-termallowable
compressive
stress
value
should
be
reduced
for elevated
temperature
required.
used,
i.e. 0.5 @ 140F.
Ring Compression
ExampleAdditional temperature design factors may be obtained by
Allowable Compressive Stress
reference to Table 1-11 in Section 1 of this chapter.
Allowable long-term compressive stress values for the several PE material
Find the pipe wall
compressive
stress
in a DRChapter
32.5 HDPE
pipe buried under 46 ft of
designation
codes can ring
be found
in Appendix,
3.
cover. The ground water level is at the surface, the saturated weight of the insitu siltyRing Compression
Example
3
long-term
compressive stress value should be reduced for elevated temperature
.
clay soil is 120The
lbs/ft
used. compressive
See temperature ring
re-rating
or adjustment
in the Appendix,
Chapter
3.
wall
stress
in a DR factors
32.5 HDPE
pipe buried
under
Find the pipe

46 ft of
SOLUTION: Find the vertical earth pressure acting on the pipe. Use Equation 2-1.
cover. The ground water level is at the surface, the saturated weight of the insitu silty3
Compression
Example
.
clay soil is 120Ring
lbs/ft
Find
the
pipe
wall
compressive
ringto
stress
a DR 32.5 PE4710
pipe
underthe
46 water
Although the net soil pressure
is equal
theinbuoyant
weight
ofburied
the soil,
ft ofacting
cover. The
waterTherefore
level is at thethe
surface,
saturated weight
the insitu
pressure is also
onground
the pipe.
totalthepressure
(waterofand
earth load)
SOLUTION: Find
thesoil
vertical
earth
3. pressure acting on the pipe. Use Equation 2-1.
silty-clay
is
120
lbs/ft
can be found using the saturated unit weight of the soil.
SOLUTION: Find the vertical earth pressure acting on the pipe. Use Equation 3-1.
Although the net soil pressure is equal to the buoyant weight of the soil, the water
Although
soilpipe.
pressure
is equal to the
buoyant
weight of the
soil, the
water
pressure is also
actingtheonnet
the
total pressure
(water
and
earth load)
pcf)(46
ft) the
=Therefore
5520Therefore
psf thethe
P E = (120
pressure
is
also
acting
on
pipe.
total
pressure
(water
and
earth
can be found using the saturated unit weight of the soil.
load) can be found using the saturated unit weight of the soil.
Next, solve for the compressive stress.
Next, solve for the compressive stress.

P E = (120 pcf)(46 ft) = 5520 psf
(5520 lb / ft 2 )(32.5)
S
=
= 623 lb / inch2
Next, solve for the compressive
stress.
288
The compressive stress
is well below the allowable limit of 1150 psi for the PE4710
2
2
(5520
lb
/
)(32.5)
ft
2
material
given in
Appendix,
Chapter
3./
compressive
is the
within
the =1000
lb/in
allowable
stress for HDPE
S = stress
623 lb
The
Table 2-12.
288
inch
given in
Constrained (Buried) Pipe Wall Buckling
Excessive compressive stress (or thrust) may cause the pipe wall to become unstable
2
and buckle.
Buckling
from
ring compressive
initiates locally
a large
The
compressive
stress
isWall
within
the
1000 lb/instress
allowable
stressas for
HDPE given
Constrained
(Buried)
Pipe
Buckling
Table 2-12. dimple, and then grows to reverse curvature followed by structural collapse.
Resistance to buckling is proportional to the wall thickness divided by the diameter
in
Excessive compressive stress (or thrust) may cause the pipe wall to become unstable
and buckle. Buckling from ring compressive stress initiates locally as a large "dimple,"
Constrained (Buried) Pipe Wall Buckling
and then grows to reverse curvature followed by structural collapse. Resistance to
buckling is proportional to the wall thickness divided by the diameter raised to a power.
Excessive
compressive
stress (or thrust) may cause the pipe
wall to
become
unstable
Therefore
the
Buried
pipe
has an
added
154-264.indd
220 lower the DR, the higher the resistance.
1/16/09
9:57:10 AM
Chapter 6 221
69
raised to a power. Therefore the lower the DR, the higher the resistance. Buried pipe
Non-pressurized pipes or gravity flow pipes are most likely to have a net compressive
has an added resistance due to support (or constraint) from the surrounding soil.
69
stress in the pipe wall and, therefore, the allowable buckling pressure should be
pipes
flow pipes
most likely
to have
a net
calculated andNon-pressurized
compared to
theor gravity
total (soil
and are
ground
water)
pressure.
For most
stress
in fluid
the pipe
wall and,in
therefore,
the exceeds
allowable buckling
pressure
pressure pipe compressive
applications,
the
pressure
the pipe
the external
pressure,
Non-pressurized
pipes
or gravity
flow
pipes
aretotal
most
likely
to have
a pressure.
net compressive
should
be
calculated
and
compared
to
the
(soil
and
ground
water)
and the net stress in the pipe wall is tensile. Buckling needs only be considered for that
stress in the For
pipe
wall
and,
the
allowable
buckling
pressure
should be
mostunder
pressure
pipetherefore,
applications,
theduring
fluid
pressure
in the pipe exceeds
theconstruction
time the pipe is
not
pressure,
such as
and immediately
after
calculated andexternal
compared
to
the
total
(soil
and
ground
water)
pressure.
pressure, and the net stress in the pipe wall is tensile. Buckling needs For most
and during system shut-downs.
pressure pipe only
applications,
the
pressure
pipe pressure,
exceedssuch
theasexternal
pressure,
be considered
forfluid
that time
the pipeinisthe
not under
during and
and the net stress
in
the
pipe
wall
is
tensile.
Buckling
needs
only
be
considered
for that
immediately after construction and during system shut-downs and, in cases in
This
chapter
gives
two
equations
for
calculating
buckling.
The
modified
Luscher
time the pipe is
notaunder
pressure,
as during
and immediately
after
construction
which
surge pressure
eventsuch
can produce
a temporary
negative internal
pressure.
Equation
for buried
pipes that are beneath the ground water level, subject to vacuum
and duringis system
shut-downs.
Under these circumstances the pipe will react much stiffer to buckling as its
pressure, or under
live load with a shallow cover. These forces act to increase even the
modulus is higher under short term loading. When designing, select a modulus
slightest eccentricity
in the
pipe wallthebynegative
following
deformation
inward.
While soil
the duration of
external
pressure. For
pipemodified
that are
This chapter appropriate
gives twoforequations
for calculating
buckling.
The
Luscher
pressure alone
can create
instability, due
soilto is
less likely to should
followbedeformation
inward,
negative
surge,
given
to to vacuum
Equation is forsubjected
buried to
pipes
thatpressure
are beneath
the consideration
ground water level,
subject
particularly if selecting
it is granular.
So,
dry
ground
buckling
is
only
considered
for
deep
that
gives
pipe sufficient
collapse
strength
to resist
pressure, or under livea DR
load
with
a the
shallow
cover.unconstrained
These forces
act to
increase
even the
applications and
is
given
by
the
Moore-Selig
Equation
found
in
the
section,
Buckling
of
the full applied
negative
without
support deformation
for the soil. This inward.
is to insure While soil
slightest eccentricity
in the
pipepressure
wall by
following
Pipes in Deep,against
Dry Fills.
affects thatsoil
resultisinless
the embedment
developing itsinward,
pressure alone can construction
create instability,
likely to material
follow not
deformation
full
design
strength.
particularly if it is granular. So, dry ground buckling is only considered for deep
applications and
givengives
by the
Equation
found The
in the
section,
Buckling of
Thisischapter
two Moore-Selig
equations for calculating
buckling.
modified
Luscher
Luscher
Constrained Buckling Below Ground Water Level
Pipes in Equation
Deep,Equation
Dryfor
Fills.
is for buried pipes that are beneath the ground water level, subject to
vacuum pressure, or under live load with a shallow cover. These forces act to
For pipes below

the even
ground
watereccentricity
level, operating
full or deformation
partial vacuum, or
increase
the slightest
in the pipeunder
wall by a
following
subject
to
live
load,
Luschers
equation
may
be
used
to
determine
the allowable
inward.
soil pressure
alone canBelow
create instability,
soil is less
likely to follow
Luscher Equation
forWhile
Constrained
Buckling
Ground Water
Level
constrained buckling
pressure.
Equation
and So,
2-16
forbuckling
DR and
profile pipe
deformation
inward, particularly
if it2-15
is granular.
dry are
ground
is only
respectively. considered for deep applications and is given by the Moore-Selig Equation found in
For pipes below the ground water level, operating under a full or partial vacuum, or
the section, Buckling of Pipes in Deep, Dry Fills.
subject to live load, Luschers equation may be used to determine the allowable
constrained buckling
pressure. Equation 2-15 and 2-16 are for DR and profile pipe
Luscher Equation for Constrained Buckling Below Ground Water Level
respectively. For pipes below the ground water level, operating under a full or partial vacuum,
5.65
E
or subject to live
load, Luschers equation
may be used to determine the allowable
B E
Eq. 2-15
PWC =bucklingRpressure.
constrained
Equation
3-15
and 3-16 are for DR and profile pipe
3
N
12( DR 1)
respectively.
(3-15)
(3-16)
PWC =
5.65
E
RB E
N
12( DR 1) 3
Eq. 2-15
PWC =
5.65
EI
RB E
3
N
DM
Eq. 2-16
PWC =
5.65
EI
RB E
3
N
DM
Eq. 2-16
Where:
154-264.indd 221
PWC = allowable constrained buckling pressure, lb/in2
1/16/09 9:57:10 AM
222 Chapter 6
70
Where
H GWbuckling pressure, lb/in2
PWC = allowable constrained
R = 1 - 0.33
N = safety factor
H GW
H
R = buoyancy reduction factor
HWhere
GW = height of ground water above pipe, ft
= buoyancy reduction factor
Where:HR =
depth of cover, ft
HGW = height of ground water above pipe, ft
RH == depth
buoyancy
of cover, ft reduction factor
HGW = height of ground water above pipe, ft
H(3-18)
= depth of cover,
ft
1
B =
(-0.065H)
1+ 4 e
(3-17)
Where:
R = 1 - 0.33
1
Where
B =
log base number,
2.71828
Where: e = natural
1+ 4 e(-0.065H)
70
Eq. 2-17
Eq. 2-17
Eq. 2-18
Eq. 2-18
E = soil reaction modulus, psi
eE== apparent
natural
log base
number,
2.71828
modulus
of elasticity,
psi
E'DR== soil
reaction
modulus, psi
Dimension
Ratio
Where:EI ==pipe
3/12, if solid wallpsi
apparent
modulus
of(telasticity,
wall moment of inertia, in4/in
construction)
DR
=Mean
Dimension
diameter
2z ornumber,
DO t), in
eD=M =natural
log(Dbase
2.71828
I +Ratio
IE' = soil
pipe
wall modulus,
moment psi
of inertia, in4/in (t3/12, if solid wall
reaction
Although buckling occurs rapidly, long-term external pressure can gradually
construction)
E = apparent modulus of elasticity, psi
deform the pipe to the point of instability. This behavior is considered viscoelastic
DR
Dimension
Ratio
DM == Mean
diameter
(DI + 2z or DO t), in
and can be accounted for in Equations 3-15 and 3-164by using
the apparent modulus
I = pipe wall moment of inertia, in /in (t3/12, if solid wall
of elasticity value for the appropriate time and temperature of the loading. For
construction)
instance, a vacuum event is resisted by the short-term value of the modulus whereas
gh buckling occurs
rapidly,
long-term
external
gradually deform the
Dcontinuous
diameter
or Dpressure
resisted
t), in can
M = Mean
I + 2zwould
Obe
ground
water (D
pressure
by the 50 year value. For
o the point of instability. This behavior is considered viscoelastic and can be
modulus values see Appendix, Chapter 3.
nted for in Equations
2-15 and 2-16 by using the apparent modulus of elasticity
For pipes
buried
with
less than
4 ftoforthe
a full
diametercan
of
cover,
Equations
and
for
appropriate
time
andlong-term
temperature
loading.
For
instance,
a3-15
vacuum
gh the
buckling
occurs
rapidly,
external
pressure
gradually
deform
the
3-16
may
have
limited
applicability.
In
this
case
the
designer
may
want
to
use
is
resisted
by
the
short-term
value
of
the
modulus
whereas
continuous
ground
o the point of instability. This behavior is considered viscoelastic and can be
Equations
3-39 and
pressure
be resisted
by 3-40.
the
50by
year
value.
modulus
valuesofsee
Table
nted
for inwould
Equations
2-15
and
2-16
using
the For
apparent
modulus
elasticity
for the appropriate
time
and
temperature
of
the
loading.
For
instance,
a
vacuum
The designer should apply a safety factor commensurate with the application. A
is resisted by safety
the short-term
value
the
whereas
continuous ground
factor of 2.0 has
beenof
used
formodulus
thermoplastic
pipe.
pressure
would
be
resisted
by
the
50
year
value.
For
modulus
values
pes buried with less than 4 ft or a full diameter of cover, Equations
2-15see
andTable
2-16
The allowable constrained buckling pressure should be compared to the total
ave limited applicability. In this case the designer may want to use Equations 2-39
vertical stress acting on the pipe crown from the combined load of soil, and ground
40.
water or floodwater. It is prudent to check buckling resistance against a ground
pes buried withwater
less level
thanfor4aft100-year-flood.
or a full diameter
of cover,theEquations
2-16
In this calculation
total vertical2-15
stressand
is typically
ave
limited
applicability.
In
this
case
the
designer
may
want
to
use
Equations
2-39
esigner should taken
applyasathe
safety
commensurate
withplus
thethe
application.
prism factor
load pressure
for saturated soil,
fluid pressureA
of safety
any
40.2.0 has beenfloodwater
of
used forabove
thermoplastic
pipe.
the ground surface.
esigner
apply abuckling
safety factor
commensurate
with the application.
safety
llowableshould
constrained
pressure
should be compared
to the totalAvertical
of
2.0
has
been
used
for
thermoplastic
pipe.
acting on the pipe crown from the combined load of soil, and ground water or
water. It is prudent to check buckling resistance against a ground water level for a
154-264.indd 222
1/16/09 9:57:11 AM
pressure for saturated soil, plus the fluid pressure of any floodwater above the
ombined
pressureequation,
from soil,
ground 2-39,
water,
and can
thenoperate
to use with
the
nstrained
Equation
to and
verifyvacuum,
that the pipe
d surface.buckling
nstrained
buckling
equation,
Equation
2-39,
to
verify
that
the
pipe
can
operate
with
acuum
independent
of
any
soil
support
or
soil
load,
in
case
construction
does
not
R pipes operating under a vacuum, it is customary to use Equation 2-15 to check
acuum
of any
soilground
support
orload
soiland
load,
in case construction
not6
Chapter
op
the independent
full
soil support.
Where
vacuum
is
short-term,
such then
as2-15
during
water
ombined
pressure
from
soil,
water,
vacuum,
and
to does
use
the
R pipes
operating
under
a
vacuum,
it is
customary
to use Equation
check
Design of PEto
Piping
Systems
op
the
full
soil
support.
Where
vacuum
load
is
short-term,
such
as
during
water
mer
events
two
calculations
with
Equation
2-14
are
necessary.
First
determine
nstrained
to and
verifyvacuum,
that the pipe
ombined buckling
pressureequation,
from soil,Equation
ground 2-39,
water,
and can
thenoperate
to use with
theif
mer
events
two
calculations
with
Equation
2-14
are
necessary.
First
determine
pe is sufficient
for equation,
the
water
and
a long-term
modulus;
acuum
independent
of ground
any soil
support
orsoil
soil
load, that
in using
case
doeswith
notif
nstrained
buckling
Equation
2-39,
topressure
verify
the construction
pipe
can operate
pe the
is sufficient
for
theis ground
water
andcombined
soil pressure
using
a long-term
modulus;
determine
thesupport.
pipe
sufficient
for the
ground
water,
soil
and
op
full ifsoil
Where
vacuum
short-term,
such
as pressure
during
water
acuum
independent
of any
soil support
orload
soil is
load,
in case
construction
does
not
determine
if
the
pipe
is
sufficient
for
the
combined
ground
water,
soil
pressure
and
um
using
the short-term
mer
events
two support.
calculations
withmodulus.
Equationload
2-14is are
necessary.
determine
op loading
the
full soil
Where
vacuum
short-term,
suchFirst
as during
waterif
um
usingforthe
modulus.
pe loading
is
sufficient
theshort-term
ground
water
and
soil
pressure
usingtoause
long-term
modulus;
mer
events
two For
calculations
with
Equation
2-14
necessary.
First
determine
if
DR
pipes
operating
under
a vacuum,
itare
is customary
Equation
3-15
to
determine
if
the
pipe
is
sufficient
for
the
combined
ground
water,
soil
pressure
and
theground
combinedwater
pressure
from
soil,
ground water,
andavacuum,
and then
to
pe is sufficient check
for the
and
soil
pressure
using
long-term
modulus;
um
loadingifusing
the
theshort-term
unconstrained
buckling
equation, Equation
3-39,
to verify
the pipe and
determine
theuse
pipe
is
sufficientmodulus.
for
the combined
ground
water,
soilthat
pressure
trained
Buckling
Example
can
operate
with the modulus.
vacuum independent of any soil support or soil load, in case
m loading
using
the
short-term
trained Bucklingconstruction
Example does not develop the full soil support. Where vacuum load is short-
223
such as
during
water
hammer events
two calculations
with Equationbuckling
3-14
a 36" SDR 26term,
HDPE
pipe
have
satisfactory
resistance
to constrained
necessary.
First
determine
if the pipe soil
is sufficient
fortothe
ground
water buckling
and
soil
a
36" Buckling
SDR
HDPE
pipe
have
resistance
constrained
rained
Example
installed
with26are
18
ft of cover
in
a satisfactory
compacted
embedment.
Assume
ground
2
pressure
using
a
long-term
modulus;
then
determine
if
the
pipe
is
sufficient
for
the
installed
with and
18
ftanofE'cover
in a
compacted
soil embedment. Assume ground
to
the surface
of 1500
lb/in
.
rained
Buckling
Example
2 pressure and vacuum loading using the short-term
combined
ground
water,
soil
.
to 36"
the surface
an E'pipe
of 1500
a
SDR 26and
HDPE
havelb/in
satisfactory
resistance to constrained buckling
modulus.
with2618HDPE
ft of cover
in a satisfactory
compacted resistance
soil embedment.
Assumebuckling
ground
ainstalled
36" SDR
pipe have
to constrained
2
UTION:
Solve
Equation
2-15.
Since
this
is
a
long-term
loading
condition,
the
.
to
the
surface
and
an
E'
of
1500
lb/in
installed with 18
ft of cover
in Example
a compacted soil embedment. Assume ground
Constrained
Buckling
2 tothis
UTION:
Solve
Equation
2-15.
Since
is
a
long-term
loading
condition,
the
sto
relaxation
modulus
can
be
assumed
be
28,200
psi.
Soil
cover,
H,
and
ground
. have satisfactory resistance to constrained buckling
the surface and
E'SDR
of 1500
lb/inpipe
Does an
a 36
26 PE4710
s height,
relaxation
can
assumed
to be 28,200
Soil factor,
cover, B',
H,
and
ground
HGWmodulus
, are
both
18befeet.
soil psi.
support
is found
as
when
installed
with 18Therefore,
ft of cover in athe
compacted
soil embedment?
Assume
ground
,
are
both
18
feet.
Therefore,
the
soil
support
factor,
B',
is
found
as
height,
H
s;
GW
UTION: Solve water
Equation
2-15. and
Since
this
a 2long-term
loading condition, the
to the surface
an E of
1500islb/in
.
s;
s relaxation
modulus
can be
assumed
tothis
be 28,200
psi. Soil cover, H,
and ground
UTION:
Solve
Equation
Since3-15.
is this
a long-term
condition,
12-15.
SOLUTION:
Solve
Equation
Since
is a long-termloading
loading condition,
the the
B
=
=
0.446
c
,
are
both
18
feet.
Therefore,
the
soil
support
factor,
B',
is
found
as
height,
H
-(0.065)(18)
GW
1
relaxation modulus
can
assumed
to be
psi. Soil
cover,
H,Appendix
and ground
4 ebe
50
stress
relaxation
modulus
for28,200
PE4710 material
is given
in the
to
B year
= 1+
=
0.446
s;
-(0.065)(18)
both
18
feet.psi.Therefore,
support
factor,
B',
isboth
found
as
height, HGW, are
1+34as
, are
18 feet.
Chapter
Soil cover, H,the
and soil
ground
water height,
HGW
e 29,000
s;
Therefore, the
1 soil support factor, B, is found as follows;
B
=
= found
0.446 as follows:
he bouyancy reduction
R, is
1-(0.065)(18)
1+ 4factor,
e
Bc =
= found
0.446 as follows:
factor, R, is
18
1+ 4 e-(0.065)(18)
R = 1- 0.33 18 = 0.67
18 = 0.67
R = 1- 0.33
factor,
R, factor,
is found
as asfollows:
and the bouyancy
reduction
R, is found
follows:
18
he bouyancy reduction factor,
18 R, is found as follows:
= the
1- 0.33
= 0.67long-term constrained buckling pressure:
Equation 2-15 Rfor
allowable
18
Equation 2-15 Rfor
allowable
= the
1- 0.33
= 0.67long-term constrained buckling pressure:
18
Solve Equation 3-15 for the allowable long-term constrained buckling pressure:
5.65
0.67(0.446
)1500(28,200)
Equation 2-15 P
for the
allowable
long-term
constrained buckling pressure:
WC = 5.65 0.67(0.446)1500(28,200)
(329,000)
2
12
(
26

1
)
Equation 2-15 for
= allowable long-term3 constrained buckling pressure:
PWCthe
2
12(26 1)
72
5.65 0.67(0.446)1500(28,200)
PWC =
3
23.5
23
= 3387
3340
psf
PWC =5.65
0.67(0.446
)1500(28,200)
2 .2 psi
12(26
1)
P
WC =
=
23
.
2
psi
=
3340
psf
P
WC
2
12(26
1) 3
earth pressure and
ground
water
pressure
applied to the pipe is found using
The earth pressure and ground water pressure applied to the pipe is found using
ion 2-1 (prism load)
with a saturated soil weight. The saturated soil weight being
(prism
load) with
233-1
.2water.
psi = 3340
psf a saturated soil weight. The saturated soil weight
PWC
et weight of bothEquation
soil= and
being the net weight of both soil and water.
PWC = 23.2 psi = 3340 psf
lb
P E = (120)(18) = 2160 2
ft
are this with the constrained buckling pressure. Since PWC exceeds PE, DR 26
atisfactory resistance to constrained pipe buckling.
154-264.indd 223
1/16/09 9:57:12 AM
224
Chapter 6
74
Installation Category # 2: Shallow Cover Vehicular Loading

Compare this with the constrained buckling pressure. Since P
exceeds PE, DR 26
The Standard has

Installation
methodology assumes that the pipeWCbehaves primarily as a
satisfactory resistance to constrained pipe buckling.
"membrane" structure, that is, the pipe is almost perfectly flexible with little ability to
resist bending.Installation
At shallow
cover #2:
depths,
especially
those Loading
less than one pipe diameter,
Category
Shallow
Cover Vehicular
membrane action
may not
fully develop,
andassumes
surcharge
orpipe
livebehaves
loadsprimarily
place a bending
The Standard
Installation
methodology
that the
load on the pipe
crown.
In
this
case
the
pipes
flexural
stiffness
carries
part
of the load
as a membrane structure, that is, the pipe is almost perfectly flexible with
little
and prevents ability
the pipe
crown
from
dimpling
under the
Equation
to resist
bending.
At shallow
cover inward
depths, especially
thoseload.
less than
one pipe 2-19,
published by diameter,
Watkinsmembrane
[14] gives
the
soil
pressure
that
can
be
supported
at the pipe
action may not fully develop, and surcharge or live loads place
crown by the acombination
ofthe
the
pipes
stiffness
resistance)
bending load on
pipe
crown.flexural
In this case
the pipes(bending
flexural stiffness
carries and the
soils internal part
resistance
heaving
addition
to under
checking
of the loadagainst
and prevents
the pipeupward.
crown from In
dimpling
inward
the load.Watkins'
(14)
formula, the designer
should
check
deflection
using
Equations
2-10
or
2-11,
pipe wall
Equation 3-19, published by Watkins gives the soil pressure that can be supported
compressive at
stress
Equations
2-13of or
2-14,flexural
and stiffness
pipe wall
buckling using
the pipeusing
crown by
the combination
the pipes
(bending
Equations 2-15
or
2-16.
resistance) and the soils internal resistance against heaving upward. In addition to
checking Watkins formula, the designer should check deflection using Equations
3-10 oris3-11,
pipe wall compressive
stress using
or 3-14,
pipe wall
Watkins' equation
recommended
only where
the Equations
depth of3-13
cover
is and
greater
than
buckling
using
Equations
3-15
or
3-16.
half of the pipe diameter and the pipe is installed at least 18 inches below the
oneroad
surface. In other
words,
it
is
recommended
that
the
pipe
regardless
of
diameter
always
Watkins equation is recommended only where the depth of cover is greater than
be at least 18one-half
beneath
the
road
surface
where
areatlive
present;
of the
pipe
diameter
and the
pipe isthere
installed
leastloads
18 inches
below themore may
be required depending
the words,
properties
of the pipethat
and
installation.
Indiameter
some cases,
road surface.on
In other
it is recommended
the pipe
regardless of
lesser cover depths
be18sufficient
therewhere
is athere
reinforced
concrete
always bemay
at least
beneath thewhere
road surface
are live loads
present; cap or a
reinforced concrete
pavement
over the
pipe.
Equation
2-19and
may
be used
more may
be requiredslab
depending
on the
properties
of the pipe
installation.
In for both
DR pipe and profile
pipe.
Seecover
definition
of A
below. where there is a reinforced concrete
some cases,
lesser
depths may
be sufficient
cap or a reinforced concrete pavement slab over the pipe. Equation 3-19 may be used
for both DR pipe and profile pipe. See definition of A below.
(3-19)
PWAT =
12 w(KH ) 7387(I)
w
H
S
- DO
+
2 MAT
N S DO
288A
N S DO c
Eq. 2-19
Where
Where:PWAT = allowable live load pressure at pipe crown for pipes with one diameter or less of cover, psf
w = unit weight of soil, lb/ft3
154-264.indd
= outside
allowable
load pressure at pipe crown for pipes with one
PDWAT
diameter, live
in
O = pipe
diameter
or less
of cover, psf
H = depth of cover,
ft
3
3 /12 forlb/ft
moment
of inertia
DR pipe), in4/in
wI = pipe
= wall
unit
weight
of(tsoil,
2 /in, for profile pipe or wall thickness (in) for DR pipe
wall average
cross-sectional
area, inin
DA O= profile
= pipe
outside
diameter,
(obtain the profile from the manufacturer of the profile pipe.)
to wall centroid, in
Ic ==outer fiber
pipe
wall moment of inertia (t3/12 for DR pipe), in4/in
c = HP z for profile pipe and c = 0.5t for DR pipe, in
A = profile wall average cross-sectional area, in2/in, for profile pipe or
wall thickness (in) for DR pipe
z = pipe wall centroid, in
cS = = material
outeryield
fiber
to wall centroid, in
strength, lb/in2, Use 3000 PSI for PE3408
MAT
c = HP z for profile pipe and c = 0.5t for DR pipe, in
z = pipe wall centroid, in
SMAT =
material yield strength, lb/in2, USE 3000 PSI FOR pe3408
NS = safety factor
K = passive earth pressure coefficient
224
1/16/09 9:57:12 AM
K=
1 + SIN( I )
1 - SIN( I )
Eq. 2-20
Chapter 6 225
angle of internal friction, deg
NS = safety factor
K = passive earth pressure coefficient
75
75
quation 2-19 is for a point load applied to the pipe crown. Wheel loads should be
etermined using a point load method such as given by Equations 2-2 (Timeoshenko)
(3-20)
2-4 (Boussinesq). K = 1 + SIN( I )
Eq. 2-20
1 - SIN( I )
1 + SIN( )
K=
Eq. 2-20
hen a pipe
is installed
internalshallow
friction, degcover below an unpaved surface, rutting can occur
1 - SIN
( =) angle ofwith
hich will not only reduce cover depth, but also increase the impact factor.
=
Equation 3-19 is for a point load applied to the pipe crown. Wheel loads should be
determined
usingdeg
a point load method such as given by Equations 3-2 (Timoshenko)
angle of internal
friction,
hallow Cover Example
or 3-4 (Boussinesq).
a pipe is installed with shallow cover below an unpaved surface, rutting can
Equation 2-19When
is for
a point load applied to the pipe crown. Wheel loads should be
etermine the safety
factor against
flexural
failure
pipe accompanied
occur which
not only reduce
cover
depth, of
but the
also increase
the impact factor.by soil
determined using a pointwill
load
method such
as
given
by Equations
2-2 (Timeoshenko)
eave, for a 36" RSC 100 F894 profile pipe 3.0 feet beneath an H20 wheel load.
or 2-4 (Boussinesq).
Shallow
Coverwith
Example
ssume
asphalt
surface
granular
embedment.
for a an
point
load
applied
to
the pipe
crown. Wheel loads should be
safetyas
factor
againstby
flexural
failure of the
pipe(Timeoshenko)
accompanied by
a point load Determine
methodthesuch
given
Equations
2-2
When a pipe issoil

installedforwith
cover
below an
unpaved
surface,
rutting
a 36shallow
RSC 100 F894
profile
3.0 feet
an H20 wheel
load.can occur
OLUTION:
The liveheave,
load pressure
acting at
the pipe
crown
of beneath
the pipe
can be found
using
q).
which will not only
reduce
cover
depth,
also embedment.
increase the impact factor.
Assume
an asphalt
surface
withbut
granular
quation 2-4, the Boussinesq point load equation. At 3.0 feet of cover the highest live
ad pressure occurs
directly
a single
and
SOLUTION:
Theunder
live load
pressurewheel
acting at
the equals:
crown of the pipe can be found
stalled with shallow

cover
an unpaved
using Equation
3-4,below
the Boussinesq
point load surface,
equation. Atrutting
3.0 feet ofcan
coveroccur
the
Shallow
Cover
Example
y reduce cover
depth,
butpressure
also increase
theunder
impact
factor.
highest
live load
occurs directly
a single
wheel and equals:
3
(3)(2.0)(16000)(3.0 ) = 1697 psf

P=
Determine pthe
safety factor against
flexural failure of the pipe accompanied by soil
WAT L
5
S
2
(3.0
)
heave, for a 36" RSC 100 F894 profile pipe 3.0 feet beneath an H20 wheel load.
xample
Assume an asphalt surface with granular embedment.
Where
If = 2.0
afety
factorWhere:
against
flexural
failure
of atthe
W = 16,000
SOLUTION:
The
live lbs
load
pressure
acting
thepipe
crownaccompanied
of the pipe canby
be soil
found using
I
=
2.0
H
=
3.0
ft
f
RSC
100
F894
profile
pipe
3.0
feet
beneath
an
H20
wheel
load.
Equation 2-4, the Boussinesq point load equation. At 3.0 feet of cover the highest live
w
= 120
Wpcf=directly
16,000
lbs a single wheel and equals:
pressure
occurs
under
altload
surface
with
granular
embedment.
H = 3.0 ft
120
pcf is to be compared with the value in Equation 3-19. To solve
The w
live=load
pressure
pressure
acting
the crown
of are
the
pipe can be found using
Equation 3-19, the at
following
parameters
required:
3
live load
(3)(2.0)(1
6000)(3.0 )At 3.0 feet of cover the highest live
4 /in
point
= inload
Ip
=
0.171
heBoussinesq
live load pressure
is to equation.
be compared
with the value in Equation 2-19. To solve
WAT
5
2S (3.0
)
2single
A
=
0.470
in
/in
curs
directly
under
a
wheel
and
equals:
quation 2-19, the following parameters are required:
HP = 2.02 in (Profile Wall Height)

DO = DI+2*h = 36.00+2*2.02 = 40.04 in
Where:
Z = 0.58
I =in 0.171
in4/in
3
C = h-z = 1.44 )in
(3)(2.0)(16000)(3.0
If = 2.0
S = 3000
5 psi
2 (3.0
= )30 deg.W = 16,000 lbs
H = 3.0 ft
w = 120 pcf
ere:
The live load pressure is to be compared with the value in Equation 2-19. To solve
1/16/09 9:57:12 AM
If =154-264.indd
2.02-19,225the following parameters are required:
Equation
C
== 3000
h-z
= psi
1.44
in
SO =
DI+2*h
= 36.00+2*2.02
= 40.04 in
D
S
=
3000
psi
Determine the earth Z
pressure
coefficient:
30 deg.
==0.58
in
== h-z
30 deg.
C
= 1.44 in
226 Chapter 6
S
=
3000
psi
of PEpressure
Piping Systems coefficient:
Determine theDesign
earth
1+
sin
(30)
1+ 0.5
Determine theKearth
pressure
coefficient:
= 30 deg.
=
=
= 3.0
1-sin(30)
1- 0.5
1+
sin(30) coefficient:
1+ 0.5
Determine theKearth
pressure
= 1+
sin(30) = 1+ 0.5 = 3.0
K = 1-sin(30) = 1- 0.5 = 3.0
The live load pressure
incipient
failure
Determine1thesin
earth
pressureto
coefficient:
(30)
10.5 equals:
1+sin(30)
1+ 0.5
K =
=
= 3.0
incipient
to
equals:
1-sin(30)
1-failure
0.5
2
incipient
failure
equals:
(12)120(3.
0 *to3.0
120(40.04)3.0
* 0.171
) 7387
+
(3000 )
PWAT =
2
40.04 (1.44)
288 * 0.470
The live load pressure40.04
incipient to failure equals:
2
incipient0 *to3.0
failure
equals:
(12)120(3.
120(40.04)3.0
* 0.171
) 7387
PWAT = (12)120(3.0 * 3.0 )2 +7387 *2 0.171 (3000 - 120(40.04)3.0 )
40.04
+ 40.04 2 (1.44)(3000 - 288 * 0.470 )
PWAT =
1584 = 4498 psf
PWAT = 2904 +40.04
40.04 (1.44)
288 * 0.470
2
(12)120(3.0 * 3.0 ) 7387 * 0.171
120(40.04)3.0
+
(3000 )
PWAT =
2
=
2904
+
1584
=
4498
psf
PWAT
40.04
40.04 (1.44)
288 * 0.470
The resulting safety
2904 +equals:
1584 = 4498 psf
PWAT = factor
The resulting safety factor equals:

factor+ equals:
= 2904
1584 = 4498 psf
PWAT P
4498
factor
N = WAT
= equals:
= 2.65
1697
pL
4498
PWAT
factor
equals:
N
=
=
= 2.65
4498
P
WAT
Installation Category
#3: Deep Fill Installation
N = p L = 1697 = 2.65
The performance
limits for pipes in a deep fill are the same as for any buried pipe.
1697
pL
They P
include: 4498
Installation Category
# 3: Deep
Fill Installation
N = WAT =
= 2.65
1. Compressive
ring thrust stress
1697
pL
The
performance
limits
a deep
fill are the same as for any buried pipe. They
Installation
Category
#for
3:pipes
DeepinFill
Installation
2. Ring
deflection
Installation
Category
#
3:
Deep
Fill
Installation
include:
3. Constrained pipe wall buckling
The performance limits for pipes in a deep fill are the same as for any buried pipe. They
(1)
ringinFill
thrust
stress,
The compressive
suggested
calculation
method
forfill
pipe
deepsame
fill applications
involves
the pipe. They
The
performance
limits#for
pipes
a deep
areinthe
as for any
buried
Installation
Category
3:
Deep
Installation
include:
(2)
ring deflection,
and for each performance limit that are different than
introduction
of design routines
include:
(3)
constrained
pipe
wall buckling
those
previously given.
(1)
compressive
ring
stress,
The performance
limits for pipes
in thrust
a deep
fill are the same as for any buried pipe. They
(1)
compressive
ring
thrust
stress,
(2)
ring
deflection,
and
Compressive
ring
thrust
is
calculated
using soil arching. The arching calculation
include:
(2)
ring
deflection,
and
(3)
constrained
pipe
wall
buckling
may calculation
also be used formethod
profile pipe
designs
standard
applications. Profile
The suggested
for
pipeinin
deeptrench
fill applications
involves the
(3)
constrained
pipe
wall
buckling
(1)
compressive
ring
thrust
stress,
pipes
are
relatively
low
stiffness
pipes
where
significant
arching
maydifferent
occur at than those
introduction of design routines for each performance limit that are
relatively
shallow depths
of cover.
(2)
ring deflection,
and
previously
given.
The suggested
calculation pipe
method
for pipe in deep fill applications involves the
(3)
constrained
wall
buckling
a calculation
depth of
around
50for
feeteach
or for
so itperformance
becomes
to
use
Spanglers
equation
The
suggested
method
pipe inimpractical
deep
applications
involves
the
introduction
ofAtdesign
routines
limitfill
that
are
different
than those
published
in this chapter
because
it neglects the significant
duethan
to those
introduction
ofasdesign
routines
for each
performance
limit thatload
arereduction
different
previously given.
arching and the inherent stiffening of the embedment and consequential increase in
previously
given.
The suggested calculation method for pipe in deep fill applications involves the
E due to the increased lateral earth pressure applied to the embedment. This section
introduction of design routines for each performance limit that are different than those
gives an alternate deflection equation for use with PE pipes. It was first introduced
previously given.
(1)
by Watkins et al. for metal pipes, but later Gaube extended its use to include PE
pipes.(15)
154-264.indd 226
1/16/09 9:57:13 AM
Chapter 6 227
Where deep fill applications are in dry soil, Luschers equation (Eq. 3-15 or 3-16)
may often be too conservative for design as it considers a radial driving force from
ground water or vacuum. Moore and Selig(17) developed a constrained pipe wall
buckling equation suitable for pipes in dry soils, which is given in a following
section.
Considerable care should be taken in the design of deeply buried pipes whose failure
may cause slope failure in earthen structures, or refuse piles or whose failure may
have severe environmental or economical impact. These cases normally justify the
use of methods beyond those given in this Chapter, including finite element analysis
and field testing, along with considerable professional design review.
Compressive Ring Thrust and the Vertical Arching Factor
The combined horizontal and vertical earth load acting on a buried pipe creates a
radially-directed compressive load acting around the pipes circumference. When a
PE pipe is subjected to ring compression, thrust stress develops around the pipe
hoop, and the pipes circumference will ever so slightly shorten. The shortening
permits thrust arching, that is, the pipe hoop thrust stiffness is less than the soil
hoop thrust stiffness and, as the pipe deforms, less load follows the pipe. This occurs
much like the vertical arching described by Marston.(18) Viscoelasticity enhances this
effect. McGrath(19) has shown thrust arching to be the predominant form of arching
78
with PE pipes.
Burns and Richard(6) have published equations that give the resulting stress
occurring in a pipe due to arching. As discussed above, the arching is usually
78
considered when calculating the ring compressive stress in profile pipes. For deeply
1
S
A
buried pipes
the Burns and Richards equations
to derive
Eq. 2-21
= 0.88 (19)
0has
.71simplified
VAFMcGrath
S Aby
+ Equation
2.5
a vertical arching factor as given
3-21.
S A 1
S A 2.5
VAF
= Vertical Arching Factor
Where
VAF = Vertical Arching Factor
Hoop Thrust Stiffness Ratio
Where: SSA = =
(3-21)
Where:
VAF
Eq. 2-21
0.88 0.71
VAF = Vertical Arching Factor

1.43 MStiffness
S rCENT
SA (3-22)
= Hoop=Thrust
Ratio
SA
EA
Where
1.43to M
S rCENT
rCENT = radius
centroidal
axis of pipe, in
S A=
Eq. 2-22
Eq. 2-22
M = one-dimensional
EAmodulus of soil, psi
Where: E =s apparent modulus of elasticity of pipe material, psi (See Appendix, Chapter 3)
A= profile
wall average
in2 /in,
wall thickness
rCENT
= radius
tocross-sectional
centroidalarea,
axis
oforpipe,
in (in) for DR pipe
Where: Ms= one-dimensional modulus of soil, psi

E = apparent modulus of elasticity of pipe material, psi
rCENT = radius to centroidal axis of pipe, in
A= profile wall average cross-sectional area, in2/in, or wall
Ms= one-dimensional modulus of soil, psi
thickness (in) for DR pipe
E
apparent modulus of elasticity of pipe material, psi
154-264.indd =227
1/16/09
9:57:14 AM
228 Chapter 6
79
One-dimensional modulus values for soil can be obtained from soil testing,
geotechnical texts, or Table 3-12 which gives typical values. The typical values in
Table 3-12 were obtained by converting values from McGrath(20).
80
100
6000
2900
1300
Table 3-12
Typical Values of Ms, One-Dimensional Modulus of Soil
6500
3200
1450
Gravelly Sand/Gravels
Gravelly
Sand/Gravels
Gravelly Sand/Gravels
and extended fromVertical
values
given1 (psi)
by McGrath
[20]. For depths
not
shown in McGrath
[20], the
Soil Stress
95% Std. Proctor (psi)
90% Std. Proctor (psi)
Std. Proctor (psi)
s were approximated using the hyperbolic
soil model with appropriate
values for 85%
K and
n where
10
3000
1600
550
d K=200, K=100, and K=45 for 95% Proctor, 90% Proctor, and 85% Proctor, respectively.
20
3500
1800
650
Soil Stress (psi) = [ soil depth (ft) x soil density (pcf)]/144
40
4200
2100
800
60
5000
2500
1000
80
6000
2900
1300
100
6500
3200
1450
* Adapted and extended from values given by McGrath (20). For depths not shown in McGrath(20), the MS values
were approximated using the hyperbolic soil model with appropriate values for K and n where n=0.4 and
K=200, K=100, and K=45 for 95% Proctor, 90% Proctor, and 85% Proctor, respectively.
Soil Stress (psi) = [ soil depth (ft) x soil density (pcf)]/144

dial directed earthVertical
pressure
can be found by multiplying the prism load (pressure)
vertical arching factor as shown in Eq. 2-23.
Where:
The radial directed earth pressure can be found by multiplying the prism load
(pressure) by the vertical arching factor as shown in Eq. 3-23.
(3-23)
P RD = (VAF)wH
Eq. 2-23
Where
PRD = radial directed earth pressure, lb/ft 2
PRD = radial
directed earth pressure, lb/ft2
The ring compressive stress in the pipe wall can be found by substituting PRD from
Equation 3-23 for PE in Equation 3-13 for DR pipe and Equation 3-14 for profile
wall pipe.
g compressiveEarth
stress
in the pipe wall can be found by substituting PRD from
Pressure Example
n 2-23 for PE in Equation 2-13 for DR pipe and Equation 2-14 for profile wall
Determine the earth pressure acting on a 36 profile wall pipe buried 30 feet deep.
The following properties are for one unique 36 profile pipe made from PE3608
material. Other 36 profile pipe may have different properties. The pipes crossEarth Pressure sectional
Example
area, A, equals 0.470 inches2/inch, its radius to the centroidal axis is 18.00
inches plus 0.58 inches, and its apparent modulus is 27,000 psi. Its wall height is 2.02
ine the radial earth
acting
on(2.02
a 36"
RSC
profilethe
wall
buriedin30
in andpressure
its DO equals
36 in +2
in) or
40.04100
in. Assume
pipepipe
is installed
a
2
granular soil compacted
90% Standard
Proctor
(Ms /inch,
= 1875 psi),
the insitutosoil
its radius
ep. The pipe'sclean
cross-sectional
area, A,toequals
0.470
inches
is as stiff
as the embedment,
the backfill
weighs
120 pcf. is
(Where
the excavation
troidal axis is 18.00
inches
plus 0.58 and
inches,
and its
modulus
28,250
psi. Its
ght is 2.02 in and its DO equals 36 in +2 (2.02 in) or 40.04 in. Assume the pipe is
d in a clean granular soil compacted to 90% Standard Proctor (Ms = 1875 psi),
tu soil is as stiff as the embedment, and the backfill weighs 120 pcf. (Where the
tion is in a stable trench, the stiffness of the insitu soil can generally be ignored
alculation.)
154-264.indd 228
1/16/09 9:57:14 AM
Chapter 6 229
is in a stable trench, the stiffness of the insitu soil can generally be ignored in this
calculation.) The following series of equations calculates the hoop compressive
stress, S, in the pipe wall due to the earth pressure applied by the soil above the pipe.
The earth pressure is reduced from the prism load by the vertical arching factor.
(From Equation 3-22)
1.43( 1875
lbs
2
)(18.58 inch)
inch
= 3.93
3.75
S A = 1.43( 1875 lbs )(18.58 inch)
2
lbs 2
inch
(28250 inch
)(0.470
)
2
= 3.75
SA =
lbs
inch
2
inch
lbs 22 )(18.58
1.43( 1875
inch)
inch
(28250 inch
)(0.470
)
2
S AA =
= 3.75

3
.
75
1
inch
2
inch
2
(From Equation
VAF
= 0.883-21)
- 0.71
=inch
0.57
lbs
(28250 33.75
)(0.470
+ 2.5 inch )
22.75 1
inch
VAF = 0.88 - 0.71
= 0.
57
0.56
lb
33.75
+2.5
.
75
1
57
(
2052 2
=
0.
120
pcf)(30
ft)
=
P RD = 0.88 - 0.71
VAF
= 0.57
ft
lb
3.75 + 2.5
(From
3-23)
(120 pcf)(30
= 0.57
ft) = 2052 2
P RD Equation
ft
lb
2016
P RD
RD = 0.57(120 pcf)(30 ft) =
2052
PRD DO
2052 psf (40.04 in
) ft 22
S
607 psi d 1000 psi
A
288
(0psf
.470
in.204/ in
))
P288
D
2052
(
40
in
RD O
S = Equation
= 607 psi 1000 psi
(From
3-14)=
288 A
288 (0.470 in 2 / in)
PRD
2052 psf (40.04 in)
RD DO
O
596
S
607 psi d 1000 psi
288 A
288 (0.470 in 22 / in)
Ring Deflection
of Pipes Using Watkins-Gaube Graph
(Allowable compressive stress per Table C.1, Appendix to Chapter 3)
80
80
80
80
Ring Deflection of Pipes Using Watkins-Gaube Graph

R. Watkins
[1]Deflection
developed
an extremely
straight-forward
approach to calculating pipe
Ring
of Pipes
Using Watkins-Gaube
Graph
Ring Deflection
of
Pipes
Using
Watkins-Gaube
Graph
deflection
in
a
fill
that
does
not
rely
on
E.
It
is
based
on
the
concept
that the deflection
(1)
developed
an extremely
extremely straight-forward
approach
to
calculating
R. Watkins
R.
Watkins
[1]
developed
an
straight-forward
approach
to
calculating
pipe
of a pipe embedded
ininaa layer
ofdoes
soilnotisrely
proportional
to the
compression
or settlement
of
pipe
deflection
fill
that
on
E.
It
is
based
on
the
concept
that
the
deflection
in aand
fill that
does
not relyof
onproportionality
E. It is basedis on
the concept
that
the deflection
the
soil
layer
that
the
constant
a
function
of
the
relative
stiffness
deflection
of ain
pipe
embedded
in a is
layer
of soil is proportional
to the compression
or
R.
[1] developed
an of
extremely
straight-forward
approach
to calculating
pipe
of aWatkins
pipe embedded
asoil.
layer
soil
proportional
to the
compression
or settlement
of
between
the
pipe
and
Watkins
used
laboratory
testing
establish
graph
settlement
of
the
soil layer
and
that
the
constant
of proportionality
isto
a function
oftheand
deflection
in
a
fill
that
does
not
rely
on
E.
It
is
based
on
the
concept
that
deflection
the soil layer and
that the constant
of proportionality
is aDfunction
of the
relativeranges
stiffness
proportionality
constants,
called
Deformation
,laboratory
for the
stiffness
of
Fcompression
the relative
stiffness
between
the
pipe
and soil.Factors,
Watkins
testing
of
a pipe embedded
in asoil.
layer
of soil
is used
proportional
to used
the
ortosettlement
of
between
the
pipe
and
Watkins
laboratory
testing
to
establish
and
graph
metal
pipes.
Gaube
[15,
16]
extended
Watkins'
work
by
testing
to
include
PE
pipes.
In
establish
and
graph
proportionality
constants, called Deformation
Factors,
DFrelative
, for
the
soil
layer
and
that
the
constant
of
proportionality
is
a
function
of
the
stiffness
proportionality
constants,
called
Deformation
Factors,
D
,
for
the
stiffness
ranges
of
F
(15, 16)
order
to predict
deflection,
designer
first
determines
the amount
of compression
in
the stiffness
ranges
of the
metal
pipes. Gaube
extended Watkins
work
by
testing
between
the
pipe
and
soil.
Watkins
used
laboratory
testing
to
establish
and
graph
metal
pipes.
Gaube
[15,the
16]pipe
extended
Watkins'
work
by testing geotechnical
to include PEequations.
pipes. In
the
layer
of
soil
in
which
is
installed
using
conventional
to include PE pipes. Incalled
order toDeformation
predict deflection,
the designer
determines
proportionality
Factors,
Dthe
for
the stiffness
ranges of
F, first
F
order to
predictconstants,
deflection,
the
designer
first multiplied
determines
amount
of compression
in
Then,
deflection
equals
the
soil
compression
by
the
D
factor.
This
bypasses
F
the
amount
of
compression
in
the
layer
of
soil
in
which
the
pipe
is
installed
using
metal
pipes.
Gaube
[15,
16]
extended
Watkins'
work
by
testing
to
include
PE
pipes.
In
the layer
of soil
in which
the pipe
is installed
using
conventional
geotechnical
equations.
some
of
the
inherent
problems
associated
with
using
E' values.
The
designer
using the
conventional
geotechnical
equations.
Then,
deflection
equals
the soil
compression
order
to
predict
deflection,
the
designer
first
determines
the
amount
of compression
in
Then,
deflection
equals
the
soil
compression
multiplied
by
the
D
factor.
This
bypasses
F
Watkins-Gaube
Graph
select
conservative
soil
modulus
values
to accommodate
multiplied
by theshould
Dthe
This
bypasses
some
of the
inherent
problems
associated
F factor.
the
layer
of
soil
in
which
pipe
is
installed
using
conventional
geotechnical
equations.
some of the
inherent
problemsTwo
associated
with using
E' values.
The
designer
using the
variance
due
to installation.
otherE,factors
to consider
using
this
method
is
with using
the soil reaction
modulus,
values. The
designer using
WatkinsF factor.
Then,
deflection
equals
the soilselect
compression
multiplied
by thewhen
Dthe
This
bypasses
F
Watkins-Gaube
Graph
should
conservative
soil
modulus
values
to
accommodate
that
it of
assumes
a constant
Deformation
Factor
independent
ofThe
depth
of cover
andthe
it
Gaube
Graph
(Figure
3-6)
should
select conservative
soil
values
todesigner
some
the
inherent
problems
associated
with using
E'modulus
values.
using
variance
due
to installation.
Two
other factors
to consider
when
using
this method
is
does
not
address
the
effect
of
the
presence
of
ground
water
on
the
Deformation
Factor.
accommodate
variance
due
to installation.
Two
other factors
to consider
when using
Watkins-Gaube
shouldDeformation
select conservative
soil modulusofvalues
that it assumes Graph
a constant
Factor independent
depthtoofaccommodate
cover and it
variance
due
to
installation.
Two
other
factors
to
consider
when
this method
does not address the effect of the presence of ground water on the using
Deformation
Factor.is
To
the Watkins-Gaube
the designer
first determines
the relative
stiffness
thatuse
it assumes
a constant Graph,
Deformation
Factor independent
of depth
of cover
and it
does not pipe
address
of is
thegiven
presence
ground Factor,
water on
Deformation
. Equation
2-24Factor.
and 2between
andthe
soil,effect
which
by theofRigidity
RFthe
To are
usefor
the
Graph,
designer first determines the relative stiffness
25
DRWatkins-Gaube
pipe and for profile
pipethe
respectively:
andAM2between
pipe and soil, which is given by the Rigidity Factor, RF. Equation 2-24
154-264.indd 229
1/16/09 9:57:15
to predict deflection, the designer first determines the amount of compression in

yer of soil in which the pipe is installed using conventional geotechnical equations.
deflection equals the soil compression multiplied by the DF factor. This bypasses
230 Chapter 6
of the inherent Design
problems
with using E' values. The designer using the
of PE Pipingassociated
Systems
ns-Gaube Graph should select conservative soil modulus values to accommodate
ce due to installation. Two other factors to consider when using this method is
assumes a constant Deformation Factor independent of depth of cover and it
not address the effect of the presence of ground water on the Deformation Factor.
this method is that it assumes a constant Deformation Factor independent of depth

of cover and it does not address the effect of the presence of ground water on the
Watkins-Gaube
Graph, the designer first determines the relative stiffness
Deformation Factor.
81
e the
en pipe and soil, which is given by the Rigidity Factor, RF. Equation 2-24 and 2To use
Watkins-Gaube
Graph, the designer first determines the relative stiffness
e for DR pipe and
for the
profile
pipe respectively:
between pipe and soil, which

3 is given by the Rigidity Factor, R F. Equation 3-24 and
E
D
S
m
3-25 are for DRRpipe
Eq. 2-25
= and for profile pipe respectively:
F
(3-24)
Where:
EI
12 E S ( DR 1) 3
RF =
E
81
Eq. 2-24
E S D m Ratio
DR =RDimension
Eq. 2-25
F=
ES = SecantEImodulus of the soil, psi
E = Apparent modulus of elasticity of pipe material, psi
IWhere
= Pipe Ratio
wall moment of inertia of pipe, in4/in
DR
=
Dimension
Where:
D
Mean
diameter
(DI + 2z or DO t), in
ESm= =
Secant
modulus
of the soil, psi
DR = Dimension
Ratioof elasticity of pipe material, psi
E = Apparent modulus
ES = Secant
modulus
of the
soil,
I = Pipe wall moment of inertia
of pipe,
in4psi
/in
ecant modulus
of
the
soil
may
be
obtained
or psi
from a geotechnical
E = Apparent
modulus
offrom
pipe testing
material,
Dm = Mean diameter
(DI + 2zof
or elasticity
DO t), in
4
eers evaluation.
In
lieu
of
a
precise
determination,
the
soil
modulus may be
I
= Pipe wall moment of inertia of pipe, in /in
from
Table 2-14 by the following equation
d to theDone-dimensional
modulus, MS, D
m = Mean diameter (DI + 2z or
O t), in
The secantratio.
modulus of the soil may be obtained from testing or from a geotechnical
e is the soil's Poisson
(3-25)
engineers evaluation. In lieu of a precise determination, the soil modulus may

related
to the
modulus,
, from
Table
by the following
thebesoil
may
beone-dimensional
obtained from
testingMSor
from
a 3-12
geotechnical
equation
where
is
the
soils
Poisson
ratio.
In lieu of a precise determination, the soil modulus may be
modulus of
valuation.
(3-26) modulus, M
e one-dimensional
S, from
P )(1-Table
(1+
2 P ) 2-14 by the following equation
=
Eq. 2-26
E
M
S
S
e soil's Poisson ratio.
(1- P )
Table 3-13
Typical range of Poissons Ratio for Soil (Bowles(21))
Soil Type (1+ P )(1- 2 P )
Table 2-15:
Typical
Ratio Ratio,
for Soil (Bowles
[21])
= M S range of Poissons Poissons
Eq.
2-26
E S Saturated
Clay
0.4-0.5
(1- P )
Unsaturated
Soil
Type Clay
Sandy Clay
Silt
Saturated
Clay
Sand (Dense)
0.1-0.3
Poisson
0.2-0.3
0.3-0.35
0.2-0.4
Ratio,
0.4-0.5
Coarse
Sand
(Void
Ratio 0.4-0.7)
0.15 Soil
Unsaturated
Clay
0.1-0.3
le 2-15: Typical
range
of Poissons
Ratio for
(Bowles [21])
Fine-grained Sand (Void Ratio 0.4-0.7)
Sandy Clay
Soil Type
Silt
Saturated Clay
Sand (Dense)
Unsaturated Clay
Coarse Sand (Void Ratio 0.4Sandy Clay0.7)
Silt
Fine-grained
Sand (Void Ratio
0.4-0.7)
Sand
(Dense)
154-264.indd
230
0.25
0.2-0.3
Poisson Ratio,
0.3-0.35
0.4-0.5
0.2-0.4
0.1-0.3
0.15
0.2-0.3
0.3-0.35
0.2-0.4
0.25
1/16/09 9:57:16 AM
Chapter 6 231
82
soil layer surrounding the pipe bears the entire load of the overburden above it
out arching. Therefore, settlement (compression) of the soil layer is proportional to
prism load and Next,
not the
thedesigner
radial determines
directed earth
pressure.Factor,
SoilDF strain,
S, may
be
the Deformation
, by entering
the Watkinsmined from geotechnical
analysis
or
from
the
following
equation:
Gaube Graph with the Rigidity Factor. See Fig. 3-6. The Deformation Factor is the
proportionality constant between vertical deflection (compression) of the soil layer
wH
can be
Eq. 2-27
S = containing the pipe and the deflection of the pipe. Thus, pipe deflection
144obtained
ES
by multiplying the proportionality constant DF times the soil settlement.
82
Where:If DF is less than 1.0 in Fig. 3-6, use 1.0.
The soil The

layer surrounding
thethepipe
bearsthethe
entire load of the overburden above it
surrounding
entire load of the overburden above it
w = soil
unitlayer
weight
of soil,settlement
pcf pipe bears
without arching.
Therefore,
(compression)
of thelayer
soilislayer
is proportional to
without
arching.
Therefore,
settlement
(compression)
of the soil
proportional
H
=
depth
of
cover
(height
of
fill
above
pipe
crown),
ft
the prismto the
load
andload
not
radial
directedearth
earth
pressure.
Soil
strain,
S, may
be S, may be
prism
andthe
notof
the
radial
pressure.
Soil strain,
Es =from
secant
modulus
the
soil,directed
psi
determined
geotechnical
analysis
or
from
the
following
equation:
determined from geotechnical analysis or from the following equation:
82
(3-27)
determined from geotechnical analysis or from the following equation:
Where:
wH
Where
HS =
S
w = unit weight144
ofEsoil,
pcf
Eq. 2-27

Where:
H = depth of
cover (height of fill above pipe crown), ft
= weight
depth
ofpcfcover (height of fill above pipe crown), ft
wH
= unit
of soil,
Es = secant modulus
of theofsoil,
psi(height of fill above pipe crown), ft
H = depth
cover
E
=
secant
modulus of the soil, psi
E =ssecant modulus of the soil, psi
s
The designer can
find the pipe deflection as a percent of the diameter by multiplying
the
soil
strain,
in
percent,
byasthe
deformation
factor:
The designer can find the pipe deflection
a percent
of the diameter
by multiplying the
DeformationFactor,
Factor, DDFF
Deformation
soil strain, in percent, by the deformation factor:

The designer
can find the pipe deflection as a percent of the diameter by multiplying the
soil strain, in percent, by the deformation factor:
Deformation Factor, DF
Deformation Factor, DF
wH the pipe as
The the
soil layer
surrounding
bears
entire loadof
of the
aboveby
it multiplying the
designer can find
deflection
a the
percent
theoverburden
diameter
Eq. 2-27
Hpipe
S = Therefore, settlement (compression) of the soil layer is proportional to
without arching.
train, in percent,
by
the
deformation
factor:
144
E
the prism load and not the
S radial directed earth pressure. Soil strain, , may be
10
50
10
10050
500
500 10001000
100
5000 10,000
5000 10,000
R(RigidityRigidity
Factor) Factor, RF
Rigidity Factor, R
R(Rigidity
Factor)
Figure 2-6: Watkins-Gaube Graph
Rigidity
Factor, RF
Figure 3-6 Watkins-Gaube
Graph
'X
(100)
= D H
Figure 2-6:
Watkins-Gaube
Graph
D
F
(3-28)
Eq. 2-28
(100) = D
Eq. 2-28
Where: X/DM multiplied

F S by 100 gives percent deflection.
DM
Where
multiplied
by 100 givesby
percent
Where:X/D
MX/D
100deflection.
gives percent deflection.
M multiplied
10
50
100
500
1000
5000 10,000
R(Rigidity Factor)
Rigidity Factor, RF
Figure 2-6: Watkins-Gaube Graph
154-264.indd 231
'X
1/16/09 9:57:16 AM
the
of 12%
a 6" or
SDR
pipecompacted
under 140 atft 90%
of fillofwith
granular
embedment
ns deflection
Gaube
Calculation
Technique
containing
less11fines,
standard
proctor.
The fill weighs 75
ining
12%
or
less
fines,
compacted
at
90%
of
standard
proctor.
The
fill
weighs
75
pcf.
UTION: First, calculate the vertical soil pressure equation, Eq. 2-1.
232 Chapter 6
the
of
a 6" SDR
11 pipe under 140 ft of fill with granular embedment
ns deflection
Gaube Calculation
Technique
Design of PE Piping
Systems
Eq.fines,
2-1:
= wH the
E
ining 12%
or less
at vertical
90% of soil
standard
proctor.
The fill
SOLUTION:
First,Pcompacted
calculate
pressure
equation,
Eq.weighs
2-1. 75
3
UTION: First, calculate
the
vertical
soil
pressure
equation,
Eq.
2-1.
(75lb/ft
ft) under 140 ft of fill with granular embedment
PEa= 6"
the deflection of
SDR )(140
11 pipe
Eq. 2-1:
PE = wH
2
ining 12% or less
fines,
at 90%
PE =
10,500
psi of standard proctor. The fill weighs 75
Eq.
2-1:
Pcompacted
wH or 72.9
E =lb/ft
UTION: First, calculate thePvertical
soil 3pressure
)(140 ft) equation, Eq. 2-1.
E = (75lb/ft
3 Application of the Watkins-Gaube Calculation Technique
Example
of the
)(140 ft)
P
E = (75lb/ft
2
P
E = 10,500 lb/ft or 72.9 psi
=
wH
Eq.
2-1:
P
2
E
Find
the
deflection
6 SDRTable
11 pipe 2-14
from
ft
MS is obtained
by
interpolation
from
andPE4710
equals
2700.under
The140secant
P
lb/ftof aor
72.9pressure
psi made
UTION:
First, calculate
the
vertical
soil
equation,
Eq.materials
2-1.
E = 10,500
3
of
fill
with
granular
embedment
containing
12%
or
less
fines,
compacted
at
90%
of
lus can be found
Poisson
= (75lb/ft a
)(140
ft) Ratio of 0.30
PEassuming
standard
proctor.
The
fill
weighs
75
pcf.
The MS Eq.
is obtained
from
=by
wH
2-1:
PE psi
2700
(1 2interpolation
0or.30
)(1 psi
2(0.30
)) Table 2-14 and equals 2700. The secant
lb/ft
72.9
E = 10,500
MS is modulus
obtainedP
by
interpolation
from
Table
2-14
and of
equals
E S be found
2005
psi
can
Poisson
0.30 2700.
3 assuming
SOLUTION:
First,
calculate theavertical
soil Ratio
pressure
equation,
Eq. 3-1. The secant
ft)
P
E = (75lb/ft )(140
(
1
0
.
30
)

lus can be found assuming a Poisson Ratio of 0.30
Eq. 3-1: PE = wH
2 2700 psi (1 0.30)(1 2(0.30))
10,500
lb/ft
or 72.9Table
psi 2-14 and equals2005
Eft)
psi The secant
E = interpolation
3)(140
S(1 0from
MS is obtainedP
2700.
2700
psi
.30)(1 2((10
.30
PEby
= (75lb/ft
0.))30) 2005 psi
E
lus can be found
Poisson
PES=assuming
10,500 lb/ft 2 or a
72.9
(1psi 0.30)Ratio of 0.30
Mgidity
obtained
by interpolation
Table
2-14
2(0.30
2700
psi (Equation
1 0from
.30)(12-24.
)) and equals 2700. The secant
S is factor
is obtained
from
The
MS is obtained by interpolation from Table 3-12 and equals
2700.
E Sassuming
2005
psiThe secant modulus can be found
lus can be found
a
Poisson
Ratio
of
0.30
assuming a Poissons Ratio
(1 of 0.30.
03.30)
12 (2005) (11 1)
The rigidity
is psi
obtained
= 2700
=
R F factor
(1 + 0.30from
)(1852Equation
2(0.30)) 2-24.
28250
ES =
gidity factor is obtained
from
Equation 2-24. 3 = 2005 psi
(112
.30)5) (11 1)
(0200
= 1) 3
= 852
12 (2005R)F(11
28250
=
=
8
52
RF
gidity factor is obtained
from
Equation
2-24.
The rigidity factor
is obtained
from Equation
3-24.
28250
Figure 2-6, the deformation
factor is found to be 1.2. The soil strain is calculated
3
12 (2005) (11 1)
uation 2-27.
= 830
82-24.
52
RF =
gidity Using
factor is
obtained
Equation
Figure 2-6, from
the
deformation
factor is found to be 1.2. The soil strain is calculated
29,000
28250
75pcf * 140ft
3is found to be 1.2. The soil strain is calculated
Figure
the deformation
factor
by2-6,
Equation
2-27.
12 (2005) (11 1)x 100 = 3.6%
HRS ==Figure
52deformation factor is found to be 1.2. The soil strain is calculated by
3-6, the average
uation 2-27. Using
lbs value=of8the
F
28250
144
* 200
5 75pcf
Equation
3-27.
2
* 140ftto be 1.2. The soil strain is calculated
inch is found
factor
=
x 100 = 3.6%
75pcf *H S140ft
lbs
uation 2-27. H S =
x 100
=
3.6%
144
*
200
5
2
lbs
inch
144 * 2005factor
2 is found to be 1.2. The soil strain is calculated
75pcf * 140ft
inch
uation 2-27. H S =
x 100 = 3.6%
lbsthe soil strain by the deformation factor:
eflection is found by144
multiplying
5 by multiplying
The deflection*is200
found
the soil strain by the deformation factor:
2
75pcf * 140ft
inch
=
100
= 3.6%
'SX is found by multiplying
The deflection
lbs3.6 = 4.4% the soil strain by the deformation factor:
(100)
=
1.2*
* 2005 the
eflection is found
multiplying
2 soil strain by the deformation factor:
D Mby144
'Xinch
(100) = 1.2* 3.6 = 4.4%
'X
Moore-Selig
for Constrained Buckling in Dry Ground
D
M 3.6
eflection is found
by
multiplying
the
soil
strain by the deformation factor:
(100)
=Equation
1.2*
=
4.4%
As
discussed
previously,
a compressive thrust stress exists in buried pipe. When this
DM
thrust
'X stress approaches a critical value, the pipe can experience a local instability
eflection is found
by
multiplying
the collapse.
soil4.4%
strain
the section
deformation
factor:Luschers
(100)
= 1.2* 3.6
=
or large
deformation
and
In anby
earlier
of this chapter,
D
M
equation was given for constrained buckling under ground water. Moore and Selig(17)
X used an alternate approach called the continuum theory to develop design
have
(100) = 1.2* 3.6 = 4.4%
equations
for contrained buckling due to soil pressure (buckling of embedded pipes).
DM
The particular version of their equations given below is more appropriate for dry
applications than Luschers equation. Where ground water is present, Luschers
equation should be used.
154-264.indd 232
1/16/09 9:57:18 AM
quation.
Where ground water is present, Luschers equation should be

Chapter 6 233
Selig Equation for critical buckling pressure follows: (Critical buckling

the pressure at which buckling will occur. A safety factor should be
The Moore-Selig Equation for critical buckling pressure follows: (Critical buckling
pressure is the pressure at which buckling will occur. A safety factor should be
provided.)
(3-29)
Where:
PCR =
1
2
2.4 M R H
(EI )3 ( E*S )3
DM
Eq. 2-29
Where
PCR = Critical constrained buckling pressure, psi
= Calibration Factor, 0.55 for granular soils
PCR = Critical
constrained
buckling pressure, psi
R H = Geometry
Factor
= Calibration
Factor,
0.55
granular
E = Apparent modulus of elasticityfor
of pipe
material, psisoils
4
3
RH = Geometry
Factor
I = Pipe wall moment
of Inertia, in /in (t /12, if solid wall construction)
ES* = ES /(1-modulus
)
E = Apparent
of elasticity of pipe material, psi
4
3
E
=
Secant
modulus
of
the
soil, psi of Inertia, in /in (t /12, if solid wall
I
= SPipe wall moment
s = Poissons Ratio of Soil (Consult a textbook on soil for values. Bowles (1982) gives typical values
construction)

for sand and rock ranging from 0.1 to 0.4.)
ES* = EThe
S/(1-)
geometry factor is dependent on the depth of burial and the relative stiffness
modulus of the soil, psi
ES = Secant
between the embedment soil and the insitu soil. Moore has shown that for deep
s = Poisson's
Ratio of
Soil
burials in uniform
fills,
RH equals 1.0.
85
85
85
SOLUTION: Critical Buckling Example

ry factor is dependent on the depth of burial and the relative stiffness
Determine the critical buckling pressure and safety factor against buckling for the
2000
lbs
embedment soil
insitu soil. Moore
has shown that for deep burials
*and the
SOLUTION: 6
= 11 pipe (5.987
= 2860
mean diameter)
in the previous example.
E
SSDR
2
s,SOLUTION:
RH equals 1.0.
(1- 0.3)
inch
SOLUTION:
2000
lbs
E **S = 2000 = 2860 lbs 2
0.3) = 2860 inch
= (11
2
2
2.4*
lbs
ling Example E S
(10.3)0.55* 1.0 (28250*
inch
0.018 )3 (2860 )3 = 354
PCR =
2
5.987
inch
1
2
2.4* 0.55*
he critical buckling pressure
and1.0
safety factor against
buckling
forlbsthe 6"
(29000 0.018 )31 (2860 )32 = 358
354 lbs2 2
P
CR = 2.4* 0.55* 1.0 (28250*
in the previous example.
in
5.987
(28250* 0.018 )3 (2860 )3 = 354 inch
CR =against buckling:
Determine thePS.F.
2
5.987
inch
Determine the Safety Factor against buckling:
Determine the S.F. against buckling:

358 144
354*
PCR buckling:
Determine theS.F.
S.F. =against
=
= 4.9
140*75
PE
354* 144
PCR
S.F.
=
=
= 4.9
354* 144
Installation
#4: Shallow Cover Flotation Effects
P E Category
S.F. = PCR
= 140*75 = 4.9
140*75
Shallow cover
some special considerations for flexible pipes. As already
P E presents
discussed, full soil structure interaction (membrane effect) may not occur, and live
loads are carried in part by the bending stiffness of the pipe. Even if the pipe has
sufficient strength to carry live load, the cover depth may not be sufficient to prevent
Installation Category # 4: Shallow Cover Flotation Effects
Shallow cover
presents
special
considerations
for flexible pipes. As already
Installation
Category
# 4:some
Shallow
Cover
Flotation Effects
Installation
Category
# 4: Shallow
Cover
Flotation
Effects
discussed, full
soil structure
interaction
(membrane
effect)
may not occur, and live loads
154-264.indd 233
1/27/09 11:20:22 AM
234
Chapter 6
the pipe from floating upward or buckling if the ground becomes saturated with
ground water. This section addresses:
Minimum soil cover requirements to prevent flotation
Hydrostatic buckling (unconstrained)
Design Considerations for Ground Water Flotation
High ground water can float buried pipe, causing upward movement off-grade as
well as catastrophic upheaval. This is not an issue for plastic pipes alone. Flotation of
86
metal or concrete pipes may occur at shallow cover when the pipes are empty.
Flotation occurs when the ground water surrounding the pipe produces a buoyant
upport around the
and
theof pipe
to buckle
from
the external
forcepipe
greater
thanallow
the sum
the downward
forces
provided
by the soilhydrostatic
weight,
soil friction, the weight of the pipe, and the weight of its contents. In addition to
ure.
the disruption occurring due to off-grade movements, flotation may also cause
reduction of soil support around the pipe and allow the pipe to buckle
ion is generallysignificant
not a design
consideration for buried pipe where the pipeline runs
from the external hydrostatic pressure.
nearly full of liquid or where ground water is always below the pipe invert. Where
conditions are Flotation
not met,is generally
a quick not
"rule
of thumb"
is thatforpipe
buried
in soil
a design
buried
pipe where
thehaving
pipeline a
consideration
3
ated unit weightruns
of at
120fulllb/ft
withorat
least
1 pipe
diameters
of the
cover
fullleast
or nearly
of liquid
where
ground
water is
always below
pipe will
Where
conditions
aresoils
not met,
quicklesser
rule of cover,
thumb ground
is that pipe
oat. However, ifinvert.
burial
is inthese
lighter
weight
orawith
water
buried in soil having a saturated unit weight of at least 120 lb/ft3 with at least 1
on should be checked.
pipe diameters of cover will not float. However, if burial is in lighter weight soils or
with lesser cover, ground water flotation should be checked.
ematically the relationship between the buoyant force and the downward forces is
in Equation 2-30.
Refer to Figure
2-7. For
an empty
pipe,force
flotation
will
occur if
Mathematically
the relationship
between
the buoyant
and the
downward
forces is given in Equation 3-30. Refer to Figure 3-7. For an empty pipe, flotation will
occur if:
(3-30)
F B > W P + W S + W D + WL
Eq. 2-30
Where
Where:FB = buoyant force, lb/ft of pipe

WP = pipe weight, lb/ft of pipe
FWBS ==weight
buoyant
lb/ft
of saturatedforce,
soil above
pipe,of
lb/ftpipe
of pipe
W
pipe
weight,
lb/ftlb/ft
of ofpipe
WDP==weight
of dry
soil above pipe,
pipe
W
weight
saturated
soil above pipe, lb/ft of pipe
WLS==
weight
of liquid of
contents,
lb/ft of pipe
WD = weight of dry soil above pipe, lb/ft of pipe
WL = weight of liquid contents, lb/ft of pipe
154-264.indd 234
1/16/09 9:57:19 AM
FB =
WP =
WS =
WD =
WL =
buoyant force, lb/ft of pipe

pipe weight, lb/ft of pipe
weight of saturated soil above pipe, lb/ftDesign
of ofpipe
PE Piping Systems
weight of dry soil above pipe, lb/ft of pipe
weight of liquid contents, lb/ft of pipe
Chapter 6 235
87
87
87
gure 2-7: Schematic of Ground Water Flotation Forces

Figure 3-7 Schematic of Ground Water Flotation Forces
==
SS
22
ZZGG and
FFB B empty
ddOO
For a 1 ft length of pipe running
44 submerged, the upward buoyant force is:
(3-31)
F B = G
Where:
Where:
dO
Eq.
Eq.2-31
2-31
Eq. 2-31
of pipe totally
submerged, the upward buoyant force is:
Where
Where:
pipeoutside
outsidediameter,
diameter,ftft
O== pipe
dO = pipe outsideddO
diameter,
ft
GG=of=ground
specific
specific
weightofofground
groundwater
water
G = specific weight
water weight
33
outside
diameter,
ft
dO = pipe
(fresh
(fresh
water
water
=
=
62.4
62.4
lb/ft
lb/ft
)
)
(fresh water = 62.4 lb/ft 3)
G = specific
ground
water
3) of
(sea
water
water
==64.0
64.0
lb/ft
lb/ft3)3)
(sea water =weight
64.0(sea
lb/ft
(fresh water = 62.4 lb/ft3)
(sea water = 64.0 lb/ft3)
The pipe
average
pipe weight,
W
in
lbs/ft
maybe
be obtained
obtained
from
manufacturers
The
Theaverage
average
pipeweight,
weight,
W
WPPin
inPlbs/ft
lbs/ft
may
may
be
obtained
from
from
manufacturers
manufacturersliterature
literatureoror
literature
or from Equation 3-32 or from the Table of Weights in the Appendix to
from
fromEquation
Equation
2-32.
2-32.
Chapter.
This calculation
is based
on the
use of a pipe material
density
pipe weight, Wthis
in
lbs/ft
may
be obtained
from
manufacturers
literature
orof
P
0.955
gm/cc.
n 2-32.
(3-32)
(1.06
.06 DR
.12) )
DR11.12
2 2(1
Eq.
Eq.2-32
2-32
59
59.6.6
WWP P SSddOO
22
DR
DR
2 (1.06 DR 1.12 )
Eq. 2-32
59.6
W P = d O
DR 2
Equation
Equation2-33
2-33gives
givesthe
theweight
weightofofsoil
soilper
perlineal
linealfoot
footofofpipe.
pipe.
3 gives the weight of soil per lineal foot of pipe.

154-264.indd 235
== (H
(H- - ) )
Eq.
Eq.2-33
2-33
1/27/09 11:22:42 AM
Sd O 2
WP
236
(1.06 DR 1.12)
59.6
DR 2
Eq. 2-32
Chapter 6
88
ion 2-33 gives the weight of soil per lineal foot of pipe.
Table 2-16: Saturated and Dry Soil Unit Weight
Equation 3-33 gives the weight of soil per lineal foot of pipe.
(3-33)
Soil Type
Unit Weight, lb/ft3
W D = Z d (H - H S ) d O
Eq. 2-33
Saturated
Where
Dry
88
118-150
weight of dry
soil, pcf (See Table 3-14 for typical values.) 93-144
Where: d = unit
Table 2-16: Saturated and Dry Soil Unit Weight
nds & Gravel
3
HdS ==levelunit
weight
of dry
soil,ft pcfUnit
(See
Table
2-16
for typical
87-131
37-112
Weight,
lb/ft
of ground
water
saturation
above pipe,
values.)
Soil Type
Glacial Till
131-150
106-144
Dry
H = depth of
cover, ft Saturated
Table 3-14
level
of ground water118-150
saturation above pipe, ft 93-144
HSaturated
S&=Gravel
Sands
and Dry Soil Unit Weight
lts & Clays
ushed Rock
119-137
Silts & Clays

nic Silts & Clay
Soil Type
Glacial Till
81-112
94-125
Unit Weight, lb/ft3
87-131
37-112
Dry, the weight of31-94

Saturated, unit weight of
saturated soil above the
ground water, pcf 131-150
pipe, lbs per foot of pipe
106-144
119-137
94-125
Crushed
Rock
Sands
& Gravel
118-150
Silts & Clays2

O
Organic
Silts
& Till
Clay
Glacial
S
S
G
Crushed Rock
87-131
d (4 - S )
+131-150
W = ( Z - Z )
d O H S 81-112
119-137
8
Organic Silts &

Clay
81-112
93-144
37-112
106-144
94-125
Eq.31-94
2-34
31-94
Where: S = saturated unit weight of soil, pcf

(3-34)
d O 2 (4 - )
Eq. 2-34
+ d O H S
W S = ( S - G )
8
ea is submerged, the soil particles are buoyed by their immersion in the

r. The effectiveWhere
weight of submerged soil, (S G), is the soil's saturated
weight of soil, pcf

Where:
S =water.
saturated
weight ofa soil,
less the densityS =ofsaturated
the unit
ground
Forunit
example,
soil pcf
of 120 pcf
When
an area is
submerged,
the soil
buoyed by their
immersion
nit weight has an
effective
weight
of 57.6
pcfparticles
when are
completely
immersed
in in
the
ground
water.
The
effective
weight
of
submerged
soil,
(W
W
),
is
the
soils
S
G
62.4 = 57.6 pcf).
unit weight less the density of the ground water. For example, a soil of
When an areasaturated
is submerged,
the soil particles are buoyed by their immersion in the
120 pcf saturated unit weight has an effective weight of 57.6 pcf when completely
ground
water.
The
effective
weight
of liquid
submerged
(S G), is the soil's saturated
35 gives the weight per lineal foot of the
in a fullsoil,
pipe.
immersed in water (120 - 62.4 = 57.6 pcf).
unit weight less the density of the ground water. For example, a soil of 120 pcf
saturated unit Equation
weight 3-35
hasgives
an effective
57.6
pcf
when
immersed in
the weight weight
per linealof
foot
of the
liquid
in a completely
full pipe.
water (120 - 62.4
(3-35)= 57.6 pcf).
S d '2
Eq. 2-35
W L = ZL
4
Equation 2-35 gives the weight per lineal foot of the liquid in a full pipe.
Where
Where:WL = weight of the liquid in the pipe, lb/ft
L = unit weight of liquid in the pipe, pcf
the
d ' pipe, lb/ft
WL = weight of the
in
Wliquid
L = L
L = unit weight of liquid in4 the pipe, pcf
ll, the liquid weight is

154-264.indd 236
Eq. 2-35
Where:
WL = weight of the liquid in the pipe, lb/ft
= unit weight of liquid in the pipe, pcf
1/27/09 11:26:22 AM
Chapter 6 237
89
W L = ZL
S d '2
89
Eq. 2-36
89
and if half-full, the liquid weight is

(3-36)
S d' 2
W L = ZL d '
Where
8
=
2
WL
Eq. 2-36
L =8 unit weight of the liquid in the pipe, lb/ft3

Where
Eq. 2-36
Where
unit
weight
thelb/ft
liquid
in the pipe, lb/ft3
L =of the
3
L = unit weight
liquid
in theofpipe,
Where

For liquid levels
between
empty ftand half-full (0% to 50%), or between half-full and full
d = pipe
inside diameter,
3
(50% to 100%), the
following
formulas
provide
an liquid
approximate
liquid
weight
an
weight
of the
in the
pipe,
lb/ftwith
L = unit
accuracy of about
+10%.
Please
refer
to
Figure
2-8.
For
liquid
levels
between
empty
and
half-full
(0%
to
50%),
or
between
half-full
and
d
=
pipe
inside
diameter,
ft
For liquid levels between empty and half-full (0% to 50%), or between half-full and full
to 100%),
the following
provide
approximate
(50% to 100%),full
the(50%
following
formulas
provide anformulas
approximate
liquidanweight
with an liquid weight
accuracy of about
+10%.
Please refer
to Figure
2-8.
with
an accuracy
of about
10%.
Please refer to Figure 3-8.
quid levels between empty and half-full (0% to 50%), or between half-full and full
to 100%), the following formulas provide an approximate liquid weight with an
acy of about +10%. Please refer to Figure 2-8.
Figure 2-8: Flotation and Internal Liquid Levels

Figure 2-8: Flotation and Internal Liquid Levels
Figure 3-8 Flotation and Internal Liquid Levels
For a liquid level between empty and half-full, the weight of the liquid in the pipe is
approximately
approximately approximately
(3-37)
4 hl d ' - hl
+ 0.392
W L = Z L3
4 hl 3d ' - hl hl
+ 0.392
W L = ZL
3
hl
Eq. 2-37
Eq. 2-37
Figure
andinInternal
Liquid Levels
Where2-8:
Where:Flotation
hl = liquid level
pipe, ft
hl = liquid level in pipe, ft
Where: hl = liquid level in pipe, ft
90
For a liquid level between half-full and full, the weight of the liquid in the pipe is
For a liquid level between half-full and full, the weight of the liquid in the pipe is
Forapproximately
a liquid level between half-full and full, the weight of the liquid in the pipe is
approximately
approximately
liquid
level between
empty and half-full, the weight of the liquid in the pipe is
ximately
(3-38)
Sd ' 2
=
- 1.573 he
W L Z L
4
3
Where:4 hhle = d '-h

- hl l
+ 0.392
W L = L
3
hl
Eq. 2-38
Eq. 2-37
nstrained Pipe Wall Buckling (Hydrostatic Buckling)
Where: hl = liquid level in pipe, ft

equation for buckling given in this section is here to provide assistance when
ning shallow cover applications. However, it may be used to calculate the buckling
237
1/27/09
liquid
level
half-full
and full,
the weight
of the liquid
pipe is
ance
of154-264.indd
abovebetween
grade pipes
subject
to external
air pressure
due in
to the
an internal
11:32:44 AM
238
d ' 2
- 1.573 he
W L = L
Eq. 2-38
Chapter 6
90
Where: he = d '-hl
Sd ' 2
= Z L Buckling
- 1.573
nstrained Pipe
(Hydrostatic
Buckling)
W L Wall
he
4
Where
Eq. 2-38
equation
for buckling
in this section is here to provide assistance when
Where:
he = d '-hgiven
l
ning shallow cover applications. However, it may be used to calculate the buckling
ance of above grade pipes subject to external air pressure due to an internal
Unconstrained
Pipe Wall
Bucklingand
(Hydrostatic
for Wall
submerged
pipes
in lakes
or ponds,
for pipesBuckling)
placed in casings without
dm,
Pipe
Buckling
(Hydrostatic
Buckling)
encasement. The equation for buckling given in this section is here to provide assistance when
designing shallow cover applications. However, it may be used to calculate the
for buckling given in this section is here to provide assistance when

buckling
resistance
of above
grade pipes subject
to external
air pressure
to an
nstrained
are
pipes
that are
not
constrained
soil
embedment
ordue
concrete
low coverpipe
applications.
However,
it may
be used tobycalculate
the buckling
internal
vacuum,
for
submerged
pipes
in
lakes
or
ponds,
and
for
pipes
placed
in
ement.
Abovepipes
ground
pipestoare
unconstrained,
as are
pipes
placed
in a casing
above grade
subject
external
air pressure
due
to an
internal
casings
without
grout
encasement.
o grouting.pipes
Buried
pipe or
may
be considered
essentially
where the
ubmerged
in lakes
ponds,
and for pipes
placed inunconstrained
casings without
unding soil does
not significantly
increase
its constrained
buckling byresistance
beyond
its
Unconstrained
pipe are pipes
that are not
soil embedment
or concrete
ment.
strained strength.
This
can
happen
where
the
depth
of
cover
is
insufficient
to
encasement. Above ground pipes are unconstrained, as are pipes placed in a casing
nt the pipe fromprior
floating
slightly
upward
andbebreaking
with
the embedment
to grouting.
Buried
pipe may
consideredcontact
essentially
unconstrained
where
d pipe are pipes that are not constrained by soil embedment or concrete
its springline.theGround
water,
flooding,
or vacuum
cause
buckling
surrounding
soil does
not significantly
increase itscan
buckling
resistance
beyondof
Above ground pipes are unconstrained, as are pipes placed in a casing
strained pipe. its unconstrained strength. This can happen where the depth of cover is insufficient
ng. Buried pipe may be considered essentially unconstrained where the
to prevent the pipe from floating slightly upward and breaking contact with the
oil does not significantly increase its buckling resistance beyond its
embedment below its springline. Ground water, flooding, or vacuum can cause
cial
case of This
unconstrained
buckling
to as
buckling may
strength.
can happen
wherereferred
the depth
of "upward"
cover is insufficient
to happen
buckling of unconstrained pipe.
allow
buried
pipe.
Upward
buckling
occurs
when
lateral
pressure
due
to ground
pe from floating slightly upward and breaking contact with the embedment
or vacuum
pushes
thecase
sides
of the or
pipe
inwardreferred
while
forcing
the pipe
crown
A special
of unconstrained
buckling
to as upward
buckling
ingline.
Ground
water,
flooding,
vacuum
can cause
buckling
of mayand
oilpipe.
above it upward.
lookspipe.
likeUpward
pipe deflection
rotated
degrees.)
happen (Collapse
for shallow buried
buckling occurs
when 90
lateral
pressure A
to ground
water or vacuum
the sides
of theispipe
inward while
s susceptible todue
upward
buckling
where pushes
the cover
depth
insufficient
to forcing
restrain
the pipe crown
the soil
above it upward.
lookscover
like pipe
d crown movement.
It hasand
been
suggested
that a(Collapse
minimum
of deflection
four feet is
e of unconstrained buckling referred to as "upward" buckling may happen
90 degrees.)
A pipeto
is susceptible
upward buckling;
buckling where
the coverlarger
depth
ed before soil rotated
support
contributes
averting to
upward
however,
ried pipe. Upward
buckling
occurs
when
lateral
pressure
due
to
ground
is insufficient
to restrain
crown
movement.
has been suggested
that a
ter pipe may require
as much
as a upward
diameter
and
a half toItdevelop
full support.
um pushes the minimum
sides ofcover
the pipe
inward while forcing the pipe crown and
of four feet is required before soil support contributes to averting
it upward. (Collapse
looks like pipe deflection rotated 90 degrees.) A
upward buckling; however, larger diameter pipe may require as much as a diameter
nservative
design
for shallow
cover
buckling
is to
assume notosoil
support, and
ptible to upward
buckling
where
the cover
depth
is insufficient
restrain
and a half to develop full support.
nmovement.
the pipe using
the
unconstrained
pipe
wall
buckling
equation.
In
lieu
It has been suggested that a minimum cover of four feet isof this, a
Acontributes
conservative
for shallow
cover buckling
is tobe
assume
no soil
support,
ete
cap,support
sufficient
to resist design
upward
deflection,
may
also
placed
over
the and
pipe
e soil
to
averting
upward
buckling;
however,
larger
to
design
the
pipe
using
the
unconstrained
pipe
wall
buckling
equation.
In
lieu
of
hen
the
pipe
may
be
designed
using
Luscher's
equation
for
constrained
buckling.
may require as much as a diameter and a half to develop full support.
this, a concrete cap, sufficient to resist upward deflection, may also be placed over
the pipe and then the pipe may be designed using Luschers equation for constrained
2-39 for
andshallow
2-40
give
the buckling
allowableisunconstrained
buckling
eions
design
cover
to assume nopipe
soilwall
support,
andpressure
buckling.
Repipe
and
profile
pipe, respectively.
using
the
unconstrained
pipe wall buckling equation. In lieu of this, a
Equations
3-39
and
3-40 give the
allowable
unconstrained
pipe wall
sufficient to resist upward deflection,
may
also be
placed over
the buckling
pipe
pressure
for
DR
pipe
and
profile
pipe,
respectively.
ipe may be designed using Luscher's equation for constrained buckling.
3
(3-39)
f O 2E 1
Eq. 2-39
WU =
9 and 2-40 give thePallowable
N S (1unconstrained
- 2 ) DR - 1 pipe wall buckling pressure
nd profile pipe, respectively.
PWU =
154-264.indd 238
f O 2E 1
N S (1 - P 2 ) DR - 1
Eq. 2-39
1/16/09 9:57:22 AM
PWU =
fO
24EI
N S (1 - P 2 ) D3M
Eq. 2-40
Chapter 6 239
91
Where:
PWU = allowable unconstrained pipe wall buckling pressure, psi

(3-40)= Dimension
fO
24EI
DR
Ratio
Eq. 2-40
PWU =
E = apparent
N S (1modulus
- 2 ) D3M of elasticity of pipe material, psi
fO = Ovality Correction Factor, Figure 2-9
NWhere
= safety factor
S
pipe wall
pressure,
psi
IPWU ==allowable
Pipe unconstrained
wall moment
ofbuckling
inertia,
in4/in
Dimension
Ratio
DR = =
Poisson's
ratio
Where:
E
= apparent modulus of elasticity of pipe material, psi
DM = Mean diameter, (DI + 2z or DO -t), in
Correction
Factor, Figureunconstrained
3-9
allowable
pipe wall buckling pressure, psi
WU =
DfOI = Ovality
= P
pipe
inside
diameter,
in
NS = safety
factor
DR
=
Dimension
Ratio
z = wall-section centroidal distance from inner fiber of pipe, in
I = Pipe wall moment of inertia, in4/in
E = apparent modulus of elasticity of pipe material, psi
= Poissons ratio
fO = Ovality Correction Factor, Figure 2-9
DM = Mean diameter, (DI + 2z or DO -t), in
NS = safety
factor
ugh buckling occurs
long-term
external pressure can
gradually deform the
DI = piperapidly,
inside diameter,
in
4
I
=
Pipe
wall
moment
of
inertia,
in
/in
= wall-section centroidal
from inner
of pipe, in (obtain
from pipe producer)
o the point of zinstability.
This distance
behavior
is fiber
considered
viscoelastic
and can be
= Poisson's ratio
nted for in EquationsD2-39
and 2-40 by using the apparent modulus of elasticity
M = Mean diameter, (DI + 2z or DO -t), in
Although
buckling
occurs rapidly, long-term
external pressure
can gradually
deform
for the appropriate
time
and
temperature
of theinspecific
application
as given
in
inside diameter,
DI = pipe
the pipe to the point of instability. This behavior is considered viscoelastic and
2-6. For Poisson's zratio,
typically
usedistance
a valuefrom
of 0.45
long-term
= designers
wall-section
centroidal
innerforfiber
of pipe, in
can be accounted for in Equations 3-39 and 3-40 by using the apparent modulus of
g on polyethylene pipe, and 0.35 for short-term loading.
elasticity value for the appropriate time and temperature of the specific application
as given in the Appendix, Chapter 3. For Poissons ratio, use a value of 0.45 for all PE
yAlthough
or deflection
of the
pipe rapidly,
diameterlong-term
increasesexternal
the local
radius of
the
buckling
occurs
pressure
cancurvature
graduallyofdeform
pipe materials.
the
wall and thus reduces buckling resistance. Ovality is typically reported as the
pipe to the point of orinstability.
This behavior is considered viscoelastic and can be
deflection ofor:
the pipe diameter increases the local radius of curvature of
ntage reductionOvality
in pipe diameter
accounted for the
in pipe
Equations
and 2-40
by resistance.
using theOvality
apparent
modulus
ofaselasticity
wall and 2-39
thus reduces
buckling
is typically
reported
value for the appropriate
time andin temperature
the percentage reduction
pipe diameter or:of the specific application as given in
Table 2-6. For
Poisson's
ratio,
designers
typically use a value of 0.45 for long-term
(3-41)
DI - D MIN
loading on polyethylene
pipe, andN0.35
short-term
loading.
Eq. 2-41
%DEFLECTIO
= 100for
D
I
Ovality or deflection of the pipe diameter increases the local radius of curvature of the
Where:
pipe wall and Where
thus reduces buckling resistance. Ovality is typically reported as the
DI = pipe inside diameter, in
= pipe
inside or:
diameter, in
percentage reductionDin
diameter
I pipe
DMIN = pipe minimum inside diameter, in
D - D MIN
%DEFLECTION = 100 I
DI
Eq. 2-41
Where:
DI = pipe inside diameter, in
154-264.indd 239
1/16/09 9:57:22 AM
240
Chapter 6
92
Figur
e 2-9:
Ovalit
y
Com
pens
ation
Facto
r, 0
The
desig
ner should compare the critical buckling pressure with the actual anticipated pressure,
3-9 Ovality Compensation Factor,
and apply Figure
a safety
factor commensurate with their assessment of the application. A
safety factor of 2.5 is common, but specific circumstances may warrant a higher or
lower safety
For
large-diameter
pipe,
the anticipated
pressure may
Thefactor.
designer
should
compare thesubmerged
critical buckling
pressure
with the actual
be conservatively
calculated
by
determining
the
height
of
water
from
the
pipe invert
anticipated pressure, and apply a safety factor commensurate with their assessment
rather than from the pipe crown.
of the application. A safety factor of 2.5 is common, but specific circumstances may
warrant a higher or lower safety factor. For large-diameter submerged pipe, the
anticipated pressure may be conservatively calculated by determining the height of
Ground Water Flotation Example
water from the pipe invert rather than from the pipe crown.
Find the allowable

flood Flotation
water level
above a 10" DR 26 HDPE pipe installed with only 2
Ground Water
Example
ft of cover. Assume the pipe has 3 percent ovality due to shipping, handling, and
the allowable flood water level above a 10 DR 26 PE4710 pipe installed with
installationFind
loads.
only 2 ft of cover. Assume the pipe has 3 percent ovality due to shipping, handling,
and installation loads.
SOLUTION:
Use Equation
pipe
wallbuckling
bucklingpressure
pressure depends
thethe
SOLUTION:
Use Equation
2-39. 3-39.
TheThe
pipe
wall
dependsupon
upon
duration
of
the
water
level
above
the
pipe.
If
the
water
level
is
long
lasting,
then
duration of the water level above the pipe. If the water level is constant, then a alongterm valuelong-term
of the stress
beshould
used, be
butused,
if the
value relaxation
of the stressmodulus
relaxationshould
modulus
butwater
if the level
water rises
only occasionally,
a only
shorter
term elastic
modulus
bemodulus
applied.may be applied.
level rises
occasionally,
a shorter
termmay
elastic
Case (a): For the long lasting water above the pipe, the stress relaxation modulus at
50 year, 73F is approximately 29,000 lb/in2 for a typical PE4710 material. Assuming
Case (a): 3%
Forovality
the constant
water
above
stress
relaxationlong-term
modulus at 50
(fO equals
0.76) and
a 2.52the
to 1pipe,
safetythe
factor,
the allowable
year, 73Fpressure,
is approximately
28,200
lb/in
for
a
typical
P3408
material.
Assuming 3%
PWU is given by:
93
ovality (fO equals 0.76) and a 2.5 to 1 safety factor, the allowable long-term pressure,
3
PWU is given by: (0.76) 2 (28,200)
(29,000) 1
PWU =
psig= (3.2
1.4 psi
3.2 ftft-hd)
Hd
=1.4
2.5 (1 - 0.452 ) 26 - 1
Case (b): Flooding conditions are occasional happenings, usually lasting a few days to
a week or so. However, ground water elevations may remain high for several weeks
154-264.indd
240
1/16/09 9:57:22
following
a flood.
The 1000 hour (41.6 days) elastic modulus value has been used
to AM
(0.76) 2 (28,200) 1
= 1.4 psi = 3.2 ft Hd
PWU =
2.5 (1 - 0.452 ) 26 - 1
Chapter 6 241
Case (b): Flooding conditions are occasional happenings, usually lasting a few days to
a week or so. However, ground water elevations may remain high for several weeks
following a flood.
The
1000 conditions
hour (41.6
days) elastic
modulus
value
been
Case (b):
Flooding
are occasional
happenings,
usually
lastinghas
a few
days used to
approximate the
duration.
to a expected
week or so. flood
However,
ground water elevations may remain high for several
weeks following a flood. The 1000 hour elastic modulus value has been used to
approximate the expected flood duration.
3
(0.76) 2(43,700)
(46,000) 1
head)
2.1 psi = 45.2
.9 ft.
ft (ofHd
= 2.2
PWU =
2.5 (1 - 0.452 ) 26 - 1
SECTION 3: THERMAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

INTRODUCTION
Like most materials, polyethylene is affected by changing temperature. Unrestrained,
154-264.indd 241
1/16/09 9:57:23 AM
242
Chapter 6
Section 4
Thermal Design Considerations
Introduction
Similar to all thermoplastics, the engineering behavior of PE can be significantly
affected by temperature. An increase in temperature causes a decrease in strength
and in apparent modulus. A decrease in temperature results in opposite effects. For
effective pipeline design these effects must be adequately recognized.
In the case of pressure pipe the highest operating temperature is limited by the
practical consideration of retaining sufficient long-term strength or maintaining
the pressure rating that is sufficient for the intended application. That maximum
temperature is generally 140F (60C). De-rating factors for up to 140F
are presented in the Appendix to Chapter 3. If higher temperatures are being
considered, the pipe supplier should be consulted for additional information.
In the case of buried applications of non-pressure pipe, in which the embedment
material provides a significant support against pipe deformation, the highest
operating temperature can be higher sometimes, as high 180F (~82C). The
temperature re-rating factors for apparent modulus of elasticity, which are
presented in the Appendix, Chapter 3, can be used for the re-rating of a pipes
73F pipe stiffness for any other temperature between -20 to 140F (-29 to 60C).
For temperatures above 140F the effect is more material dependent and the pipe
supplier should be consulted.
A beneficial feature of PE pipe is that it retains much of its toughness even at low
temperatures. It can be safely handled, installed and operated even in sub-freezing
conditions. The formation of ice in the pipe will restrict or, stop flow but not cause
pipe breakage. Although under sub-freezing conditions PE pipe is somewhat less
tough it is still much tougher that most other pipe materials.
Strength and Stress/Strain Behavior

As discussed earlier in this Handbook, the engineering properties of PE material are
affected by the magnitude of a load, the duration of loading, the environment and
the operating temperature. And, also as discussed earlier, the standard convention
is to report the engineering properties of PE piping materials based on a standard
environment which is water and, a standard temperature which is 73F (23C).
A design for a condition that departs from this convention requires that an
appropriate accommodation be made. This Section addresses the issue of the effect
of a different temperature than that of the base temperature.
154-264.indd 242
1/16/09 9:57:23 AM
Chapter 6 243
To properly consider the affect of temperature on strength and, on stress/strain

properties this must be done based on actually observed long-term strength behavior.
Tables which are presented in an Appendix to Chapter 3, list temperature adjustment
factors that have been determined based on long-term evaluations.
Thermal Expansion/Contraction Effects
Fused PE pipe joints are fully restrained. The pipe and the fused joints can easily
accommodate the stress induced by changes in temperature. In general thrust
restraints and mechanical expansion joints are not required in a fully fused PE piping
system. However, thrust restraint may be necessary where PE pipe is connection to
other bell and spigot end pipe. Design for this condition is addressed later in this
chapter and in PPIs TN-36.
Because the coefficient of thermal expansion for PE is significantly larger than that
of non-plastics, considerations relating to the potential effects of thermal expansion/
contraction may include:
Piping that is installed when it is warm may cool sufficiently after94
installation to
generate significant tensile forces. Thus, the final connection should be made after
the pipe has equilibrated to its operating temperature.
experience greater expansion and contraction than many other

mechanical joint
Unrestrained
pipe may shrink
enough so that itHowever,
pulls out from
ncreasing or decreasing
(respectively)
temperatures.
itsalow
that
does
not
provide
sufficient
pull-out
resistance.
Methods
used
to connect PE
eases the challenge of arresting this movement, and very often end
pipe should
against pull-out
that is either inherent to the joint
employed to eliminate
the provide
effectsrestraint
of temperature
changes.
design or additional mechanical restraint. See Chapter 9. (Note specially designed

thrust blocks may be needed to restrain movement when mechanical joints are in
installed
lineand
withoperated
PE pipes.) in sub-freezing conditions. Ice in the
e can be
or stop flow, but not cause pipe breakage. In sub-freezing conditions,
Unrestrained pipe that is exposed to significant temperature swings will in some
ot as impact resistant as it is at room temperature. In all cases, one
combination, expand and contract, deflect laterally, or apply compressive or tensile
unloading guidelines in the handling and storage section of the PPI
loads to constraints or supports.
dbook chapter Inspections, Tests, and Safety Considerations that
A mitigating factor is PEs relatively low modulus of elasticity, which greatly reduces
ing devices to safely
unload polyethylene piping products.
the thrust that is generated by a restrained expansion/contraction. This thrust
imposes no problem on thermal fusion connections.
ermal Effects
See Chapter 8 for additional information on designing above grade pipelines for
thermal effects.
hange in length for an unrestrained pipe placed on a frictionless

etermined from Unrestrained
Equation 3-1.Thermal Effects
The theoretical change in length for an unrestrained pipe placed on a frictionless

surface can be determined from Equation 4-1.
(4-1)
L = L T
Eq. 3-1
ere:
=
=
pipeline length change, in

pipe length, ft
154-264.indd 243
1/16/09 9:57:23 AM
244
Chapter 6
Where
L = pipeline length change, ft
L = pipe length, ft
= thermal expansion coefficient, in/in/F

T = temperature change,F
The coefficient of thermal expansion for PE pipe material is approximately 1 x 10-4
in/in/F. As a rule of thumb, temperature change for unrestrained PE pipe is about
1/10/100, that is, 1 inch for each 10F temperature change for each 100 foot of pipe.
A temperature rise results in a length increase while a temperature drop results in a
length decrease.
End Restrained Thermal Effects
A length of pipe that is restrained or anchored on both ends and one placed on a
frictionless surface will exhibit a substantially different reaction 95
to temperature
change than the unrestrained pipe discussed above. If the pipe is restrained in
a straight line between two points and the temperature decreases, the pipe will
stress is created
alongtothe
pipe.inThe
magnitude
this
canorbe
attempt
decrease
length.
Because theof
ends
arestress
restrained
anchored, length
quation 3-2. change cannot occur, so a longitudinal tensile stress is created along the pipe. The
magnitude of this stress can be determined using Equation 4-2.
(4-2)
E D 'T
Eq. 3-2
are as definedWhere
above,
terms and
=
=
= longitudinal stress in pipe, psi

longitudinal
stress in pipe, psi
E = apparent modulus elasticity of pipe material, psi
apparent modulus elasticity of pipe material, psi
47
The value of the apparent modulus of elasticity of the pipe material has a large
/ ft 2
P L = 2890lb
impact
on the calculated
stress. As with all thermoplastic materials, PEs modulus,
apparent modulus
of elasticity
of isthe
pipe material
hasand
a the
large
and therefore
its stiffness,
dependent
on temperature
duration of the
culated stress.applied
As with
all
thermoplastic
materials,
polyethylenes
load. Therefore, the appropriate elastic modulus should be selected based on
foreBoussinesq
its stiffness,
istwo
dependent
on temperature
the duration
of it is important
Equation
these
variables. When
determining theand
appropriate
time interval,
herefore, the appropriate
elastic
modulus
should
be
selected
based
to consider that heat transfer occurs at relatively slow rates through the wall of PE
bles.The
When
determining
thetemperature
appropriate
timedointerval,
it is important
Boussinesq
Equation
gives thechanges
pressure
at occur
any point
inBecause
a soilthe
mass
under a
pipe; therefore
not
rapidly.
temperature
96
surface
load.
The
Boussinesq
Equation
may
be
used
to
find
the
pressure
eat concentrated
transfer occurs
at
relatively
slow
rates
through
the
wall
of
change does not happen rapidly, the average temperature is often chosen for the
transmitted
from
a wheel
load todo
a point
that is not
alongBecause
the line of the
action of the load.
therefore
temperature
changes
not occur
rapidly.
modulus
selection.
Pavement
effectsrapidly,
are neglected.
e does
not happen
chosen
(4-3) F
V AP the average temperature is oftenEq.
3-3
ection.
Where terms are as defined above, and
are as defined
3I f Ww H
F = end thrust, lb
PL =
5
above,
and
2 /4)(DO
AP = area of pipe cross section,(
r 2 Di2) in2
3
Eq. 2-4
1:
Modulus
Elasticity for HDPE Pipe Material
= Apparent
end thrust,
lb
at
Various
Temperatures
=
area of pipe cross
section,(/4)(DO2 Di2) in2
Where:
PE 3408 Apparent Elastic Modulus, 1000 psi (MPa), at Temperature, F (C)

2
9)
0 (-18)
40PL(4)
60 (16)
73 (23)due 100
(38)load120
140 (60)
= vertical
soil pressure
to live
lb/ft(49)
260.0
170.0
130.0
110.0
100.0
65.0
50.0
load, lbthe
Ww =towheel
3 can(1793)
also
be used
determine
compressive
and thrust
(1172)
(896)
(758)
(690) stress
(448)
(345)
154-264.indd 244
1/27/09 11:36:22 AM
=
=
end thrust, lb
area of pipe cross section,(/4)(DO2 Di2) in2
Chapter 6 245
nd 3-3 can also be used to determine the compressive stress and thrust
m a temperature increase.
gth change of polyethylene

pipe during temperature changes is greater
Equations 4-2 and 4-3 can also be used to determine the compressive stress and
r materials, thethrust
amount
of force required to restrain the movement is
(respectively) from a temperature increase.
ts lower modulus of elasticity.
Although the length change of PE pipe during temperature changes is greater than
many other materials, the amount of force required to restrain the movement is less
decreases
from weather or operating conditions, a longitudinal
because of its lower modulus of elasticity.
erature
velops along the pipe that can be determined using Equation 3-2. The
As operating
pipeline temperature
decreases from
weather
or operating conditions,
e stress for pipe
at its pressure
rating
is determined
using a
longitudinal tensile stress develops along the pipe that can be determined using
Equation 4-2. The allowable tensile stress for pipe operating at its pressure rating is
determined by the HDS for that temperature. The HDS is that of the pipe material
for the base temperature at 73F (23C) times the temperature adjustment factor listed
Eq. 3-4
in Appendix, Chapter 3.
(4-4)
allow =
DB =
F =
HDS xxDF
FT
allow == HDB
Where
HDS = Hydrostatic Design Stress, psi (Table 1-1)
Allowable tensile stress at 73F, lb/in2

FT = Temperature factor (See Appendix, Chapter 3)
Hydrostatic
Design Basis, psi (Table 1-1)*
Design Factor, from Table 1-2
Equation 4-3 is used to determine the thrust load applied to structural anchoring
manufacturer should
devices.be consulted for HDB values for temperatures
han 73F.
sed
During temperature increase, the pipeline attempts to increase in length, but is

restrained by mechanical guides that direct longitudinal compressive thrust to
structural anchors that prevent length increase. This in turn creates a longitudinal
to determine
the thrust
load
applied
to astructural
compressive
stress
in the
pipe and
thrust load anchoring
against the structural anchors.
The compressive stress that develops in the pipe and is resisted by the structural
anchors is determined using Equation 4-2. Compressive stress should not exceed the
compressive
stress per
Appendix in
3. but is
increase, allowable
the pipeline
attempts
totheincrease
inChapter
length,
ture
echanical guides that direct longitudinal compressive thrust to structural
vent length increase.
This in
turn Systems
creates a longitudinal compressive
Above Ground
Piping
e and a thrustThe
load
against the structural anchors. The compressive
design considerations for PE piping systems installed above ground are
ops in the pipeextensive
and is and,
resisted
by the structural anchors is determined
therefore, are addressed separately in the Handbook chapter on above
3-2. Compressive
stress should not exceed the allowable compressive
ground applications for PE pipe.
2-12 in Section 2 of this chapter.
Buried Piping Systems
A buried pipe is generally well restrained by soil loads and will experience very
little lateral movement. However, longitudinal end loads may result that need to
be addressed.
Transitions to other pipe materials that use the bell and spigot assembly technique
will need to be calculated using the thrust load as delivered by the pressure
154-264.indd 245
1/16/09 9:57:24 AM
97
246
Chapter 6
e Ground Piping Systems
plus the for

potential
of the load due
to temperature
fixing
the endare
design considerations
polyethylene
piping
systems changes.
installedMerely
above
ground
of the PE
to the
mating material
may result
stream
joints pullingHandbook
apart
sive and, therefore,
are
addressed
separately
in in
theupPPI
Engineering
unless those
connections
arePE
restrained.
er on Above Ground
Applications
for
Pipe. The number of joints that need to be
ed Piping
restrained to prevent bell and spigot pull out may be calculated using techniques
as recommended by the manufacturer of the alternate piping material. Equation 4-3
may be used to calculate the total thrust load due to temperature change.
Systems
Low thrust capacity connections to manholes or other piping systems as will

be presentwell
in many
no pressure
systems
may its
be addressed
via a with
ried pipe is generally
restrained
bygravity
soil flow
friction
along
length, and
longitudinalchange,
thrust anchor
as shown
in Fig.
4-1. The size
of the thrust
block will
rate or low temperature
soil such
friction
alone
is usually
sufficient
to prevent
vary
depending
on
soil
conditions
and
the
thrust
load
as
calculated
via
Equation
4-3.
mal expansion and contraction movement. Consequently, a buried polyethylene
Figure 4-1 Longitudinal Thrust Anchor
will usually experience a change in internal stress rather than dimensional change
movement. A very significant temperature decrease may exceed soil friction
aint, and apply Conclusion
contraction thrust loads to pipeline appurtenances. Longitudinal
anchoring may
used to
underground
connections
that have
limited
Thebe
durability
andprotect
visco-elastic
nature of modern
PE piping materials
makes
these
ance to longitudinal
movement,
arearray
usually
not
requiredsuch
unless
great
products ideally
suited forbut
a broad
of piping
applications
as: potable
erature change water
is anticipated.
mains and service lines, natural gas distribution, oil and gas gathering, force
main sewers, gravity flow lines, industrial and various mining piping. To this end,
fundamental design considerations such as fluid flow, burial design and thermal
response were presented within this chapter in an effort to provide guidance to the
piping system designer on the use of these tough piping materials in the full array of
potential piping applications.
3-1:
Longitudinal
Thrust
Anchoramount of background
ForFigure
the benefit
of the
pipeline designer,
a considerable
information and/or theory has been provided within this chapter. However, the
designer should also keep in mind that the majority of pipeline installations fall
within
the be
criteria
for the AWWA
Design
presented
in Section 3
friction
can
employed
to arrest
theWindow
effectsapproach
of operating
temperature
ally, the soil

ges. In smaller diameter pipe, the pipe is usually snaked from side to side within
tch to assist in the soil anchoring.
154-264.indd 246
1/16/09 9:57:24 AM
Chapter 6 247
of this chapter. Pipeline installations that fall within the guidelines for the AWWA
Window, may be greatly simplified in matters relating to the design and use of
flexible PE piping systems.
While every effort has been made to be as thorough as possible in this discussion,
it also should be recognized that these guidelines should be considered in light of
specific project, installation and/or service needs. For this reason, this chapter on
pipeline design should be utilized in conjunction with the other chapters of this
Handbook to provide a more thorough understanding of the design considerations
that may be specific to a particular project or application using PE piping systems.
The reader is also referred to the extensive list of references for this chapter as
additional resources for project and or system analysis and design.
References for Section 1
Kerr, Logan, Water Hammer Problems in Engineering Design, Consulting Engineering, May 1985
Howard; A., The Reclamation E Table, 25 Years Later, Plastic Pipe XIII, Washington, D. C., Oct. 2-5, 2006.
Marshall, G. P., Brogden, S., Evaluation of the Surge and Fatigue Resistances of PVC and PE Pipe Materials for use in the
U.K. Water Industry, Plastics Pipe X, September 98, Gotenberg, Sweden.
UK Water Industry IGN 4-37-02, Design Against Surge And Fatigue Conditions For Thermoplastics Pipes, March 1999.

1. Jeppson, Roland W., Analysis of Flow in Pipe Networks, Ann Arbor Science, Ann Arbor, MI.
2. Distribution Network Analysis, AWWA Manual M32, American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.
3. ASTM D 2513, Standard Specification for Thermoplastic Gas Pipe, Tubing and Fittings, American Society for
Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.
4. ASTM D 2737, Standard Specification for PE (PE) Tubing, American Society for Testing and Materials, West
Conshohocken, PA.
5. ASTM D 2447, Standard Specification for PE (PE) Plastic Pipe, Schedules 40 and 80, Based on Outside Diameter,
American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.
6. ASTM D 3035, Standard Specification for PE (PE) Plastic Pipe (DR-PR) Based on Controlled Outside Diameter,
7. ASTM F 714, Standard Specification for PE (PE) Plastic Pipe (SDR-PR) Based on Controlled Outside Diameter,
8. ANSI/AWWA C901, AWWA Standard for PE (PE) Pressure Pipe and Tubing, 1/2 In.(13 mm) Through 3 In. (76 mm) for
Water Service, American Water Works Association, Denver, CO
9. ANSI/AWWA C906, AWWA Standard for PE (PE) Pressure Pipe and Fittings, 4 In. Through 63 In. for Water
Distribution, American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.
10. API Specification 15LE, Specification for PE Line Pipe (PE), American Petroleum Institute, Washington DC.
11. ASTM D 2104, Standard Specification for PE (PE) Plastic Pipe, Schedule 40, American Society for Testing and
Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.
12. ASTM D 2239, Standard Specification for PE (PE) Plastic Pipe (SIDR-PR) Based on Controlled Inside Diameter,
13. ASTM F 894, Standard Specification for PE (PE) Large Diameter Profile Wall Sewer and Drain Pipe, American
Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.
14. PPI TR-22, PE Piping Distribution Systems for Components of Liquid Petroleum Gases, Plastics Pipe Institute,
Irving, TX.
15. Nayyar, Mohinder L. (1992). Piping Handbook , 6th Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
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Corporation.
17. Moody, L.F. (1944). Transactions, Volume 6, American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), New York, NY.
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McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
19. Lamont, Peter A. (1981, May). Common Pipe Flow Formulas Compared with the Theory of Roughness, Journal of
the American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.
20. Flow of Fluids through Valves, Fittings and Pipe. (1957). Crane Technical Paper No 410, the Crane Company,
Chicago, IL.
21. Chen, W.F., & J.Y. Richard Liew. (2002). The Civil Engineering Handbook, 2 nd edition, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
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248
Chapter 6
22. Bowman, J.A. (1990). The Fatigue Response of Polyvinyl Chloride and PE Pipe Systems, Buried Plastics Pipe
Technology, ASTM STP 1093, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia.
23. Marshall, GP, S. Brogden, & M.A. Shepherd, Evaluation of the Surge and Fatigue Resistance of PVC and PE Pipeline
Materials for use in the UK Water Industry, Proceedings of Plastics Pipes X, Goteborg, Sweden.
24. Fedossof, F.A., & Szpak, E. (1978, Sept 20-22). Cyclic Pressure Effects on High Density PE Pipe, Paper presented
at the Western Canada Sewage Conference, Regian, Saskatoon, Canada.
25. Parmakian, John. (1963). Waterhammer Analysis, Dover Publications, New York, NY.
26. Thompson, T.L., & Aude, T.C. (1980). Slurry Pipelines, Journal of Pipelines, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company,
Amsterdam.
27. Handbook of Natural Gas Engineering. (1959). McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
28. AGA Plastic Pipe Manual for Gas Service. (2001). American Gas Association, Washington DC.
29. ASCE Manuals and Reports on Engineering Practice No. 60. (1982). Gravity Sewer Design and Construction,
American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, NY.
30. Hicks, Tyler G. (1999). Handbook of Civil Engineering Calculations, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
31. PPI TR-14, Water Flow Characteristics of Thermoplastic Pipe, Plastics Pipe Institute, Irving, TX.
32. Kerr, Logan, Water Hammer Problems in Engineering Design, Consulting Engineering, May 1985.

1. Watkins, R.K., Szpak, E., & Allman, W.B. (1974). Structural Design of PE Pipes Subjected to External Loads, Engr.
Experiment Station, Utah State Univ., Logan.
2. AWWA (2006), PE Pipe Design and Installation, M55, American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.
3. Howard, A.K. (1996). Pipeline Installation, Relativity Printing, Lakewood, Colorado,ISBN 0-9651002-0-0.
4. Spangler, M.G. (1941). The Structural Design of Flexible Pipe Culverts, Bulletin 153, Iowa Engineering Experiment
Station, Ames, IA.
5. Watkins, R.K., & Spangler, M.G. (1958). Some Characteristics of the Modulus of Passive Resistance of SoilA
Study in Similitude, Highway Research Board Proceedings 37:576-583, Washington.
6. Burns, J.Q., & Richard, R.M. (1964). Attenuation of Stresses for Buried Cylinders, Proceedings of the Symposium
on Soil Structure Interaction, pp.378-392, University of Arizona, Tucson.
7. Katona, J.G., Forrest, F.J., Odello, & Allgood, J.R. (1976). CANDEA Modern Approach for the Structural Design and
Analysis of Buried Culverts, Report FHWA-RD-77-5, FHWA, US Department of Transportation.
8. Howard, A.K. (1977, January). Modulus of Soil Reaction Values for Buried Flexible Pipe, Journal of the
Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 103, No GT 1.
9. Petroff, L.J. (1995). Installation Technique and Field Performance of PE, Profile Pipe, Proceedings 2 nd Intl.
Conference on the Advances in Underground Pipeline Engineering, ASCE, Seattle.
10. Duncan, J.M., & Hartley, J.D. (1982). Evaluation of the Modulus of Soil Reaction, E, and Its Variation with Depth,
Report N o. UCB/GT/82-02, University of California, Berkeley.
11. Howard, A.K. (1981). The USBR Equation for Predicting Flexible Pipe Deflection, Proceedings Intl. Conf. On
Underground Plastic Pipe, ASCE, New Orleans, LA.
12. Janson, L.E. (1991). Long-Term Studies of PVC and PE Pipes Subjected to Forced Constant Deflection, Report No.
3, KP-Council, Stockholm, Sweden.
13. Spangler, M.G., & Handy, R.L. (1982). Soil Engineering, 4th ed., Harper & Row, New York.
14. Watkins, R.K. (1977). Minimum Soil Cover Required Over Buried Flexible Cylinders, Interim Report, Utah State
University, Logan, UT.
15. Gaube, E. (1977, June). Stress Analysis Calculations on Rigid PE and PVC Sewage Pipes, Kunstoffe, Vol.67, pp.
353-356, Germany.
16. Gaube, E., & Muller, W. (1982, July). Measurement of the long-term deformation of PE pipes laid underground,
Kunstoffe, Vol. 72, pp. 420-423, Germany.
17. Moore, I. D., & Selig, E. T. (1990). Use of Continuum Buckling Theory for Evaluation of Buried Plastic Pipe Stability,
Buried Plastic Pipe Technology, ASTM STP 1093, Philadelphia.
18. Marston, A. (1930). Iowa Engineering Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 96.
19. McGrath, T. (1994). Analysis of Burns & Richard Solution for Thrust in Buried Pipe, Simpson Gumpertz & Heger,
Inc, Cambridge, Mass.
20. McGrath, T.J. (1998). Replacing E with the Constrained Modulus in Flexible Pipe Design, proceedings Pipeline Div.
Conf. Pipelines in the Constructed Environment, ASCE, San Diego, CA.
21. Bowles, J.E. (1982). Foundation Analysis and Design, 3 rd ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
154-264.indd 248
1/16/09 9:57:25 AM
Chapter 6 249
Appendix A.1
Pipe Weights And Dimensions (Dips)
(Black)
OD
Nominal
in.
154-264.indd 249
Actual
in.
3.960
4.800
6.900
DR*
Pipe
inside
diameter
(d)
Minimum
Wall
Thickness
(t)
Weight
(w)
in.
in.
lb. per
foot
2.76
0.566
2.621
3.03
0.440
2.119
11
3.20
0.360
1.776
13.5
3.34
0.293
1.476
15.5
3.42
0.255
1.299
17
3.47
0.233
1.192
21
3.56
0.189
0.978
26
3.64
0.152
0.798
32.5
3.70
0.122
0.644
3.35
0.686
3.851
3.67
0.533
3.114
11
3.87
0.436
2.609
13.5
4.05
0.356
2.168
15.5
4.14
0.310
1.909
17
4.20
0.282
1.752
21
4.32
0.229
1.436
26
4.41
0.185
1.172
32.5
4.49
0.148
0.946
4.81
0.986
7.957
5.27
0.767
6.434
11
5.57
0.627
5.392
13.5
5.82
0.511
4.480
15.5
5.96
0.445
3.945
17
6.04
0.406
3.620
21
6.20
0.329
2.968
26
6.34
0.265
2.422
32.5
6.45
0.212
1.954
1/16/09 9:57:25 AM
250 Chapter 6
OD
Nominal
in.
10
12
14
154-264.indd 250
Actual
in.
9.050
11.100
13.200
15.300
DR*
Pipe
inside
diameter
(d)
Minimum
Wall
Thickness
(t)
Weight
(w)
in.
in.
lb. per
foot
6.31
1.293
13.689
6.92
1.006
11.069
11
7.31
0.823
9.276
13.5
7.63
0.670
7.708
15.5
7.81
0.584
6.787
17
7.92
0.532
6.228
21
8.14
0.431
5.106
26
8.31
0.348
4.166
32.5
8.46
0.278
3.361
7.74
1.586
20.593
8.49
1.233
16.652
11
8.96
1.009
13.955
13.5
9.36
0.822
11.595
10.210
15.5
9.58
0.716
17
9.72
0.653
9.369
21
9.98
0.529
7.681
26
10.19
0.427
6.267
32.5
10.38
0.342
5.056
9.20
1.886
29.121
10.09
1.467
23.548
11
10.66
1.200
19.734
13.5
11.13
0.978
16.397
15.5
11.39
0.852
14.439
17
11.55
0.776
13.250
10.862
21
11.87
0.629
26
12.12
0.508
8.863
32.5
12.34
0.406
7.151
10.67
2.186
39.124
11.70
1.700
31.637
11
12.35
1.391
26.513
13.5
12.90
1.133
22.030
15.5
13.21
0.987
19.398
17
13.39
0.900
17.801
21
13.76
0.729
14.593
26
14.05
0.588
11.907
32.5
14.30
0.471
9.607
1/16/09 9:57:25 AM
Chapter 6 251
OD
Nominal
in.
16
18
20
24
154-264.indd 251
Actual
in.
17.400
19.500
21.600
25.800
DR*
Pipe
inside
diameter
(d)
Minimum
Wall
Thickness
(t)
Weight
(w)
in.
in.
lb. per
foot
12.13
2.486
50.601
13.30
1.933
40.917
11
14.05
1.582
34.290
13.5
14.67
1.289
28.492
15.5
15.02
1.123
25.089
17
15.23
1.024
23.023
21
15.64
0.829
18.874
26
15.98
0.669
15.400
32.5
16.26
0.535
12.425
13.59
2.786
63.553
14.91
2.167
51.390
11
15.74
1.773
43.067
13.5
16.44
1.444
35.785
15.5
16.83
1.258
31.510
17
17.07
1.147
28.916
21
17.53
0.929
23.704
26
17.91
0.750
19.342
32.5
18.23
0.600
15.605
15.06
3.086
77.978
16.51
2.400
63.055
11
17.44
1.964
52.842
13.5
18.21
1.600
43.907
15.5
18.65
1.394
38.662
17
18.91
1.271
35.479
21
19.42
1.029
29.085
26
19.84
0.831
23.732
32.5
20.19
0.665
19.147
11
20.83
2.345
75.390
13.5
21.75
1.911
62.642
15.5
22.27
1.665
55.159
17
22.58
1.518
50.618
21
23.20
1.229
41.495
26
23.70
0.992
33.858
32.5
24.12
0.794
27.317
1/16/09 9:57:25 AM
252
Chapter 6
OD
Nominal
in.
30
Actual
in.
32.000
DR*
Pipe
inside
diameter
(d)
Minimum
Wall
Thickness
(t)
Weight
(w)
in.
in.
lb. per
foot
13.5
26.97
2.370
96.367
15.5
27.62
2.065
84.855
17
28.01
1.882
77.869
21
28.77
1.524
63.835
26
29.39
1.231
52.086
32.5
29.91
0.985
42.023
* These DRs (7.3, 9, 11, 13.5, 17, 21, 26, 32.5) are from the standard
dimension ratio (SDR) series established by ASTM F 412.51
154-264.indd 252
1/16/09 9:57:25 AM
Chapter 6 253
Appendix A.2
PIPE WEIGHTS AND DIMENSIONS (IPS)
(BLACK)
Pipe
inside
diameter
(d)
Minimum
Wall
Thickness
(t)
Weight
(w)
DR
in.
in.
lb. per
foot
OD
Nominal
in.
1/2
3/4
1 1/4
154-264.indd 253
Actual
in.
0.840
1.050
1.315
1.660
0.59
0.120
0.118
7.3
0.60
0.115
0.114
0.64
0.093
0.095
9.3
0.65
0.090
0.093
11
0.68
0.076
0.080
11.5
0.69
0.073
0.077
0.73
0.150
0.184
7.3
0.75
0.144
0.178
0.80
0.117
0.149
9.3
0.81
0.113
0.145
11
0.85
0.095
0.125
11.5
0.86
0.091
0.120
0.92
0.188
0.289
7.3
0.93
0.180
0.279
1.01
0.146
0.234
9.3
1.02
0.141
0.227
11
1.06
0.120
0.196
11.5
1.07
0.114
0.188
1.16
0.237
0.461
7.3
1.18
0.227
0.445
1.27
0.184
0.372
9.3
1.28
0.178
0.362
11
1.34
0.151
0.312
11.5
1.35
0.144
0.300
13.5
1.40
0.123
0.259
1/16/09 9:57:25 AM
254
Chapter 6
Pipe
inside
diameter
(d)
Minimum
Wall
Thickness
(t)
Weight
(w)
DR
in.
in.
lb. per
foot
OD
Nominal
in.
1 1/2
154-264.indd 254
Actual
in.
1.900
2.375
3.500
1.32
0.271
0.603
7.3
1.35
0.260
0.583
1.45
0.211
0.488
9.3
1.47
0.204
0.474
11
1.53
0.173
0.409
11.5
1.55
0.165
0.393
13.5
1.60
0.141
0.340
15.5
1.64
0.123
0.299
1.66
0.339
0.943
7.3
1.69
0.325
0.911
1.82
0.264
0.762
9.3
1.83
0.255
0.741
11
1.92
0.216
0.639
11.5
1.94
0.207
0.614
13.5
2.00
0.176
0.531
15.5
2.05
0.153
0.467
17
2.08
0.140
0.429
2.44
0.500
2.047
7.3
2.48
0.479
1.978
2.68
0.389
1.656
9.3
2.70
0.376
1.609
11
2.83
0.318
1.387
11.5
2.85
0.304
1.333
13.5
2.95
0.259
1.153
15.5
3.02
0.226
1.015
17
3.06
0.206
0.932
21
3.15
0.167
0.764
26
3.21
0.135
0.623
1/16/09 9:57:25 AM
Chapter 6 255
Pipe
inside
diameter
(d)
Minimum
Wall
Thickness
(t)
Weight
(w)
DR
in.
in.
lb. per
foot
OD
Nominal
in.
154-264.indd 255
Actual
in.
4.500
5.563
6.625
3.14
0.643
3.384
7.3
3.19
0.616
3.269
3.44
0.500
2.737
9.3
3.47
0.484
2.660
11
3.63
0.409
2.294
11.5
3.67
0.391
2.204
13.5
3.79
0.333
1.906
15.5
3.88
0.290
1.678
17
3.94
0.265
1.540
21
4.05
0.214
1.262
26
4.13
0.173
1.030
32.5
4.21
0.138
0.831
3.88
0.795
5.172
7.3
3.95
0.762
4.996
4.25
0.618
4.182
9.3
4.29
0.598
4.065
11
4.49
0.506
3.505
11.5
4.54
0.484
3.368
13.5
4.69
0.412
2.912
15.5
4.80
0.359
2.564
17
4.87
0.327
2.353
21
5.00
0.265
1.929
26
5.11
0.214
1.574
32.5
5.20
0.171
1.270
4.62
0.946
7.336
7.3
4.70
0.908
7.086
5.06
0.736
5.932
9.3
5.11
0.712
5.765
11
5.35
0.602
4.971
11.5
5.40
0.576
4.777
13.5
5.58
0.491
4.130
15.5
5.72
0.427
3.637
17
5.80
0.390
3.338
21
5.96
0.315
2.736
26
6.08
0.255
2.233
32.5
6.19
0.204
1.801
1/16/09 9:57:26 AM
256
Chapter 6
Pipe
inside
diameter
(d)
Minimum
Wall
Thickness
(t)
Weight
(w)
DR
in.
in.
lb. per
foot
OD
Nominal
in.
10
12
154-264.indd 256
Actual
in.
8.625
10.750
12.750
6.01
1.232
12.433
7.3
6.12
1.182
12.010
6.59
0.958
10.054
9.3
6.66
0.927
9.771
11
6.96
0.784
8.425
11.5
7.04
0.750
8.096
13.5
7.27
0.639
7.001
15.5
7.45
0.556
6.164
17
7.55
0.507
5.657
21
7.75
0.411
4.637
26
7.92
0.332
3.784
7.49
1.536
19.314
7.3
7.63
1.473
18.656
8.22
1.194
15.618
9.3
8.30
1.156
15.179
11
8.68
0.977
13.089
11.5
8.77
0.935
12.578
13.5
9.06
0.796
10.875
15.5
9.28
0.694
9.576
17
9.41
0.632
8.788
21
9.66
0.512
7.204
26
9.87
0.413
5.878
32.5
10.05
0.331
4.742
8.89
1.821
27.170
7.3
9.05
1.747
26.244
9.75
1.417
21.970
9.3
9.84
1.371
21.353
11
10.29
1.159
18.412
11.5
10.40
1.109
17.693
13.5
10.75
0.944
15.298
15.5
11.01
0.823
13.471
17
11.16
0.750
12.362
21
11.46
0.607
10.134
26
11.71
0.490
8.269
32.5
11.92
0.392
6.671
1/16/09 9:57:26 AM
Chapter 6 257
Pipe
inside
diameter
(d)
Minimum
Wall
Thickness
(t)
Weight
(w)
DR
in.
in.
lb. per
foot
OD
Nominal
in.
14
16
18
154-264.indd 257
Actual
in.
14.000
16.000
18.000
9.76
2.000
32.758
7.3
9.93
1.918
31.642
10.70
1.556
26.489
9.3
10.81
1.505
25.745
11
11.30
1.273
22.199
11.5
11.42
1.217
21.332
13.5
11.80
1.037
18.445
15.5
12.09
0.903
16.242
17
12.25
0.824
14.905
21
12.59
0.667
12.218
26
12.86
0.538
9.970
32.5
13.09
0.431
8.044
11.15
2.286
42.786
7.3
11.35
2.192
41.329
12.23
1.778
34.598
9.3
12.35
1.720
33.626
11
12.92
1.455
28.994
11.5
13.05
1.391
27.862
13.5
13.49
1.185
24.092
15.5
13.81
1.032
21.214
17
14.00
0.941
19.467
21
14.38
0.762
15.959
26
14.70
0.615
13.022
12.55
2.571
54.151
7.3
12.77
2.466
52.307
13.76
2.000
43.788
9.3
13.90
1.935
42.558
11
14.53
1.636
36.696
11.5
14.68
1.565
35.263
13.5
15.17
1.333
30.491
15.5
15.54
1.161
26.849
17
15.76
1.059
24.638
21
16.18
0.857
20.198
26
16.53
0.692
16.480
32.5
16.83
0.554
13.296
1/16/09 9:57:26 AM
258
Chapter 6
OD
Nominal
in.
20
22
24
154-264.indd 258
Actual
in.
20.000
22.000
24.000
DR
Pipe
inside
diameter
(d)
Minimum
Wall
Thickness
(t)
Weight
(w)
in.
in.
lb. per
foot
13.94
2.857
66.853
7.3
14.19
2.740
64.576
15.29
2.222
54.059
9.3
15.44
2.151
52.541
11
16.15
1.818
45.304
11.5
16.31
1.739
43.535
13.5
16.86
1.481
37.643
15.5
17.26
1.290
33.146
17
17.51
1.176
30.418
21
17.98
0.952
24.936
26
18.37
0.769
20.346
32.5
18.70
0.615
16.415
16.82
2.444
65.412
9.3
16.98
2.366
63.574
11
17.76
2.000
54.818
11.5
17.94
1.913
52.677
13.5
18.55
1.630
45.548
15.5
18.99
1.419
40.107
17
19.26
1.294
36.805
21
19.78
1.048
30.172
26
20.21
0.846
24.619
32.5
20.56
0.677
19.863
18.35
2.667
77.845
9.3
18.53
2.581
75.658
11
19.37
2.182
65.237
11.5
19.58
2.087
62.690
13.5
20.23
1.778
54.206
15.5
20.72
1.548
47.731
17
21.01
1.412
43.801
21
21.58
1.143
35.907
26
22.04
0.923
29.299
32.5
22.43
0.738
23.638
1/16/09 9:57:26 AM
Chapter 6 259
OD
Nominal
in.
28
30
32
36
42
154-264.indd 259
Actual
in.
28.000
30.000
32.000
36.000
42.000
DR
Pipe
inside
diameter
(d)
Minimum
Wall
Thickness
(t)
Weight
(w)
in.
in.
lb. per
foot
11
22.60
2.545
88.795
11.5
22.84
2.435
85.329
13.5
23.60
2.074
73.781
15.5
24.17
1.806
64.967
17
24.51
1.647
59.618
21
25.17
1.333
48.874
26
25.72
1.077
39.879
32.5
26.17
0.862
32.174
11
24.22
2.727
101.934
11.5
24.47
2.609
97.954
13.5
25.29
2.222
84.697
15.5
25.90
1.935
74.580
17
26.26
1.765
68.439
21
26.97
1.429
56.105
26
27.55
1.154
45.779
32.5
28.04
0.923
36.934
13.5
26.97
2.370
96.367
15.5
27.62
2.065
84.855
17
28.01
1.882
77.869
21
28.77
1.524
63.835
26
29.39
1.231
52.086
32.5
29.91
0.985
42.023
15.5
31.08
2.323
107.395
17
31.51
2.118
98.553
21
32.37
1.714
80.791
26
33.06
1.385
65.922
32.5
33.65
1.108
53.186
15.5
36.26
2.710
146.176
17
36.76
2.471
134.141
21
37.76
2.000
109.966
26
38.58
1.615
89.727
32.5
39.26
1.292
72.392
1/16/09 9:57:26 AM
260 Chapter 6
OD
Minimum
Wall
Thickness
(t)
Weight
(w)
in.
in.
lb. per
foot
Nominal
in.
Actual
in.
DR
17
42.01
2.824
175.205
48
48.000
21
43.15
2.286
143.629
54
154-264.indd 260
Pipe
inside
diameter
(d)
54.000
26
44.09
1.846
117.194
32.5
44.87
1.477
94.552
21
48.55
2.571
181.781
26
49.60
2.077
148.324
32.5
50.48
1.662
119.668
1/16/09 9:57:26 AM
Chapter 6 261
Appendix A.3
List of Design Chapter Variables
154-264.indd 261
kinematic viscosity, ft2/sec
fluid density, lb/ft3
dynamic viscosity, lb-sec/ft2
Sudden velocity change, ft/sec
Wave velocity (celerity), ft/sec
AC
Cross-sectional area of pipe bore, ft2
ac
contact area, ft2
profile wall average cross-sectional area, in2/in, for profile pipe or wall thickness (in) for
DR pipe
AS
Area of pipe cross-section or (/4) (DO2 Di2), in2
AP
area of the outside wall of the pipe, 100 in2
Hazen-Williams Friction Factor, dimensionless ,see table 1-7.
outer fiber to wall centroid, in
CV
percent solids concentration by volume
CW
percent solids concentration by weight
DA
pipe average inside diameter, in
DF
Design Factor, from Table 1-2
Pipe inside diameter, ft
DI
Pipe inside diameter, in
DM
Mean diameter (DI+2z or DO-t), in
DMIN
pipe minimum inside diameter, in
Do
pipe outside diameter, in
dO
pipe outside diameter, ft
DR
Dimension Ratio, DO/t
Apparent modulus of elasticity for pipe material, psi
natural log base number, 2.71828
Modulus of soil reaction, psi
Ed
Dynamic instantaneous effective modulus of pipe material (typically 150,000 psi for PE pipe)
EN
Native soil modulus of soil reaction, psi
ES
Secant modulus of the soil, psi
ES*
ES/(1-)
friction factor (dimensionless, but dependent upon pipe surface roughness and
Reynolds number)
end thrust, lb
FB
buoyant force, lb/ft
FL
velocity coefficient (Tables 1-14 and 1-15)
fO
Ovality Correction Factor, Figure 2-9
FS
Soil Support Factor
FT
Service Temperature Design Factor, from Table 1-11
Constant gravitational acceleration, 32.2 ft/sec2
HP
profile wall height, in
height of cover, ft
hl
liquid level in the pipe, ft
HGW
ground water height above pipe, ft
h1
pipeline elevation at point 1, ft
1/16/09 9:57:26 AM
262 Chapter 6
h1
inlet pressure, in H2O
hU
upstream pipe elevation, ft
h2
pipeline elevation at point 2, ft
h2
outlet pressure, in H2O
dD
downstream pipe elevation, ft
HDB
Hydrostatic Design Basis, psi
hE
Elevation head, ft of liquid
hf
friction (head) loss, ft. of liquid
HS
level of ground water saturation above pipe, ft
IV
Influence Value from Table 2-5
Pipe wall moment of inertia, in4/in
IDR
If
154-264.indd 262
ID -Controlled Pipe Dimension Ratio

impact factor
kinematic viscosity, centistokes
KBULK
Bulk modulus of fluid at working temperature
KBED
Bedding factor, typically 0.1
passive earth pressure coefficient
Fittings Factor, Table 1-5
KP
permeability constant (Table 1-13)
LEFF
Effective Pipeline length, ft.
Pipeline length, ft
LDL
Deflection lag factor
pipeline length change, in
horizontal distance, normal to the pipe centerline, from the center of the load to the load
edge, ft
Ms
one-dimensional modulus of soil, psi
roughness coefficient, dimensionless
horizontal distance, parallel to the pipe centerline, from the center of the load to the load
edge, ft
NS
safety factor
Internal Pressure, psi
PW
perimeter wetted by flow, ft
p1
inlet pressure, lb/in2 absolute
p2
outlet pressure, lb/in2 absolute
PA
pipe internal pressure, atmospheres (1 atmosphere = 14.7 lb/in2 )
PC
Pressure Class
PCR
Critical constrained buckling pressure, psi
PE
vertical soil pressure due to earth load, psf
Pf
friction (head) loss, psi
PL
vertical soil pressure due to live load, psf
POS
Occasional Surge Pressure
PRD
radial directed earth pressure, lb/ft2
PRS
Recurring Surge Pressure
Ps
Transient surge pressure, psig
PWAT
Allowable live load pressure at pipe crowm for pipes with one diameter or less of cover, psf
PWC
allowable constrained buckling pressure, lb/in2
PWU
allowable unconstrained pipe wall buckling pressure, psi
1/16/09 9:57:27 AM
Chapter 6 263
154-264.indd 263
pi
Pressure due to sub-area i lb/ft2
flow rate, gpm
QFPS
flow, ft3/sec
Qh
flow, standard ft3/hour
qP
volume of gas permeated, cm3 (gas at standard temperature and pressure)
rH
hydraulic radius, ft
distance from the point of load application to pipe crown, ft
buoyancy reduction factor
rCENT
radius to centroidal axis of pipe, in
Re
Reynolds number, dimensionless
RH
Geometry Factor
RSC
Ring Stiffness Constant, lb/ft
rT
equivalent radius, ft
RF
Rigidity factor, dimensions
liquid density, gm/cm3
SH
hydraulic slope, ft/ft
pipe wall compressive stress, lb/in2
SMAT
material yield strength, lb/in2
SA
Sg
gas specific gravity
SL
carrier liquid specific gravity
SM
slurry mixture specific gravity
SS
solids specific gravity
minimum wall thickness, in
wall thickness, mils
TCR
Critical time, seconds
flow velocity, ft/sec
VAF
Vertical Arching Factor
VC
critical settlement velocity, ft/sec
kinematic viscosity. ft2/sec
VMin
approximate minimum velocity, ft/sec
unit weight of soil, pcf
unit weight of soil, lb/ft3
WD
weight of dry soil above pipe, lb/ft of pipe
Ww
wheel load, lb
WL
weight of liquid contents, lb/ft of pipe
WL
weight of the liquid in contacts, lb/ft of pipe
WP
Working Pressure, psi
WP
pipe weight, lb/ft of pipe
WPR
Working Pressure Rating, psi
wS
distributed surcharge pressure acting over ground surface, lb/ft2
WS
weight of saturated soil above pipe, lb/ft of pipe
dynamic viscosity, centipoises
Centroid of wall section, in
Pipe wall centroid, in
Zi
wall-section centroidal distance from inner fiber of pipe, in
thermal expansion coefficient, in/in/F
1/16/09 9:57:27 AM
264 Chapter 6
length change, in
temperature change, F
Horizontal deflection, in
Sudden velocity change., ft/sec
absolute roughness, ft.
154-264.indd 264
Soil strain
elapsed time, days
allow
D
G
L
S
Poissons Ratio of Soil
Poissons ratio
longitudinal stress in pipe, psi
Allowable tensile stress at 73F, lb/in
Calibration Factor, 0.55 for granular soils change in psi
unit weight of dry soil,lb/ft3 (See Table 2-16 for typical values.)
unit weight of groundwater lb/ft3
unit weight of liquid in the pipe, lb/ft3
unit weight of saturated soil, pcf lb/ft3
Dynamic viscosity, lb-sec/ft2
1/16/09 9:57:27 AM

Designing HDPE Piping System

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Designing HDPE Piping System

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Chapter 6 155

Design of PE Piping Systems

Design of PE Piping Systems

Design of PE Piping Systems

This chapter concludes with a fairly extensive appendix which

Design of PE Piping Systems

7, ASTM D2447, ASTM D3035, ASTM F714, AWWA C901, AWWA

e used to determine an average inside diameter for OD-controlled

AF = Environmental Application Factor (Table 1-2)

used in previous editions of the PPI Handbook and in older standards.

pipe minimum wall thickness, in

DO = OD-Controlled Pipe Outside Diameter, in.

Hydrostatic Design Stress,

ASTM D2837 &

recommended 180F (82C)

Design of PE Piping Systems

Water: Aqueous solutions of salts, acids and bases; Sewage; Wastewater;

Nitrogen; Carbon dioxide; Methane; Hydrogen sulfide; Non-Federally regulated

Fluids such as solvating/permeating chemicals in pipe or soil (typically

When choosing the environmental applications factor (AF), consideration must

Design of PE Piping Systems

Pressure Rating for Fuel Gas Pipe

Design of PE Piping Systems

Design of PE Piping Systems

In the design of PE pipe, pressure surges are generally classified as Occasional

A PE pipe has a DR = 17 and is made from a PE4710 material. Accordingly, its

Design of PE Piping Systems

surge pressures are caused by emergency operations. Occasional

in the velocity of a flowing liquid generates a pressure wave. The

Wave velocity a(celerity),

Equations 1-5 and 1-6 for Standard Dimension Ratios (SDRs).

e pressure surge curves for PE3408 as calculated using Equations 1-21

Pressure Surge, psig

Design of PE Piping Systems

Sudden Changes in Flow Rate, fps

Design of PE Piping Systems

Allowance for Occasional Surge

Allowance for Occasional Surge

Design of PE Piping Systems

Design of PE Piping Systems

may be used to determine an average inside diameter for OD-controlled

nside diameter The

e generally accepted methods for calculating friction losses due to

The Darcy-Weisbach formula is:

bach formula is:(2-3)

Design of PE Piping Systems

Values for New

Values for New Pipe and Recommended Design

Cast Iron Asphalt Dipped

Commercial Steel or Wrought Iron

Uncoated Asbestos Cement

Cement Mortar Relined Pipes

Pipe Deflection Effects

Head Loss in Fittings

Design of PE Piping Systems

90 Fabricated Elbow (3 or more miters)

90 Fabricated Elbow (1 miters)

60 Fabricated Elbow (1 miters)

45 Fabricated Elbow (1 miters)

60 Fabricated Elbow (2 or more miters)

entional, Fully Open

15 Fabricated Elbow (1 miters)

entional, Fully Open

Equal Outlet Tee, Run/Run

SCS SVSSSSLSL)+SSSSLLLSS L