Sequende stratigraphic correlation A-A (well-log section and corresponding seismic line) across

Korolev field

Caption.- Fig 9 high-resolution sequence-straatigraphic correlation between the

Noivaux, Roche de Mars, Gorges du Pichoux, and Pry-Reuchenette sections

Cretaceous Strtatigraphy-Northern North Sea

Alberta Geological Survey

Chapter 11: Sequende Stratigraphy by Roger m Slatt

K-bentonite beds near the Ordovician-Silutian boundary,

Lithostratigraphic Cross section across Prudhoe Bay Field, Alaska

The Textural Analysis research Team

@yahoo

Use of well logs for sequence stratigraphic interpretation of the

subsurface

The following pages are focused on the use of well logs to

build sequences stratigraphic models of depositional systems. For this
process well logs are primarily used to establish the grain size and
the lithology of the penetrated sediment.
The best sequence stratigraphic models of the sedimentary fill
of basins are provided by a combination of seismic data, well logs and
cores and outcrop studies in conjunction with biostratigraphy. The
cores and well logs and outcrop studies provide access to a detailed
vertical resolution of sedimentary sections while seismic and outcrop
studies provide the lateral continuity to the sequence stratigraphic
frameworkand the biostratigraphy provides the time constraints. All
these different sequencestratigraphic techniques can be used
independently of each other to produce accurate interpretations of the
depositional histories of the sedimentary fill of a basin but the best
models come from a mix of all three.
How well logs are used to interpret sequence stratigraphy
In the use of sequence stratigraphy the interpretations are best
determined when well logs are tied to biostratigraphic markers. Using
these two in combination one can:
Identify, match and tie sequence stratigraphic surfaces
Interpret the stacking patterns of the vertical
sedimentary sequences
The character of electric logs of wells that penetrate clastics often
reflect changes in grains size and so are easier to use in this process,
while the logs of wells that penetrate carbonates often should be

calibrated with cores, since carbonates are more susceptible to

diagenesis and their change in character may be affected by more
than changes in grain size. The sections that follow initally focus on the
well log response to shallow water clastics and then move on to their
response to shallow water carbonates.
At the start of an interpretation ofsequence stratigraphy using well logs
one must first identify the predominant of sequencestratigraphic
surfaces. The MOST important of these surfaces, and the FIRST that
should be identified when using logs, are maximum flooding surfaces
(mfs) andtransgressive surfaces (TS). These coincide and are
correlated with radioactive shales (use of thegamma log) that are
interpreted to have been deposited across relatively flat surfaces.
Once the mfs and TS are established and tied, then
the sequence boundaries (SB)
of
bothcarbonate and
clastic
sedimentary systems are identified. These will tend to lie directly
beneath the sand sized sediment fill of depressions on eroded and
incised surfacesand over the prograding clinoforms of high
stand systems
tracts
(HST).
Well logs used to interpret
shallow water
clastic sequence
stratigraphy

In both clastics and carbonates the second and often co-incident step
in the interpretation of well logs and cores is the use
of parasequence stacking patterns (the vertical occurrence of
repeated cycles of coarsening or fining upwards sediment) of to
identify
the lowstand
systems
tracts
(LST), parasequence cyclic stacking patterns are commonly identified
on the basis of variations in grain size and when these fine upwards
are indicated by triangles whose apex is up while those that coarsen
upwards are indicated by inverted triangles whose apex is down. The
example presented in the above diagram catches the essence of the
response of shallow water clastics responding to a fall and rise in base
level and the incision and fill of the shelf margin during this cycle.
The repeated stacking patterns for LST cycles are: cyclic fill of incised depressions that tend to fine upward.
cyclic sand to shale bodies of basin floor fans that tend to fine
and thinupward.
cyclic sand to shale bodies of shelf margin clinoforms that tend
to coarsen and thicken upward.
The repeated stacking patterns for TST cycles are: -

Regressive cyclic shale to sand bodies of that tend to coarsen

and thinupward.
You are advised to link to the exercises and movies on the clastic well
logs of the Guarico basin on this site to learn more about these
techniques.
Well logs used to interpret shallow water carbonate sequence stratigraphy

The above examples are focused on near shore shelf clastics. The
same approach should be taken for carbonates, with the second coincident step in the interpretation ofcarbonate well logs and cores
being to identify parasequence stacking patterns (the vertical
occurrence of repeated cycles of coarsening or fining upwards
sediment) of to identify the lowstand systems tracts
(LST), transgressive systems tracts (TST) andhighstand systems tracts
(HST) that are enveloped by the mfs, TS and SB. As in
clastics, carbonate parasequence and cycle stacking patterns are
commonly identified on the basis of variations in grain size and when
these fine upwards are indicated by triangles whose apex is up while
those that coarsen upwards are indicated by inverted triangles whose
apex is down. For more information on this topic you should click here
to link to the carbonate sequence stratrigraphy page of this site.

Preamble
Stratigraphy is the science of the layered character of rocks. The rocks
can be sedimentary, volcanic, metamorphic or igneous. Sequence

stratigraphy, a branch of sedimentary stratigraphy, uses the

order strata accumulated in along with a framework of major
depositional and erosional surfaces to interpret the depositional setting
of clastic and carbonate sediments from continental, marginal
marine, basin margins and down-slope settings of basins. The
framework surfaces that bound and subdivide thestrata were often
generated during changes in relative sea level and formed during
associated deposition and erosion. The template of surfaces, because
the origin of thesurfaces is understood, can be used to interpret the
depositional origin and predict the heterogeneity, extent and character
of the lithofacies. The interpretation is better and predictions of local
and regional stratigraphy more accurate when the sequence
stratigraphic framework is integrated with an understanding of:
Steno's Laws of sediment accumulation
Walther's Law of the vertical and lateral equivalence of
sediments
The chronology of the section
Sedimentary structures
The major problem with sequence stratigraphy is that the definition,
terminology
and
interpretation
of
the surfaces of sequence
stratigraphy is complex and sometimes contentious. In an attempt to
circumnavigate this, the site places a heavy dependence on the
explanation of terminology linked pop-up boxes so as to clarify the
understanding and use of this discipline of stratigraphy.
Bounding surfaces of sequence stratigraphy
The key to sequence stratigraphy are the major bounding and
subdividing surfaces of the sedimentary section (see the banner image
above). These are commonly generated by the changing relative sea
level. Since the oceans were first generated, their water volume and
distribution across the globe has varied. Changes in ocean water
volume are mostly in response to the presence or absence of
continental glaciation and the changing temperature of the oceans.
The consequent variation of the relative position the sea has been
recorded in the marine sedimentary strata of the global stratigraphic
section from the Pre-Cambrian to the Present. Relative rises in sea
level may occur when eustasy, world wide sea level, rises or local
crustal movement causes the substrate to subside. The
associated transgressions cause the shore and the near-shore to be
flooded forming transgressive surfaces (TS). When the rate of sea
level rise reaches its most rapid change, the rate of sediment

accumulating seaward of the shore slows but the pelagic and benthic
organic matter continues to accumulate. These organics sequester
radioactive elements in the water column. The result is the sediments
have a strong radioactive signal on gamma logs with
matching condensed sections of fossils that accumulated on a surface
or in a thin zone which is known as themaximum flooding
surface (mfs). In contrast, a drop in sea level may cause the shore
and the near-shore to be eroded, forming sequence boundaries (SB).
Sequence stratigraphic interpretative analysis thus involves identifying
the subdividing surfaces enveloping discrete sediment body
geometries of the sedimentary section. The interpreter then
conceptually reverses the order of deposition by back-stripping the
geometries from oldest to youngest and then reassembles these in
order of accumulation, using as a template the subdividing surfaces,
lithofacies geometry, and fauna to interpret the evolving character of
depositional setting. The reassembly tracks the evolution of the
sedimentary system, its hydrodynamic setting,
and accommodation(see Basin Clastic Sequence Hierachies for
such a reassembly).
The back-stripping and analysis is aided by the subdivision of the
sequence stratigraphic section on the basis of major depositional and
erosional surfaces alluded to above. There are a variety of elements
subdivided by the surfaces and their hierarchy from low frequency to
high frequency includes:
Sequences
Systems tract
Parasequences and/or cycles
Bedsets
Beds
As these sediments are reassembled, the genetic character of the
sequences, systems tracts, parasequences, and beds will be seen as
products of changes in accommodation. A limit to this analytical
strategy is often the extent of ones understanding of the inferred
depositional setting. The advantage of the strategy is it considers new
questions, leading to more realistic interpretations and enhanced
predictions of lithofacies heterogeneity's. Thus the sequence
stratigraphic framework is used to analyze and explain how
sedimentary rocks acquire their layered character, lithology, texture,

faunal associations and other properties. These properties in turn can

be used to explain how the mechanisms of sediment accumulation,
erosion and inter-related processes produced the current configuration
of these rocks.
The sequence stratigraphic approach recommended on this web site
for the interpretation of sedimentary rocks contrasts with:
Lithostratigraphic analysis which maps lithofacies independent
of subdividing external and internal boundaries
Allostratigraphic analysis that identifies and includes as time
markers bounding discontinuities including erosion
surfaces, marine flooding surfaces, and markers that include
tuffs, tempestites, and/or turbiditeboundaries etc., but
considers these as independent of any model of base
level change
Analyses based on sequence
stratigraphy apply allostratigraphic models to interpret the depositional
origin of these sedimentary strata but in contrast assumes, though this
is not always stated, an implicit connection to relative sea level or base
level change.
Neils Steno and Johannes Walther
Steno and Walther's contributions to sedimentary interpretation and
so sequence stratigraphy were profound. Steno established the order
and the way sediments were laid down. His principle of
superposition recognized that older sedimentary layers underlie the
newer layers. His principle of original horizontality recorded how
sediments are deposited to fill a basal irregular surface enclosed
above by a smooth surface. His principle of lateral continuity proposed
layers of sediment are continuous till they pinch out, or a barrier
prevents their further spread during deposition, or subsequent abrupt
changes in the landscape break up the sediment layers. Walther then
recognized that as depositional settings change their lateral position
and fill accommodation, so the sedimentary facies of adjacent
depositional settings succeed one another as a verticalsequence.
Stacking Patterns and Geometries
To establish the depositional setting of the sedimentary section,
sequence stratigraphy uses the geometric arrangement of sedimentary
fill, particularly the vertical succession of sedimentary facies
geometries and their enveloping surfaces known as stacking satterns.
The geometries and so stacking patterns of un-cemented carbonates
and clastics are similar. This is because both respond to changes in

base level, both can be subdivided by similar surfaces and both

respond to wave and current movement similarly and may be
transported.
Never the less major differences in the sequence stratigraphy of the
two sediments exist. All clastics are transported to their depositional
resting place while carbonates are produced and accumulate "in situ".
Rates of carbonate production are linked to photosynthesis, so are
depth dependent with rates greatest close to the air/sea interface. This
means that carbonate facies and their fabrics are often used as
indicators of sea level position. Additionally rates of carbonate
accumulation often have a biochemical and physicochemical origin that
is influenced by the chemistry of the water from which they are
precipitated. Stacking patterns of both sediments are expressed by
geometric bodies that may be:
Unconfined by topography
Confined within eroded topography.
Stacking patterns for both clastics and carbonates that are the product
of physical accommodation vary between:
Unconfined sheets that:
o Prograde (step seaward) as
o Retrograde (step landward)
o Aggrade (build vertically)
Unconfined prograding carbonate sheets that are the product
of physical accommodation are further subdivided below into:
o Low angle ramps of fine shallow-water carbonate that
in deeper-water pass to gravels
o Homoclinal ramps of fine shallow-water carbonate
o Distally steepened ramps of shallow-water graindominated carbonate
Unconfined carbonate platform sheet geometries formed
with ecological accommodation form

o Flat-topped open shelves with moderate shallowwater ecological accommodation

o Reef-rimmed platform with highest shallowwater ecological accommodation
o Massive steep to cliffed margins with maximum
shallow-waterecological accommodation
Confined bodies represented by fill of Incised topography include
Subaerial incised valleys
Submarine incised valleys
Channel fill and stacking of confining valleys, unconfined lobes and
sheets may be expressed as:
Organized bodies
Disorganized bodies
Multi-storied
Amalgamated
Other Stratigraphic Tools Utilized with Sequence Stratigraphy
Prediction and interpretation improves not only when sequence
stratigraphy is coupled to the Laws of Steno and Walther but when tied
to indicators of deposition and time. Indicators of depositional setting
include:
Ichnofacies and fossils
Sedimentary structures
Volcanics
Storm layers or tempestites
Sequence stratigraphic boundaries
Chronostratigraphic markers include:
Fossils
Magneto-stratigraphic

Radioactive markers or gamma ray log signalRadioactive

markers or gamma ray log signal
Radiometric markers
Terminology
Though the linkage between the sequence stratigraphy and the other
sub-disciplines of stratigraphy can be fuzzy these links are important
to prediction and interpretation. A key problem to strengthing theses
links is not only that the terminology of sequence stratigraphy carries
connotations related to the interpretation of the surfaces used to
interpret the stratigraphic section but also a consideration of
sedimentology and chronostratigraphy. How the terminology is defined
and used and/or fits preconceived classifications is tied to the
character of the data and stratigraphic techniques used. In the end it is
up to the user to consider their data, and the goals of their
interpretations. They should be able to explain their choice of terms
and then make their interpretation!
Use of the Over Simplification of time as it relates to sequence
stratigraphy
As is explained in the pages that follow, using the above approach
geologists infer the processes responsible for that sedimentary rock
and so interpret its origin. The sedimentary layering of a stratigraphic
section has a vast array of dimensional hierarchies. These range from
units millimeters thick that might be formed over seconds to thousands
of feet thick and formed of millions of years. As much of the literature
related to these surfaces indicates, it should be recognized that
whatever the dimension of a layer is and whatever the time involved in
its deposition, each layer is bounded by surfaces that transgress time
(Wheeler, (1958); Middleton, (1973); Vail et al (1977); Galloway,
(1989); Catuneanu, et al, (1998); Schwarzacher, (2000); Catuneanu,
(2002); Embry, (2002); Cross, and Lessenger, (submitted)). This
means an interpretation of the depositional setting for a section cut by
these diachronous surfaces contravenes Walther's Law. Most
interpreters accept and take into consideration that the layered units
bounded by these surfaces formed at different times, and recognize
that the subdividing surfaces are of a higher order frequency than the
time envelope of the parasequence being considered. In other words
the situation is simplified when the surfaces are taken to represent
instances in time between which sediments continuously accumulated.
Thus the surfaces of the layers transgress time and the sediments
filling between these surfaces also transgress time while being
continuously reworked through a series of geological events.

Figure - Hierarchy of sedimentary structures:

A - Flaser structures from an intertidal flat setting in which the individual
components probably accumulated over minutes but the whole section may
represent tidal cycles over months (Bar Scale - 2 cm)
B - Cross bedded Ordovician carbonates from a beach or nearshore shallow shoal
setting that probably represent accumulation and reworking over several years
C - Flat bedded Mississippian downslope siliciclastic fan deposits; each bed of
which may have accumulated over a period of hours, though the whole section
encompasses potentially hundreds of thousands of years (bar scale - 1m)

Thus it should be recognized that in sedimentary interpretation the

application ofSteno's principles and Walther's Law provide powerful
and useful simplifications that assume the sediments packaged by
surfaces accumulated within discrete moments of time. If one thinks
about this, these simplifications don't contravene logic (which is literally
Fuzzy) and aid in the interpretation of the sedimentary section. The
above discussion provides a general introduction to the subdivision of
the sedimentary section by the surfaces listed above and their
relationship to base level change. For for a more complete and
thorough discussion of this topic you should read Catuneanu (2002).
Introduction
to
This Web Site explains:

the

Web

Site

1. How to make sequence stratigraphic interpretations of sedimentary

sections:
Subdivide of these sections
into sequences, parasequences &/or their
associated systems tracts

 Determine their depositional setting

Characterize and predict of the extent of their
lithofacies, particularly when associated with
hydrocarbon reservoirs, and aquifers.
2. The use of:
2-D and 3-D seismic sections
o Well log data
o Outcrops
to identify and correlate surfaces of:
erosion and non-deposition (sequence
boundaries [SB])
transgressive surfaces [TS]
maximum flooding surfaces [mfs]
3. How the above surfaces have time significance and establish:
a relative time framework for the sedimentary
succession
the inter-relationship of the depositional settings
and their lateral correlation
a compartmentalization of hydrocarbon
reservoirs
In summary this web site explains how "Sequence Stratigraphy" can
be used to study sedimentary rock relationships within a timestratigraphic framework of repetitive, genetically related strata bounded
by surfaces of erosion or non-deposition, or theircorrelative conformity
(Posamentier et al., 1988; Van Wagoner et al., 1988).
Sequence Stratigraphy of Depositional Systems
This site provides an overview of both modern and ancient depositional
systems in terms of their sequence stratigraphy and their character.
These systems include:
Clastic Systems

o Marine: Barrier island Coasts; Deltaic systems;

Deepwater Fans; Deepwater basins
o Continental: Glacial; Aeolian; Alluvial Fans; Braided
Streams; Coarse and fine grained fluvial systems;
Lacustrian
Carbonate Systems: Inner carbonate shelf; Outer Carbonate
Shelf and Margins; Deepwater carbonates
Using the sidebar menu you can select topics in sequence
stratigraphy and access exercises related to this. You should be able to
learn how to subdivide the sedimentary section into packages defined
by bounding unconformities and internal surfaces. You will be able to
see how sequences, parasequences and their associated systems
tractsare the products of changes in relative sea level and rates of
sedimentation. The various forms of sequence stratigraphic analyses
outlined include the use of seismic cross-sections, well logs and
outcrop studies of sedimentary rocks to infer changes ofrelative sea
level and rates of sedimentation. You will be shown how to construct
chronostratigrapic diagrams and also be show how to predict facies
geometries and build depositional models using a variety of
techniques!
Later in the section on the Basics of Sequence Stratigraphy you will be
introduced to the details of how systems tracts respond to changing
base level. However as a preview you can trace clastic systems tract
evolution through time in the linked movie!

Preamble

Value of sequence stratigraphy built from well logs

Interpretations that use well logs for sequence stratigraphy should be
tied tobiostratigraphy so they can be used to correlate and analyze
sedimentary rocks from the perspective of geologic time. Well logs lend
themselves to the detailed reconstructions of paleogeography and the
generation of high frequency stratigraphic models that predict the
distribution of sedimentary facies, particularly those associated with
aquifers, sediment bound ore bodies, and hydrocarbon reservoirs, their
source rocks and seals.

This page is worked around a streamed lecture on . Other Streamed

Web Based Lectures on sequence stratigraphy can be accessed by
clicking on the highlighted text.

The streamed video chalk board lecture below explains the ideal Vail et
al 1977sequence, and considers this in terms of the
component systems tracts, and their gross geometries as products of
changes
in relative
sea
level (base
level)
and
the
evolvingaccommodation' space. You are introduced to sea level
and base level, sequence, concepts of sequence stratigraphy from the
perspective of evolving sediment geometry through time, and relative
sea level changes. The geological setting described in the lecture is
hypothetical, and represents the first of a series of other hypothetical
and real geological examples of clastic and carbonate sequences that
are described in the pages that follow.

The

movie makes the following points:

The lecture seen in the movie involves a geologic model that makes
the following assumptions::
Sea level position varied
Subsidence was constant
Sediment supply was constant
The sequence is divided by surfaces systems tracts. Each systems
tract is represented by a collection of the sediments of the associated
sedimentary depositional systems that were active during the different
phases of base level change. Thus systems tractsediments can be
considered as sedimentary units that were deposited synchronously
and can be mapped as being enclosed by continuous surfaces that
extend from sub-aerial and to sub-aqueous settings.
The systems tracts defined in order of deposition to form the
ideal sequence are:
Early phase lowstand systems tract
Late phase lowstand systems tract
Transgressive systems tract

Highstand systems tract

Early phase lowstand systems tract is associated with:
Falling stage of relative sea level induced by eustasy falling
rapidly and/or tectonic uplift outpacing the rate of change in
sea level position
Fluvial incision up dip with formation of
an unconformity or sequence boundary and the focus of
sediment input at the shoreline
Forced regressions induced by the lack
of accommodation producingstacking patterns of downward
stepping prograding clinoforms over thecondensed
section formed during the previous transgressive
and highstand systems tracts
Slope instability caused by the rapid deposition of sediment
from the fluvial systems
Basin floor fans formed from sediment transported from the
shelf margin when this fails under the weight of the rapid
sediment accumulationassociated with the forced regression
Shelf margin and slope fans form when rates of sedimentation
slows and slope instability is reduced so sediment is not
displaced so far downslope
Onlap of sediments onto the prograding clinoforms below
the shelf break
The lower boundaries of the early phase lowstand systems
tract are the updipunconformity and the top of the
downdip condensed section. These surfacesform by different
mechanisms and have different time significance
The top of the downdip condensed section immediately
underlies thedownlapping prograding clinoforms of the forced
regression
The top of the early phase lowstand systems tract in theory is
marked by an initial onlap onto the often eroded surface of
the prograding clinoforms of theforced regression
Late phase lowstand systems tract is associated with:

A slow relative sea level rise is induced when eustasy begins

to rise slowly and/or tectonic uplift slows
Sediment is now outpaced by an increase
in accommodation and in response the sediment begins
to onlap onto the basin margin
River profiles stabilize
Valleys backfill
Prograding lowstand clinoforms form and are capped
by topset layers thatonlap, aggrade, become thicker upward
and landward
Transgressive systems tract is associated with:
A rapid relative sea level rise above the shelf margin occurs
when eustasybegins to rise rapidly, exceeding the effects of
any tectonic uplift
Condensed sequences are often composed of sediment layers
rich in the tests of fauna that are no longer masked by
sediment accumulation because sedimentation rates are
very slow in response to the greater area of sea floor
exposed to sedimentation
Ravinement erosion surface formed when the transgressing
sea reworks either the prior sequence boundary or the
sediments that may have collected during the forced
regression that may have followed the generation of
thatsequence boundary.
Maximum flooding surface forms when the last fine-grained
widespread transgressive sediment collects before the high
stand builds out over it.
Highstand systems tract is associated with:
Slow rise of relative sea level followed by a slow fall;
essentially a still stand ofbase level when the slower
rate eustatic change balances that of tectonic motion
Sediment outpacing loss of accommodation
River profiles stabilize

River valleys are dispersed laterally in a position landward of

the shelf margin.
Prograding highstand clinoforms develop capped by
aggrading topsets that become thinner upward.
To view carbonates and clastics with different inputs we refer you to the
Quick Time movies on our page.
he modules below are tied to lectures, movies and exercises
accessible from this web site for professional, academic and
educational purposes. They are organized in systematic order for
persons with little understanding of so they improve vocabulary,
understanding and experience. Initial materials and exercises are
introductory but later modules are more sophisticated and challenging.
Completion of the modules provides an understanding of so studies of
well, seismic and outcrop data lead to mature interpretations of the
sedimentary sections. The last item listed at the base of the page are
links to exercises put together by Fred Schroeder of ExxonMobil on the
application fo geology and geophysics to exploration.
If you need immediate access click here for the listing of
printable exercise images and exercise solutions but if you want to
know more about the exercises it is better to retrieve them from the
modules listed below.
Introduction - Rational for Sequence Stratigraphic Exercises
Earth scientists characterizing reservoirs and exploring for
hydrocarbons in carbonateand/or clastic use a sequence stratigraphic
framework of layers, that coupled to their character and origin is now at
the heart of reservoir modeling. The identification of the appropriate
layering geometry is crucial to the construction of 3D exploration
models and static reservoir model reservoir models. Needless to say
the blind rote application of the rules of sequence stratigraphy without
understanding of depositional systems can be a disaster waiting to
happen. This is because the resulting stratigraphic grid becomes the
template for distribution of clastic and/or carbonate facies, their
diagenetic alterations, their associated petrophysical properties, and
final input for engineering models for flow simulation. Poor clastic
and/or carbonate models are often the result of misunderstanding of
the rules and terminology of sequence stratigraphy as well as the
principles and workflows for building stochastic models.
The exercises below should help those who build reservoir and
exploration models and should clarify the rules of sequence
stratigraphy for clastic and/or carbonate settings. This site, with its
exercises, lectures, and descriptive text, can be used to retrieve critical

reservoir for professionals while teaching principles of sequence

stratigraphybased reservoir characterization to novitiates. The
accompanying text on the site ties relevant data including images, text
links, and movies of sedimentary simulations.
Concepts
Before starting the exercises you might wish to view the following
sections on line.
Introduction to Sequence Stratigraphy: the critical stratigraphic
surfaces used insequence stratigraphy with their relationship to the
exercises briefly outlined.
Basics: Introduction to sequence stratigraphy with a Real Time
lecture describing the ideal sequence' of Vail et al 1977 and its
associated terminology.
Clastic Sequence Hierarchies: uses a movie to show the clastic
sedimentary response to changing sea level and rates of
sedimentation focusing on the hierachies of geometry found in
clastic sequences.
Mixed Carbonate & Clastic Basin: a movie of the fill of a sided
sedimentary basin withcarbonate and clastic sediment reviewed.
Carbonate Sequence Hierarchies: examines the hierarchy of scales
expressed bycarbonate strata and provides movies that track the fill
of basins and shelves bycarbonate sediment
Exercises
The paradigms of sequence stratigraphy that the exercises teach
include:
sequence stratigraphy provides a framework that subdivides the
sedimentary section into geometric packages bounded by
unconformities and internal surfaces
Sedimentary geometries enclosed by this framework are related to
changes in base level (sea level and/or tectonic movement) and rates
of sedimentation
The extent and character of sedimentary geometries can be predicted
sequence stratigraphy has economic implications in that it can be
used to make predictions as to the extent and character of the rocks
containing hydrocarbon and water resources
The best of interpretations are preferably made with a tie between
local outcrops, local wells and local seismic.
If one or two of these data sources are missing the resulting models

may be diminished by their absence.

Outcrop studies of sedimentary rocks are used to predict the
continuity and extent of their lithology and provide an even more
detailed understanding of the lithology of these geometries.
Seismic cross-sections can provide regional control on the
geometries of sequences
Well logs can be used to determine the lithology of these geometries
The exercises using outcrops indicate how:
Outcrops are the ultimate ground truth to the correlation
of parasequences
Major surfaces that include transgressive surfaces (TS), maximum
flooding surfaceaximum flooding surfaces (mfs),
and sequence boundaries (SB) facilitate this correlation.
stacking patterns of parasequences help determine the continuity of
the reservoir quality & depositional setting of the sediments they
bound.
The high-frequency "cycle" or "parasequence" is the smallest set of
genetically related facies deposited during a single base-level cycle.
cycle boundaries mark the turnaround from base-level fall to baselevel rise (a period of time during which sea level rises from a
highstand position, through a lowstand, and returns to a highstand).
cycles can be mapped across multiple facies tracts and include
multiple vertical facies successions (VFS) and chronostratigraphic
units (Kerans & Tinker, 1997 and Mitchum & Van Wagoner, 1991).
The commonest parasequence is the shoaling upward cycle, with
finer deeper water facies at their base and coarser better-sorted facies
towards their top.
parasequence set; parasequence sets identified in outcrop can be
used to identify potential acquifers, aquicludes, hydrocarbon source
rocks, reservoirs and seals.
The exercises using well log character
Correlate parasequence set; parasequence sets at the scale of feet
to tens of feet
Determine the depositional setting of the component sytems tracts
Determine the sequence stratigraphy of the section being studied
parasequences are identified and correlated from well log character,
particularly when planktonic or palynologic biostratigraphy are
available.
The resulting parasequences are often at the same scale as the
components of local hydrocarbon reservoirs
Find, map and exploit these reservoirs more effectively by relating
them to eustaticevents
The exercises using seismic cross-section display how
To determine the sequence stratigraphy of a basin from

discontinuity surfaces that coincide with seismic reflector terminations

Those surfaces that form the sequence boundaries are correlated
The enveloped sytems tracts are correlated
Both sequence boundaries and sytems tracts are traced from line to
line to establish the sedimentary architecture of the basin and infer the
origins of the sytems tracts
clinoform geometries can be used to show evidence of delta
switching, slumping and migration and related to the shifting of the
source areas
The effects of variable rates of sediment supply in the area of study
can be examined
To determine evidence for widespread changes in base level
To locate basin floor fans, slope fans and incised valleys and find
evidence to demonstrate that these latter were produced during
changes in base level.
Chronostratigraphy
1 Exercise
1 - chronostratigraphy:
construction
of
a
chronostratigraphic chart with the support of a movie that tracks an
evolving chronostratigraphic chart and the fill of the associated
sedimentary basin.
Outcrop sequence stratigraphy - carbonates
Introduction to Sequence Stratigraphy of Carbonates Sections Miocene Carbonates of Mallorca, Spain: the first steps in the use of
measured sections to build sequences stratigraphic models
of carbonate platform and reef depositional systems, using measure
sections from the sea cliffs lining the south eastern shore of Mallorca.
Exercise 1 - Measured Sections at Cap Blanc- Cliffs of Late
Miocene Reef Complex: introduction
to carbonate cycleidentification on the basis of
the carbonate lithofacies within outcrops of the Llucmajor
reef. Identification of a vertical set ofparasequences
and cycles within a measured section.
Exercise 2 - Measured Sections at Cap Blanc- Cliffs of Late
Miocene Reef Complex: two to three measured sections are
correlated using a combination of predicted trajectories
ofparasequence stacking patterns in the Llucmajor reef,
changes incarbonate facies, and major tied from section to
section.
Exercise 3 - Measured Sections and Wells in the Llucmajor
Late Miocene Reef Complex: correlation of wells and

measured sections in the Llucmajor using predicted reef

trajectories to construct a regional sequence stratigraphic
interpretation of facies geometries that involve lithofacies,
major surfaces, andparasequences that tie them together.
Outcrop sequence stratigraphy - Clastics
Introduction to Sequence Stratigraphy of Clastic Sections - Book Cliffs,
Utah: the first steps in the use of measured sections to
build sequences stratigraphic models of clastic shoreline depositional
systems, using measure sections from the Book Cliffs in Utah.
Exercise 1 - Measured Section at Kennilworth - Book Cliffs,
Utah:introduction to parasequence identification on the basis
of the lithologies within outcrops. One section is considered
and used to identify a vertical set of parasequences within a
measured section.
Exercise 2 - Measured Sections at Panther, Kennilworth &
Coal Canyons - Book Cliffs, Utah: three measured sections
are correlated using a combination of changes in grain size
and depositionals facies to identify the
major and parasequencestacking patterns that are tied from
section to section.
Exercise 3 - Measured Sections from Gilson Gulch to Coal
Canyon - Book Cliffs, Utah: correlation of twelve measured
sections in the Book Cliffs and construction of a
regionalsequence stratigraphic interpretation of facies
geometries usinglithofacies, major surfaces,
and parasequences to tie these together.
Well Log sequence stratigraphy - General Preamble
1 Introduction to Sequence Stratigraphy with Well Logs: the first steps
in the use of well logs to build sequences stratigraphic models
of depositional system.
2 Well Log Suites: brief description of how different types of well log
are used to interpret sedimentary geology.
3 Well Log Response Character: explanation of the use of the shapes
of well log curves to track changes in mineral content, and grain size
and so interpret sedimentary geology.
4 Well
Log
Stacking
how aggradational,retrogradational

Patterns: explanation
of
and progradational stacking

patterns identified on well logs can be used to interpret sedimentary

depositional settings.
Well Log sequence stratigraphy - Clastic High-Frequency Signals
1 The Geologic setting of the La Pascua Formation - Guarico SubBasin:general geological setting of the nearshore clastics of the Lower
Oligocene La Pascua formation of the Las Mercedes Field in the West
Guarico Block, Venezuela, their lithology, relationship to sea level and
plate
tectonic
setting.
2 Introduction to Sequence Stratigraphy of the La Pascua Formation Guarico Sub-Basin: first steps in the use of well logs to
build sequences stratigraphic models of clastic shoreline depositional
systems for the Lower Oligocene La Pascua formation of the Las
Mercedes Field in the West Guarico Block, Venezuela.
Exercise 1 - Well log correlation using SP & RES
logs:interpretation of local north eastern Venezuelan
clasticstratigraphy using three wells (W-1, W-2, W-3) that
penetrate the Lower Oligocene La Pascua formation of the
Las Mercedes Field in the West Guarico Block.
Exercise 2 - Well log correlation using SP & RES
logs:interpretation of local north eastern
Venezuelan stratigraphy and identification of a
clastic sequence in an incised valley using 10 wells (W-1 to
W-10) that penetrate the Lower Oligocene La
Pascua formation of the Las Mercedes Field in the West
Guarico Block.
Exercise 3 - Well log correlation using SP & RES
logs:interpretation of local north eastern
Venezuelan stratigraphy and identification of a
clastic sequence of an incised valley, and its relationship to
sea level from 22 wells (W-1 - W-22) that penetrate in the
Lower Oligocene La Pascua formation of the Las Mercedes
Field in the West Guarico Block.
Exercise 4 - Well log correlation using SP & RES
logs:interpretation of local north eastern
Venezuelan stratigraphy and identification of a
clastic sequence of an incised valley, and its relationship to
sea level from 5 Wells (me333, me296, me428,me313
and me 486) within the central portion of the Northern Strike
Line that penetrate in the Lower Oligocene La

Pascuaformation of the Las Mercedes Field in the West

Guarico Block.
Exercise 5 - Well log correlation using SP & RES
logs:interpretation of local north eastern
Venezuelan stratigraphy and identification of the clastic
coastal and incised valley sequences, and their relationship
to sea level from wells that penetrate in the Lower Oligocene
La Pascua formation of the Las Mercedes Field in the West
Guarico Block on a North-South Dip line , a Northern Strike
Line and a Southern Strike Line.
Solutions for Exercise 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5: interpretation of well log
cross-sections of coastal sedimentation and incised valley fill
explained with a movie of the evolving clastic sequences.
3 References: References for the interpretation of Well logs and
References for the Guarico Sub-basin geological framework and
regionalstratigraphy.
Core & Well Log sequence stratigraphy - carbonate High Frequency
Signals
1) Introduction to high frequency Carbonate Sequence Stratigraphy: an
explanation of why cycles and parasequences are used to study
ancientcarbonate systems
2) Correlation of cycles and/or sequence parasequences; cycles
and/orparasequence sets;
and systems
tracts
in
the
Hanifa formation: based onstacking patterns & log character. A
description of the surfaces that bound and subdivide parasequences
and how they are identified on well logs. How to construct Fischer
Diagrams.
Exercise 1: Introduction to parasequence identification on the
basis of the lithologies within cored wells. Well # 1 penetrates
a shallow shelf region and Well # 2 a deeper region.
Exercise 2: Four well logs correlated using a combination of
well logs and cores to identify the major <stratigraphic
surfaces andparasequence stacking patterns that are tied
from well to well.
Exercise 3: The use of 14 (Fourteen) well logs to make a
regionalsequence stratigraphic interpretation of facies
geometries by identifying major surfaces, establishing
the lithofacies, building a Fisher diagram.

Exercise 4: Improve high frequency cycle correlation using the

Fischer Diagram.
3) A well log cross-section across the margin of "NE shelf of the
DelawareBasin of the Permian Basin" in New Mexico and the NW flank
of the Centralbasin Platform (After Harris & Saller 1999).
Exercise 1: Introduction to cycle (and/or ParaSequence)
identification on the basis well logs to identify the
majorstratigraphic
surfaces and cycle (and/or parasequence) stacking patterns
Exercise 2: Well logs correlated using a combination of well
logs and seismic tied to synthetic to identify the geometry of
majorstratigraphic
surfaces and cycle (and/or parasequence) stacking
patterns that are tied from well to well.
Exercise 3: Fill in details of lithofaceis on partly interpreted well
log section with information gleaned from interpreted seismic
and establish cycle (and/or parasequence) stacking
patterns that are tied from well to well.
4) "Beltzaren Lurraldean Field in NW Syldavia" (After Herg 1939).
Exercises that introduce high frequency carbonate sequence
stratigraphywith an "hypothetical" example: introduction to use of well
log interpretation of carbonates using awell-log section across the
imaginary Ordoviciancarbonate margin of the Beltzarin basin.
Exercise 1: Introduction
to surfaces and parasequence stacking patterns tied from
well to well.
Exercise 2: Well logs correlated using a combination of well
logs and cores to identify the major stratigraphic
surfaces and cycle(and/or parasequence) stacking
patterns that are tied from well to well.
Seismic sequence stratigraphy
1 Introduction to Seismic Sequence Analysis: the first steps that need
to be taken to make a seismic stratigraphy interpretation and the
definition and illustration of genetic reflection packages that
envelope seismic sequences and systems tracts.
2 Exercise 1- Tying a Well Synthetic to a Seismic Line: a seismic
cross-section through Little Knife Field tied to a synthetic seismic trace

made from velocity log from the Zablotny #1well so determining the
localstratigraphy of
the
Williston basin.
3 Exercise 2- Seismic Sequence Analysis: sequence stratigraphy of a
seismic line across the lower Cretaceous of the offshore of South
Africa.
4 Exercise 3- Seismic Sequence Analysis: sequence stratigraphy of
five regional seismic lines from the National Petroleum Reserve of
Alaska (NPRA):
a) Objectives & Data: seismic used to determine the geometric
relationship of sequences, delta migration, local and regional tectonics,
and the eustatic signal.
b) Geological Setting: Colville "foreland" basin initiated in the Jurassic
and filled by prograding clinoforms of siliciclastics through the
Cretaceous and Tertiary.
c) Class Answer - sequence stratigraphy of Lower Cretaceous: slow
and constant rate of subsidence with a steady inflow of clastics
responding to second and third order eustatic signals in the
Cretaceous section with localized higher-frequency (4th
order?) events related to delta migration.
5
Exercise
4
Sequence Analysis: carbonate sequencestratigraphy of
seismic line from the western Great Bahamas Bank:

- Seismic
regional

a) Objectives & Data: carbonate sequence stratigraphy of the shelf,

reef crest, slope and down slope basin floor fans related to local
changes inbase level and the Haq et al (1987) sea level chart.
b) Seismic Line: Cretaceous and Tertiary carbonate sediments of the
western Great Bahamas Bank reflect the effects of changes in sea
level.
c) Class Answer - The tie of Sequence Stratigraphy of the Neogene
Section to Eustasy: A slow and constant rate of subsidence, and
steady flux ofcarbonates sediments onto the Great Bahamas Bank
caused a close balance between aggradation and progradation, while
small changes in the rate of relative sea level movement
and/or carbonate accumulation causing immediate switches
from aggradation to progradation at the margin.
An Introduction to the Hunt For Oil provides a link to a series of
lectures and exercises compiled by Fred W. Schroeder when he
worked for ExxonMobil to introduce earth scientists to the geology and

geophysics applied in hydrocarbon exploration.Topics range from a

background to the oil industry; the basics of prospecting; well log data;
seismic and their Interpretation; structural and stratigraphic analysis;
drilling prospects and a lease sale. The site is provided courtesy of
ExxonMobil.
Well Log Interpretations

Well logs and sequence stratigraphic interpretation

The associated pages are focused on well logs and
building sequences stratigraphic models for both
Clastic and
carbonate
depositional systems.The sections are organized as follows:Intro Well Log Seq Strat
Well Log Suites
Response Character
stacking patterns
High Frequency Clastic sequence stratigraphy Venezuela
Guarico Electric Logs
High Frequency carbonate sequence stratigraphy
Hanifa Fm Exercise
Permian Basin Exercise
Skydavian Exercise
References
A relatively conformable succession of genetically
related strata bounded at their upper surface and base by

unconformities and their correlative conformities (Vail, et al., 1977).

This sequence is composed of a succession of genetically linked
deposition systems (systems tracts) and is interpreted to be deposited
between eustatic-fall inflection points (Posamentier, et al., 1988).
The sequences and the system tracts they enclose are subdivided
and/or bounded by a variety of "key" surfaces that bound or envelope
these discrete geometric bodies of sediment. They mark changes in
depositional regime "thresholds" across that boundary.
The definition of a sequence has been updated by Catuneanu (2006)
to be the fundamental statal unit of sequence stratigraphy. Like Vail, et
al., (1977) he sees this as represented by a relatively conformable
succession of genetically related stratabounded by surfaces but
extends this to correspond to a full cycle of base-level changes
or shoreline shifts depending on the sequence model being employed.
Earlier Catuneanu (2002) identified five sequence stratigraphic
models that are based on the original depositional sequence of Vail et
al.(1977). These are:
depositional sequences with
erosional sequence boundaries (unconformities) associated
with the curve that defines base level change (often a
change ofrelative sea level) Haq et al, (1987), Posamentier
et al. (1988), Van Wagoner et al. (1988, 1990); Christie-Blick
(1991); Hunt and Tucker (1992, 1995); and Plint and
Nummendal (2000).
genetic sequences Frazier (1974); and Galloway (1989)
Transgressive regressive (T-R) sequences (Curray, 1964; &
Embry, 1993; 1995)
COMMENT: The Posamentier's interpretation related to the inflexion
point has been the subject of some discussion. His interpretation was
published post the extensive disscussion that has insued related to the
role of sediments being deposited during the falling stage of sea
level cycle and in the light of this where the sequence boundaryshould
fall. Hunt & Tucker, (1992), 1995) discuss the role of forcedregressions and where the sequence boundary should be placed
respect to sea level position.
For instance Hunt believes that the position of the sequence
boundary should be placed at the lowest position reached by sea level.
There are a number of geologists who support this contention. One of
these is Pomar (1991) who recognizes that within the Late Miocene
reefal platform of Mallorca the sequence boundary and the downlap
surface are both coeval and formed during the falling stage of sea

level. Both surfacesbound the offlapping systems tract and merge

landward in the erosion surface and,basinward, in the condensed
interval.

Note the correlative conformity on the top of the basin floor fan as
suggested by Vail, 1987, versus the Hunt and Tucker, 1992 & 1995,
models.
References
Catuneanu, Octavian (2002), Sequence stratigraphy of clastic
systems: concepts, merits, and pitfalls Journal of African Earth
Sciences, Volume 35, Issue 1, Pages 1-43.
Catuneanu, Octavian (2006), Principles of sequence stratigraphy, (1st
ed.) Elsevier, pp 375.
Christie-Blick, N., 1991, onlap, offlap, and the origin
of unconformity boundeddepositional sequences. Marine Geology 97,
3556.
Curray, J.R., 1964. transgressions and regressions. In: Miller, R.L.
(Ed.), Papers in Marine Geology. Macmillan, New York, pp. 175 203.
Embry, A.F., 1993,. Transgressiveregressive (T
R) sequence analysis of the Jurassic succession of the
Sverdrup basin, Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Canadian Journal of
Earth Sciences 30, 301320.
Embry, A.F., 1995. Sequence boundaries and sequence hierarchies:
problems and proposals. In: Steel, R.J., Felt, V.L., Johannessen, E.P.,

Mathieu, C. (Eds.), Sequence Stratigraphy on the Northwest European

Margin, vol. 5 (Special Publication). Norwegian Petroleum Society
(NPF), pp. 111.
Frazier, D.E., 1974, Depositional episodes: their relationship to the
Quaternary stratigraphic framework in the northwestern portion of the
Gulf Basin. Geological Circular, vol. 1, no. 1. University of Texas at
Austin, Bureau of Economic Geology, p. 28.
Galloway, W.E., 1989, Genetic stratigraphic sequences
in basin analysis. I. Architecture and genesis of flooding-surface
bounded depositional units. American Association of Petroleum
Geologists Bulletin 73, 125142.
Hunt, D., and M. E. Tucker, 1992, Stranded parasequences and the
forced regressive wedge systems tract: deposition during base-level
fall, Sedimentary Geology, 81, 1-9.
Hunt, D., and M. E. Tucker, 1995, Stranded parasequences and the
forced regressive wedge systems tract: deposition during base-level
fall-reply, Sedimentary Geology,95, 147-160.
Plint, A.G., Nummedal, D., 2000, The falling stage systems tract:
recognition and importance in sequence stratigraphic analysis. In:
Hunt, D., Gawthorpe, R.L. (Eds.), Sedimentary Response to Forced
Regression, vol. 172. Geol. Soc. London Speci. Publ, pp. 117.
Pomar, L., 1991, Reef geometries, erosion surfaces and high
frequency sea level changes, Upper Miocene Reef Complex, Mallorca,
Spain: Sedimentology, v. 38, p. 243269.
Posamentier, H.W., Jervey, M.T., Vail, P.R., 1988, eustatic controls on
clastic deposition. I. Conceptual framework. In: Wilgus, C.K., Hastings,
B.S., Kendall, C.G.St.C., Posamentier, H.W., Ross, C.A., Van
Wagoner, J.C. (Eds.), Sea Level ChangesAn Integrated Approach,
vol. 42. SEPM Special Publication, pp. 110 124.
Vail, P. R. , R. G. Todd,and J. B. Sangree, 1977,
Seismic Stratigraphy and Global Changes of Sea Level: Part 5.
Chronostratigraphic Significance of Seismic Reflections: Section 2.
Application of Seismic Reflection Configuration to Stratigraphic
Interpretation Memoir 26, Pages 99 116.
STRATA TERMINOLOGY-CARBONATES
Commonly a sedimentary rock, either limestone (whose mineralogy is
calcium carbonate (CaCO3), or a dolomite (Ca(Mg)CO3)). Often
formed of the remains of calcium carbonate tests of marine organisms,
and/physicochemical grains
including oolites, intraclasts, pellets and/lime mud or micrite. Rates
of accumulation are often sensitive to photosynthesis and so depth of
water.
DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMSDD

DEPOSITIOD

DEPO

DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS
A three-dimensional assemblage of lithofacies, genetically linked by
active (modern) or inferred (ancient) processes and setting (e.g.,
fluvial, deltaic, barrier-island, carbonatemargin, shoal or tidal

flat).

Introduction to well log character and shoreline clastics Venezuela

Much of the un-referenced text below is copied and modified from John
Reistroeffer's (2001) PhD Dissertation. Paul Lake, Eric Anderson and
Nassir al Naji helped build the exercises from John Reistroeffer's data
set. Errors are those of Christopher Kendall (alias "Retorno al Futuro")
who ascribes to John's positive credo that "the sky is the limit"!
The exercises that follow introduce the interpretation of the sequence
stratigraphy of an area using the electric logs. These logs are from a
series of wells drilled in the shorelineclastics of the Mesozoic and
Tertiary section of the northern cratonic margin of Eastern Venezuela in
the Western Guarico sub-basin. The focus of the exercises are wells
that penetrate the Lower Oligocene La Pascua Formation. Since
this formation does not outcrop, its lithology and sedimentary character
are determined from E-logs and cores. The La Pascua Formation is an
overall transgressive sandstone unit that contains the major
hydrocarbon reservoirs for the region which have produced some 135
million barrels of oil and 686 billion cubic feet of gas (Reistroeffer,
2001). The exercises use electric logs to first identify and correlate a
series of stratigraphic surfaces. These include transgressive surfacesTS, maximum flooding surfaces-MFS and sequence boundaries-SB.
From these the stacking patterns of the enclosed parasequences are

established and used to determine the depositional setting of

this formation.

Figure 1: Generalized geologic map of Venezuela showing the

location of the Western Guarico block and the chosen study area.
(www.geology.about.com/library/bl/maps/blvenezuelamap.htm)

Figure 2. Key to the generalized geologic map of Venezuela (figure 1

above) (www.geology.about.com/library/bl/maps/blvenezuelamap.htm)
The Eastern Venezuela Basin is formed of a series of Late Eocene to
recent forelandbasins located between the Guayana Shield to the
South, and mountain chains associated with the Caribbean-South
American plate to the north. The Caribbean-South American plate
margin became active in the late Cretaceous when the Caribbean plate
moved eastwards along the northwest margin of South America (Burke
et. al 1984, Lugo, 1994, Audemard et. Al. 1985, Bartok, 1993). This
eastward movement relative to and past the South American plate
resulted in compressional to transpressional deformation along the
interface between the plates. The thickest sedimentary packages of
these asymmetric basins are located in the domain of maximum
subsidence along an axis parallel and adjacent to the mountain front.
Sediments thin in a southerly direction away from this axis. The
Western Guarico sub-basin, the site of the well log exercises, is one of
these basins and the basin surface changes into a gently dipping zone
of low subsidence and sedimentation rates and the craton forms the
southern margin of the basin dips north towards the basin axis.
The sediments of the La Pascua Formation accumulated during
a transgression in the Tertiary, and onlap onto the underlying
Cretaceous Tigre Formation. The area of study is part of the Western
Guarico
Block
(Figures
1,
2,
3
and
4).

Figure 3

Figure 4

La Pascua Formation - Origin of the Oligocene cycles

Reistroeffer (2001) described the La Pascua section used in these
exercises
as
corresponding
to
a
third
order
Lower
Oligocene sequence which lasted slightly more than one million years.
He believed that this sequence is composed of ten fourth
ordersequences that each lasted about 125 thousand years. He noted
how high frequency Oligocene sequences is also found to the east in
the same age sediments of the Los Jabillos Formation (Personal
Communication to Reistroeffer from Gerald Baum). In the east in the
northern Monagas area Genaro Gifuni (1996) identified low and high
frequency sequences in the Upper Oligocene Naricual Formation. The
Rupelian aged Boom Clay of Belgium is also composed of rocks that
are interpreted to have accumulated over a series of100,000
year cycles and Abreu and Haddad's (1998) unsmoothed oxygen
isotope curve has high frequency "noise" with a similar cyclicity. These
latter authors attribute high frequency cyclicity of the Boom Clay to
Milankovichcycles and attribute the driver to something similar to the
third order cyclicity seen in the Antarctic deep sea drilling cores
glacial cycles. Hanners (1974) also attributed la Pascua
Formation cyclicity to Milankovitch cycles. Thus together the thread
that ties these different Oligocene sections together is interpreted by
Reistroeffer (2001) to be the fourth order cycles, attributed to
Milankovitch driven glacial cycles, and their superposition on third
order cycles

as in Figure 5.
La
Pascua
Formation
General
Description
As indicated above the La Pascua Formation is confined to the
subsurface. It was first formally described by Hedberg (1950) but was
informally used by the SAPLM in their early exploration of the Las
Mercedes area. It was later described in detail by Patterson and
Wilson (1953) and they designated the type section as the Guayabo-2
well in the southeastern quadrant of the study area.
The La Pascua Formation is approximately 500 feet thick in the Las
Mercedes field area. Approximately 300 feet of this is net sand, and

200 feet is shale. Eight principle sands were labeled by Sociedad

Anonima Petrolera Las Mercedes (SAPLM) from youngest to oldest as
"A", "B", "BB", "C", "D", "E", "F", and "G" (Figure 5 thumbnail above).
This correlation was changed by John Desisto working for Meneven in
1977 to be nine sand bodies ("P-1" through "P-9") from youngest to
oldest. The exercises below Reistroeffers 2001 nomenclature,
expanding on that of Desisto by identifying eleven sand units that
included P-1 through P-11 (Figure 5 thumbnail above). The difference
is reflected with two additional sands in SAPLM's "F" series, and an
additional transgressive unit which pinches out at the level of the lower
"G"
sand.
The sands of the La Pascua Formation are grey to grey-brown and
range in average grain size from very fine to very coarse with some
conglomeratic intervals containing cobble-sized material (Patterson
and Wilson, 1953). Total silt and clay content in the better developed
sands varies from 4.6-13% (Perko, 1952). Overall the sands have fair
to good sorting. Sieve analysis shows a tendency towards finer grain
size at and above the level of the "D" sands (P-5) (Perko, 1952).
Kaolinite is often present in the sands ranging from point occurrences
to thin layers. Often the fines are associated with production problems.
This material is interpreted to be weathered remnants of feldspars
derived from granites of the Guyana shield and the El Baul arch.
The shale layers that separate the sandstone bodies are black to greyblack, massive to finely laminated, calcareous to non-calcareous, with
occasional pyrite grains and thin layers of lignite. Lignites and lignitic
shales are common in the section, and, where they have been cored,
reach four feet in thickness. These are commonly found near the top of
each sandstone interval. Typical fossils include mollusk and mollusk
fragments, which are often found in the sand bodies. Plant impressions
and remains are commonly found within the levels of the lignite and
lignitic shales. Foraminifera are found in the shales between the sand
bodies
(Patterson
and
Wilson,
1953).
The heavy minerals of the La Pascua Formation are dominated by
titanium minerals of which leucocene (weathered illmenite) usually
makes up more than half of the heavy concentrates, along with smaller
amounts of anatase, rutile, titanite, and brookite. The non-titanium
minerals are dominated by zircon, with scattered occurrences of
tourmaline. Scattered single-grain occurrences of staurolite,
hornblende, augite, epidote and hypersthene are also present (Perko,
1952). The La Pascua Formation sands in the West Guarico block
have a similar heavy mineral suite to the Merecure Group sands, as
discussed by Funkhouser et. al. (1948) as having been derived from
the
Guyana
Shield.

The La Pascua Formation is overlain by the regional transgressive

Roblecito Formation, a marine facies which has a proximal La Pascua
sandy equivalent. The original definition of the La Pascua Formation
only included the sandy intervals found in the Las Mercedes field area.
However this name has come to represent the basal sandstone units
of the regional Upper Eocene-Lower Oligocene transgression. The
sandstone levels at and above the "D" sands (P-5) in the Western
Guarico block are represented by shales to the northwest in the Grico,
Camaz, and El Sombrero areas. Sandstone levels in the north and
northwest are older, while successively younger units pinchout
southeastward. Basal sandstones to the south, in the Machete area of
the heavy oil belt, are the lateral equivalents to marine shales of the
Roblecito Formation, which overlie the Western Guarico Block.
Sandstones in the La Pascua Formation are derived from three
primary sources. The lower units ("G" and "F" SAPLM nomenclature,
or P-7, P-8, P-9 Desisto nomenclature or P-7, P-8, P-9, P-10, P-11,
these exercises) are all derived from a southern source in the
Precambrian Roraima Formation of the Guyana shield south of the
area of the exercises. Sands in the upper La Pascua Formation at and
above the "D" sands (the P-5 sands of Desisto and these exercises) in
the Western Guarico Block are also derived from the southern Guyana
shield source. Upper La Pascua Formation sands north of the study
area in Yucal-Placer, Macaira, Uveral and Cardonal are derived from a
northern source, probably eroded material from an encroaching
northern thrust front (Aymard et. al., 1985, Daal et. al. 1989). Between
the area of the exercies and the above-mentioned areas to the north,
exists a zone with minimum sandstone present in the La Pascua
Formation. This area is the axis of the La Pascua aged basin, which
separates the zone of southern-sourced clastics from the zone of
northern-sourced sediments (Patterson and Wilson et. al. 1953, Fasola
et. al., 1985 and Cabrera et. al., 1994). In addition, the presence of
kaolinite in the sands opens the possibility that at least some of the
clastics
are
derived
from
the
El
Baul
arch.
The upper contact with the Roblecito Formation is transitional and
conformable. It corresponds to the top of the uppermost sand-body in
the Guayabo-2 well in the study area. The contact in the northwest
which corresponds to an electric log marker at the base of the
Roblecito shales, does not represent a lithologic change, since the
upper La Pascua section is mostly shale. Likewise; to the northeast of
the study area, the contact is marked by an electric log marker at the
top of the sandy La Pascua Formation interval but does not represent
a lithologic break, since the Lower Roblecito Formation is also quite
sandy.
The Lower contact with the Cretaceous El Tigre Formation is

unconformable, and the La Pascua sands overlie progressively older

sediments in a southwesterly direction until they rest unconformably on
the Paleozoics of the Barbasco Group, the El Baul Granite and the
Guacamaya Volcanics, southwest of the town of El Calabozo (Miller
and
Martinez,
1972,
Patterson
and
Wilson,
1953).
The contact between the basal La Pascua and the Cretaceous was
extensively cored by SAPLM. The unconformity is easy to determine in
cored sections but is often less obvious from cuttings and E-logs.
Cores show poorly-sorted sandstones and conglomerates ranging in
grain size from fine to pebble sized. Geode-like silica concretions,
chert grains and pebbles considered to be reworked Cretaceous
sediments are common. Kaolinite occurs in small pockets which
represent the weathered remains of feldspar crystals. Occasional
lignites and lignite streaks are found in the lower La Pascua
sandstone. Dr. L. V. Illing et. al. in a 1953 internal report describes the
pebbles in the basal Tertiary unit as follows:
"... well rounded all sizes up to 3" across: the dominant size is
estimated at one half to three quarters inch in diameter. The principle
(pebble type) .... white porcelaneous chert with a slightly powdery
texture and often with roughly cuboidal fractures. Some pebbles show
a darker core. The white color is due to a very finely porous texture,
and is clearly due to alteration, presumably weathering. By soaking in
clove oil, the chert becomes translucent or transparent, and shows
small inclusions and occasional foraminifera. Some pebbles are very
rich in foraminifera, including abundant Textularia(?), some Globigerina
and many other pelagic forms. The chert is devitrified and shows as a
plexus of tiny crystallites under cross-nicols. Occasionally, it shows a
spherulitic devitrification. Rare pebbles of fresh chert occur"
The Underlying Cretaceous has blue-grey fish remains, rodlike tan
fecal pellets, foraminiferal chert, isolated secondary dolomite rhombs
and finely banded siliceous argillite. Occurrences of black translucent
chert have abundant inclusions of foraminifera including spherical
cells, Textularia and Globigerina. Occasional veins of opaque white
and clear blue chert occur, the white color is probably due to
weathering similar to the weathering that occurs in the La Pascua
Formation
cores
(Illing
et.
al.,
1953).
The La Pascua Formation, in wells adjacent to the southern margin of
the mountain front in the northern Guarico area, is Lower Oligocene in
age, based on the presence of the planktonic foraminifera zones of
Cassigerinella chipolensis/Pseudohastigerina micra and Globigerina
ampliapertura (Fasola et. al., 1985).

The next Section describes the first steps in the use of well logs to
build sequences stratigraphic models of clastic shoreline depositional
systems for the Lower Oligocene La Pascua Formation of the Las
Mercedes Field in the West Guarico Block,Venezuela.
High Frequency Clastic Seq Str

> Guarico Basin Log Responses

Introduction to exercises in well log response

of shoreline clastics - La PascuaFormation, Venezuela:
The exercises below involve detailed correlations
using SP and Resitivity Logs. There two sets of these exercises and
both are related to the interpretation of the localstratigraphy of the
Lower Oligocene La Pascua formation of the Las Mercedes Field in the
West Guarico Block of north eastern Venezuelan in which
clastic sequences related to incised valley fill and their relationship to
sea level.
The first set are Exercise 1, Exercise 2 and Exercise 3 which cover a
first pass with a well log data set from a limited number of wells for the
top of the La Pasqua formationinvolving three sequences. These well
logs are flattened on the top of a majortransgressive surface (TS) on
the silt marking the contact between the La Pascua below and the
overlying Roblecito Formation.
The second set are Exercise 4, and Exercise 5 and these cover a well
log data set also focuses on the iterpretation of he top of the La
Pasqua formation but now extends to five sequences and many more
wells. To help with the interpretation of these latter logs an initial
correlation has been made with the sections hung on three
widespreadsurfaces. These are:
A basal surface correlated to the top of the P-5 silt
A surface representing the top of the P-3 silt at the center of
the section and around which it is flattened

The top of the section is marked by the top of the silt that lies
at the contact between the Roblecito and
Pascua Formations.
The correlation surfaces used in both sets of exercises extend across
the area penetrated by the wells, except where they are interrupted by
the incision of local channels. These surfaces cap silty horizons that
are equated with surfaces of transgression (TS) that formed at wave
base, and above, when the sea floor was reworked just following a sea
level low. Normally radioactive peaks on Gamma Ray Logs, associated
with mfs,
are
more
extensive
and
would
have
been
better surfacesbut gamma ray logs were not available for much of the
Guarico Sub basin.
The strategy recommended for the exercises is to first identify
additional surfacescapping through-going shales and silts and
correlate these from well to well. Once thesurfaces have been
identified
these
should
be
used
to
separate
and
correlateparasequence sets (at the scale of feet to tens of feet). The
vertical and lateral character of these parasequences (stacking
patterns) is in turn used to interpret the depositional setting of the
component systems tracts. For instance these boundariesshould be
used to bracket the different parasequence intervals (as in the cross
section displayed in the oval image heading this section) and then
these parasequences
are
used
to
establish
the sequence
stratigraphy of the lower Oligocene La Pascuaformation in the West
Guarico Block.
In the exercises it is assumed that parasequences identifed from the
log character match universal and easily identifiable high frequency
signals that can be used to correlate the marine and marginal marine
sediments involved, particularly since the planktonic or palynologic
biostratigrapic markers occur in only a few vertically dispersed shale
horizons (Reistroeffer, 2001). The resulting parasequences have the
same scale as the components of local hydrocarbon reservoirs.
The parasequences have been interpreted, mapped and tied to high
frequency eustatic events and then be used to find and exploit these
reservoirs (Reistroeffer, 2001). Interestingly the Rupelian aged section
of the exercises has more stratigraphic sequences (Vail et al., 1977)
than have been recorded on the eustatic charts of Haq, et. al. (1987).
This is explained to be the product of high frequency variations in one
or more of the principal variables that controlled the dimensions of
the accommodation space. These variables include rates of
subsidence (tectonics), sedimentation, and/or sea level. The economic
impact of this high number of stratigraphic sequences is to increase
the
number
of
reservoir-seal
couplets.

Criteria to use in making a depositional interpretation - a Big

Secret!!!
The purpose in providing a background on the regional geology of the
Guarico Subbasin was to help extend the data of the wells. While the
scientific method encourages the scientist to gather data, form a
hypothesis and then test this with further observation, it should be
recognized that only some of the data available is relevant and
essential to determining the depositional setting of these rocks and
their distribution. The experienced interpreter filters the noise from the
data, looks for criteria that are considered essential to solving the
problem at hand, proposes a geological model, and checks to see if
the data matches that expected for that model.
What
are
these
magical
essential
criteria?
They
are
often uncited since they are considered to be too obvious. These
criteria vary from one geological problem to the next but in the
interpretation of the sequence statigraphy of an area they will tend to
be very much related to the regional setting of the rocks in question.
The experienced interpreter will either already know this, or will read
the relevant literature to find out what has already been established
concerning the depositional setting of the sedimentary rocks in
question. This understanding of regional geology will then be combined
with a knowledge of vertical and lateral facies relationships in near
shore clastic settings (eg.shoreline, beach, stacked beaches, tidal
flats, deltas) and Walther's Law, and used to build potential
depositional models. The interpreter will then work with the logs using
techniques similar to those explained in the exercise to establish the
correct depositional model and a sequence stratigraphic interpretation
should follow!
A
proposed
depositional
model
As is the suggested strategy for the implementation of the exercises
Reistroeffer (2001) first tied the major shale markers and used well log
character to interpret the distribution of the principal sandbodies of La
Pascua formation. He established these to be:
Strike oriented wave-dominated detached-to-semi-detached
high energy shoreface systems and barrier-island systems.
Flood and ebb tidal delta, and tidal channel systems.
Elongate dip-oriented tidal channel sands.
incised valleys fill sands and massive-blocky, sharp-based
widespread sands.

Sedimentary response to base level change and the

corresponding log character
The vertical relationship of these sands is delineated on the figure
below. Click on the thumbnails to view the depositional maps
Reistroeffer (2001) created.

Diagram and maps of corresponding depositional settings by

Reistroeffer (2001 ).

Reistroeffer (2001) examined the character and stacking patterns of

the E-log response to establish the origin of each of these sand bodies,
or groups of sand bodies, relating them to particular rates of relative
sea level rise, fall or stillstand. Reistroeffer (2001) found that the higher
frequency fourth order eustatic cycles were superimposed on a third
order cycles of sea level. As shown on the Figure above he found that

the dimensions of particular sand bodies could be equated with their

location on the third order lower frequency sea level curve.
EXERCISE
1Objective
Well
log
correlation
and sequence stratigraphic
interpretation
Using SP & RES logs you are provided with a basemap locating three
wells (W-1, W-2, W-3). Each well has Spontaneous Potential
and resistivity logs that are used to correlate the wells. A pdf file
containing all wells and a basemap can printed, reassembled and
taped (PRINTABLE-EX-1). A reduced pdf file version can be also
viewed/and or printed (VIEW-EX-1). These well logs are flattened on
the top of a majortransgressive surface (TS) on the silt marking the
contact between the La Pascua below and the overlying
Roblecito formation.
Methods: Utilize the Gulf Coast slip-slide method to help you match the
log sections and identify the same sections on the various wells. Color
sands
yellow
and
shales
green.
Correlate using the silts as markers.
For each parasequence identify the TSs transgressive
surface and then correlate these on all the well logs
provided. These transgressive correlationsurfaces used in all
the sets of exercises extend across the area penetrated by
the wells, except where they are interrupted by the incision of
local channels. These surfaces cap silty horizons that are
equated with surfaces oftransgression (TS) that formed
at wave base, and above, when the sea floor was reworked
just following a sea level low.
Click on the thumbnail below to view the movie that
demonstrates the technique that first uses the transgressive
surfaces to build a framework ofparasequences from these
correlated surfaces and then infills the
othersurfaces between these as outlined below!

Don't forget to use the left and right keyboard arrows to control the
forward and backward motion of the movie so you can review this as
you view it!
Normally radioactive peaks on gamma ray logs, associated with are
more extensive and would have been better correlation surfaces than

the transgressive surfaces butgamma ray logs were not available for
much of the Guarico Sub Basin. As in the movie above you should use
geologic logic to infer the location of the maximum flooding surfaces
(mfs) and correlate these on all the well logs.
Thus as shown in the film make a cross-section first correlating the
prominent silts for all the wells and then correlating the sands.
Pick base of massive sands and correlate these from well to well when they occur on other
logs in other wells.
Identify the sequence boundaries (SB) at base of the massive sands and correlate these
from well to well.
Identify all systems tracts, including the incised valley, on all well logs.
Click on the thumbnial below to view the movie that tracks an interpretation of the character
of the sedimentary fill of the Guarico Basin during the deposition of the La Pascua Formation.

Don't forget to use the left and right keyboard arrows to control the forward and backward
motion of the movie so you can review this as you view it!

Make a cross-section tying the silts and shales of all the wells and finally the
sand geometries. If you view the above movies and have read in the earlier
sections related to the geologic setting of the La Pascua Formation and the
introduction to the well log response to the La Pascua Formation. you will know
something of the depositional setting of these rocks. You should combine this
understanding of the regional geology with your understanding of vertical and
lateral facies relationships in near shore clastic settings (eg. shoreline, beach,
stacked beaches, tidal flats, deltas) and Walther's Law. You should use these to
build a depositional model and a sequence stratigraphic interpretation of the
well log section.

EXERCISE 2
Objectives
When you have finished this exercise you will be able to:
Correlate Spontaneous Potential and resistivity logs well logs
using more well logs than in Exercise 1.

Identify an incised valley (clastic sequence with incised

valley or click here for a smaller-version).
Identify a sequence boundary.
Produce an isopach map of sand thickness.
Data
You are provided with a basemap which locates 8 wells (W-1, W-2 , W3, W-4, W-5, W-6, W-7, W-8) that can be correlated using
Spontaneous Potential and Resistivity logs. A pdf file containing all
wells and a basemap can printed and taped (PRINTABLE-EX-2). A
reduced pdf file version can be also viewed/and or printed (VIEW-EX2). These well logs are flattened on the top of a major transgressive
surface (TS) on the silt marking the contact between the La Pascua
below and the overlying Roblecito formation.
Methods
Utilize the Gulf Coast slip-slide method to help you match the log
sections and identify the same geologic events on the various wells.
Color sands yellow and shales green.
Correlate using the upper common (dashed) marker as your
basic datum.
For each parasequence identify the TSs (transgressive
surfaces) and then correlate these on all the well logs
provided. These transgressive correlationsurfaces used in all
the sets of exercises extend across the area penetrated by
the wells, except where they are interrupted by the incision of
local channels. These surfaces cap silty horizons that are
equated with surfaces oftransgression (TS) that formed
at wave base, and above, when the sea floor was reworked
just following a sea level low (view the movie to understand
this).
Click on the thumbnail below to view the movie that
demonstrates the technique that first uses the transgressive
surfaces to build a framework ofparasequences from these
correlated surfaces and then infills the
othersurfaces between these as outlined below!

Don't forget to use the left and right keyboard arrows to control the forward and backward
motion of the movie so you can review this as you view it!

Normally radioactive peaks on gamma ray logs, associated

with mfs, are more extensive and would have been better
correlation surfaces than thetransgressive surfaces
but gamma ray logs were not available for much of the
Guarico Sub Basin. As in the movie above you should use
geologic logic to infer the location of the maximum flooding
surface (mfs) and correlate these on all the well logs.
Thus as shown in the film make a cross-section first correlating
the prominent silts for all the wells and then correlating the
sands.
Pick base of massive sands and correlate these from well to
well when they occur on other logs in other wells.
Identify the sequence boundaries (SB) at base of the massive
sands and correlate these from well to well.
Identify all system tracts, including the incised valley, on all
well logs.
For each parasequence (bounded by mfs's) estimate and
record the net sand (in feet).
Utilize the spread sheet provided and net sands to contour the
combined data. You should be able to establish the
orientation of the regional trends in the depositional systems
you identify.
Click on the thumbnial below to view the movie that tracks an
interpretation of the character of the sedimentary fill of the
Guarico Basin during the deposition of the La
Pascua Formation.

Don't forget to use the left and right keyboard arrows to control the forward and backward
motion of the movie so you can review this as you view it!

To help with your interpretation of the well logs you should both view
the above movies and read the earlier sections related to the geologic
setting of the La Pascua Formation and the introduction to well logs
and the Sequence Stratigraphy of the La Pascua Formation. From
these you will know something of the depositional setting of these
rocks. You should combine the techniques outlined above with this
understanding of the regional geology and your understanding of
vertical and lateral facies relationships in near shore clastic settings
(eg. Shoreline, beach, stacked
beaches,tidal
flats, deltas)
and Walther's Law. You should use these to build a depositional model
and a sequence stratigraphic interpretation of the well log section.
EXERCISE 3
Objectives
When you have finished this exercise you will be able to:
Correlate well logs using logs for more Spontaneous Potential
and Resistivity wells than in Exercise 2 .
Subdivide the sedimentary section characterized by the well
logs on the basis of the prominent correlatable surfaces (TS,
mfs and SB) you can identify.
Using these surfaces identify the parasequences within the
sedimentary section characterized by the well logs and
interpret the history of their evolving depositional settings.
Describe the role of relative sea level in forming the resulting
depositional settings utilizing the report on the geologic
setting of the La PascuaFormation, the introduction to
the sequence stratigraphy of the La PascuaFormation and
the eustatic chart.

Data
A basemap is provided containing 22 wells (W-1 - W-22) which
are to be correlated using the Spontaneous Potential
and Resistivity logs. These well logs are flattened on the top
of a major transgressive surface (TS) on the silt marking the
contact between the La Pascua below and the overlying
Roblecito Formation.
The wells are divided into three cross sections (X-SEC-A, XSEC-B, X-SEC-C); each of these cross sections can be
printed from the .pdf format, reassembled and taped to aid in
the correlation (PRINTABLE-X-SEC-A, PRINTABLE-X-SECB, PRINTABLE-X-SEC-C).
View and/or print a smaller version of these files (VIEW-XSEC-A, VIEW-X-SEC-B, VIEW-X-SEC-C).
A report describing the high-frequency (fourthorder cycles) sequence stratigraphy and regional geology of
this region is provided. A sea-level curve for this region is
also provided.
A set of 18 previously interpreted wells (the phantom well of
the maps and the data sheet) is also provided to enable the
construction of sand thickness isopachs for each of the
intervals (PRINTABLE-PHANTOM). Please refer to the
second basemap for the location of all the wells.
Methods
Utilize the Gulf Coast slip-slide method to help you match the
log sections and identify the same geologic events on the
various wells.
Color sands yellow and shales green.
Correlate using the upper common (dashed) marker as your
basic datum.
For each parasequence identify the TSs (transgressive
surfaces) and then correlate these on all the well logs
provided. These transgressive correlationsurfaces used in all
the sets of exercises extend across the area penetrated by
the wells, except where they are interrupted by the incision of

local channels. These surfaces cap silty horizons that are

equated with surfaces oftransgression (TS) that formed
at wave base, and above, when the sea floor was reworked
just following a sea level low.
Click on the thumbnail below to view the movie that
demonstrates the technique that first uses the transgressive
surfaces to build a framework ofparasequences from these
correlated surfaces and then infills the
othersurfaces between these as outlined below!

Don't forget to use the left and right keyboard arrows to control the forward and backward
motion of the movie so you can review this as you view it!

Normally radioactive peaks on gamma ray logs, associated

with mfs, are more extensive and would have been better
correlation surfaces than thetransgressive surfaces
but gamma ray logs were not available for much of the
Guarico Sub basin.
As in the movie above you should use geologic logic to infer
the location of the maximum flooding surface (mfs) and
correlate these on all the well logs.
As shown in the film make a cross-section first correlating the
prominent silts for all the wells and then correlating the
sands.
Pick base of massive sands and correlate these from well to
well when they occur on other logs in other wells. Identify
the sequence boundaries (SB) at base of the massive sands
and correlate these from well to well. Identify all system
tracts, including the incised valley, on all well logs.
For each parasequence (bounded by mfs's) estimate and
record the net sand (in feet). Correlations should be made
across the entire area delineated by all the cross sections.
Tie the stratigraphic dip and two stratigraphic strike sections
and build a the correlation framework for the E-logs.

These correlations have been tied into existing biostratigraphic

and palynologic markers to bracket the age of the intervals
and help interpret the depositional setting of the sediments
and the frequency of their cyclicity.
Click on the thumbnail below to view the movie that tracks an
interpretation of the character of the sedimentary fill of the
Guarico basin during the deposition of the La
Pascua Formation.

Don't forget to use the left and right keyboard arrows to control the forward and backward
motion of the movie so you can review this as you view it!

Contour the combined sand thicknesses from the spread sheet

provided and the net sands you measured. You should be
able to establish the orientation of the regional trends in
the depositional systems you identify.
Provide an overall analysis that describes your conclusions.
As with the earlier two exercises (Exercise 1 and Exercise 2) to help
with your interpretation of the well logs you should view the movies and
read the earlier sections related to the geologic setting of the La
Pascua Formation and the introduction to thesequence stratigraphy of
the La Pascua Formation. From these you will know something of the
depositional setting of these rocks. You should combine the techniques
outlined above with this understanding of the regional geology and
your understanding of vertical and lateral facies relationships in near
shore clastic settings (eg. shoreline, beach, stacked beaches, tidal
flats, deltas) and Walther's Law. You should use these to build a
depositional model and a sequence stratigraphic interpretation of the
well log section.
EXERCISE 4

Objectives
The purpose of this exercise is to enable you to:
Correlate wells using Spontaneous Potential and Resistivity
well logs and a greater vertical spread of the La Pascua
Section than in Exercises 1, 2 and 3.
Subdivide the sedimentary section characterized by the well
logs on the basis of the prominent correlatable surfaces (TS,
mfs and SB) you can identify.
Using these surfaces identify the parasequences within the
sedimentary section characterized by the well logs and
interpret the history of their evolving depositional settings.
Describe the role of relative sea level in forming the resulting
depositional settings utilizing the report on the geologic
setting of the La PascuaFormation, the introduction to
the sequence stratigraphy of the La PascuaFormation and
the eustatic chart.
Data
The illustrative data to be used for the exercise have been saved either
in .pdf, .gif and/or .jpg format. These maps and cross-sections can be
viewed and interpreted with a variety of different visualization software
(including but not exclusive of Adobe Acrobat, Adobe Illustrator,
Freehand, Canvas and/or Photoshop) or printed on a large frame
plotter and interpreted by hand. These exercise illustrations are quite
large (up to 500K in some cases) and they may take a little time to be
displayed. Patience will be rewarded!!!!
The clickable map below is linked to a pdf file which locates the five
wells (me333, me296, me428, me313 and me 486) within the central
portion of the Northern Strike Line

As an alternative this map can also be viewed by clicking on the link to a large.jpg file

 Use the Spontaneous Potential and Resistivity logs displayed on the .pdf file of the cross
section 5 wells Guarico linked to the clickable thumbnial.

As an alternative the above .pdf file this cross section can also be viewed by clicking on the
link to a large .gif file
You can also view and/or print a smaller version of these files by using your vizualization
software to shrink the images to fit your printer.
A report describing the high-frequency (fourth-order cycles) sequence stratigraphy and
regional geology of this region is provided in the geologic setting of the La
Pascua Formation, the introduction to the sequence stratigraphy of the La
Pascua Formation and the eustatic chart.
A set of maps of previously interpreted wells is also provided to enable the construction of
sand thickness isopachs for each of the intervals. Please refer to the basemap for the location
of all the wells.

Methods
Utilize the Gulf Coast slip-slide method to help you match the log sections and
identify the same geologic events on the various wells.
To

help with the interpretation of these latter logs an initial correlation

has been made with the sections hung on three
widespread surfaces. These are:

A basal surface correlated to the top of the P-5 silt

A surface representing the top of the P-3 silt at the center of the
section and around which it is flattened

The top of the section is marked by the top of the silt that lies at the
contact between the Roblecito and Pascua Formations.

Color sands yellow and shales green.

Correlate using the Event 7 as your basic datum.
For each parasequence identify the TS's (Transgressive Surfaces) and then correlate
these on all the well logs provided. These transgressive correlation surfaces used
in all the sets of exercises extend across the area penetrated by the wells, except
where they are interrupted by the incision of local channels. These surfaces cap
silty horizons that are equated with surfaces of transgression (TS) that formed at
wave base, and above, when the sea floor was reworked just following a sea level
low (view the movie to understand this).

 Click on the thumbnail below to view the movie that demonstrates the technique that
first uses the transgressive Surfaces to build a framework of parasequences from
these correlated Surfaces and then infills the other Surfaces between these as
outlined below!

Don't forget to use the left and right keyboard arrows to control the forward
and backward motion of the movie so you can review this as you view it!
Normally radioactive peaks on gamma ray logs, associated with mfs, are more
extensive and would have been better correlation surfaces than thetransgressive
surfaces but gamma ray logs were not available for much of the Guarico
Sub basin. As in the movie above you should use geologic logic to infer the
location of the maximum flooding surface (mfs) and correlate these on all the well
logs.
Thus as shown in the film make a cross-section first correlating the prominent silts for
all the wells and then correlating the sands.
Pick base of massive sands and correlate these from well to well when they occur on
other logs in other wells.
Identify the sequence boundaries (SB) at base of the massive sands and correlate
these from well to well.
Identify all system tracts, including the incised valley, on all well logs.
For each ParaSequence which (bounded by mfs's) estimate and record the net sand
(in feet).
Click on the thumbnail below to view the movie that tracks an interpretation of the
character of the sedimentary fill of the Guarico Basin during the deposition of the
La Pascua Formation.

Don't forget to use the left and right keyboard arrows to control the forward
and backward motion of the movie so you can review this as you view it!
Provide an overall analysis that describes your conclusions.

As with the earlier three exercises (Exercise 1, Exercise 2 and Exercise 3) to

help with your interpretation of the well logs you should both view the movies
and read the earlier sections related to the geologic setting of the La Pascua
Formation andthe introduction to the Sequence Stratigraphy of the La Pascua
Formation. From these you will gain knowledge of the depositional setting of
these rocks. You should combine the techniques outlined above with your
understanding of the regional geology and the vertical and lateral facies
relationships in near shore clastic settings (eg. shoreline, beach, stacked
beaches, tidal flats, deltas) and Walther's Law. You should use these to build a
depositional model and a sequence stratigraphic interpretation of the well log
section.

EXERCISES-5
Objectives
When you have finished this exercise you will be able to:
Correlate wells using Spontaneous
Potential and Resistivity well logs with a greater vertical
spread of the La Pascua Section than in Exercises
1, 2 and 3and close the loop with more wells than in Exercise
4.
Subdivide the sedimentary section characterized by the well
logs on the basis of the prominent
correlatable surfaces (TS, mfs and SB) you can identify.
Using these surfaces identify the parasequences within the
sedimentary section characterized by the well logs and
interpret the history of their evolving depositional settings.
Describe the role of relative sea level in forming the resulting
depositional settings utilizing the report on the geologic
setting of the La PascuaFormation, the introduction to
the sequence stratigraphy of the La PascuaFormation and
the eustatic chart.
Data
The illustrative data to be used for the exercise have been
saved either in .pdf, .gif format or .jpg format. These maps

and cross-sections can be viewed and interpreted with a

variety of different visualization software (including but not
exclusive of Adobe Acrobat, Adobe Illustrator, Freehand,
Canvas and/or Photoshop) or printed on a large frame plotter
and interpreted by hand. These exercise illustrations are
quite large (up to 500K in some cases) and they may take a
little time to be displayed. Patience will be rewarded!!!!
The clickable map below is linked to a pdf file which locates the
wells of the three cross sections of this exercise: namely a
North-South Dip line and two strike lines a Northern Strike
Line and a Southern Strike Line.
Use the Spontaneous Potential and Resistivity logs displayed
on the North South Dip Line

As an alternative this map can also be viewed by clicking on the

link to a large .jpg file

As an alternative this cross section can also be viewed as a

large .gif file by clicking on the North-South Dip line

As an alternative this cross section can also be viewed as a

large .jpg file by clicking on the North Eastern Section

As an alternative this cross section can also be viewed as a

large .gif file by clicking on the North Western Section

As an alternative this cross section can also be viewed as a

large .gif file by clicking on the South Eastern Section

As an alternative this cross section can also be viewed as a

large .gif file by clicking on the South Western Section
You can also view and/or print a smaller version of these files
by using your visualization software to shrink the images to fit
your printer.
A report describing the high-frequency (fourthorder cycles) sequence stratigraphy and regional geology of
this region is provided in the geologic setting of the La
Pascua Formation, the introduction to the sequence
stratigraphy of the La Pascua Formation and
the eustatic chart.
A set of maps of previously interpreted wells is also provided to
enable the construction of sand thickness isopachs for each
of the intervals. Please refer to the basemap for the location
of all the wells.
Methods
Utilize the Gulf Coast slip-slide method to help you match the log
sections and identify the same geologic events on the various wells.
To help with the interpretation of these latter logs an
initial correlation has been made with the sections
hung on three widespread surfaces. These are:
A basal surface correlated to the top of the P5 silt
A surface representing the top of the P-3 silt
at the center of the section and around which
it is flattened

 The top of the section is marked by the top of

the silt that lies at the contact between the
Roblecito and PascuaFormations.
Color sands yellow and shales green.
Correlate using the Event 7 as your basic datum.
For each parasequence identify the TSs (transgressive
surfaces) and then correlate these on all the well logs
provided. These transgressive correlation Surfaces are
used in all the sets of exercises. They extend across
the area penetrated by the wells, except where they
are interrupted by the incision of local channels. These
surfaces cap silty horizons that are equated with
surfaces of transgression (TS) that formed at wave
base, and above, when the sea floor was reworked just
following a sea level low.
Click on the thumbnail below to view the movie that
demonstrates the technique that first uses the
transgressive surfaces to build a framework of
parasequences from these correlated surfaces and
then infills the other surfaces between these as
outlined below!

Don't forget to use the left and right keyboard arrows to

control the forward and backward motion of the movie
so you can review this as you view it!
Normally radioactive peaks on Gamma Ray Logs,
associated with mfs, are more extensive and often
represent better correlatable surfaces but Gamma Ray
Logs were not available for much of the Guarico Sub
Basin. For this reason you should use geologic logic to
infer the location of the maximum flooding surface
(mfs) and correlate these on all the well logs.

Make a cross-section first correlating the shales for all

the wells and then correlating the sands.
Pick base of massive sands and correlate these from
well to well when they occur on other logs in other
wells.
Identify the sequence boundaries (SB) at base of the
massive sands and correlate these from well to well.
Identify all system tracts, including the incised valley, on
all well logs.
For each parasequence (bounded by mfs's) estimate and
record the net sand (in feet).
Correlations should be made across the entire area
delineated by all the cross sections.
Tie the stratigraphic dip and two stratigraphic strike
sections and build a the correlation framework for the
E-logs. These correlations have been tied into existing
biostratigraphic and palynologic markers to bracket the
age of the intervals and help interpret the depositional
setting of the sediments and the frequency of their
cyclicity.
Click on the thumbnaill below to view the movie that
tracks an interpretation of the character of the
sedimentary fill of the Guarico Basin during the
deposition of the La Pascua Formation.

Don't forget to use the left and right keyboard arrows to control the
forward and backward motion of the movie so you can review this as
you view it!
Provide an overall analysis that describes your conclusions.

As with the earlier four exercises (Exercise 1, Exercise 2, Exercise

3 and Exercise 4) to help with your interpretation of the well logs you
should read the earlier sections related to the geologic setting of the La
Pascua Formation and the introduction to the sequence stratigraphy of
the La Pascua Formation. From these you will gain knowledge of the
depositional setting of these rocks. You should combine the techniques
outlined above with your understanding of the regional geology and the
vertical and lateral facies relationships in near shore clastic settings
(eg. shoreline, beach, stacked beaches, tidal flats, deltas) and
Walther's Law. You should use these to build a depositional model and
a sequence stratigraphic interpretation of the well log section.
Solutions to exercises
You can find our solutions to the well exercises below. Though we are
happy with these solutions, or they would not be posted on the site,
you should recognize that these solutions also represent matters of
opinion that are based on the models we have chosen to build our
interpretations from; remember "beauty is in the eye of the beholder"
and not necessarily the ultimate "truth"!
We also created a movie showing the evolution of a
clastic sequence with incised valley fill utilizing the well logs used in
these exercises. (you will need to have a QuickTime movie player in
order to view the movie). Click on image to view the movie and use the
left and right arrows on the keyboard to move backward and forward
throught the movie. This movie gives a sense of the geological
reasoning behind the well log interpretations that have been provided.

EXERCISE 1 Solution
A segmented .pdf image of the cross-section with the solution
to Exercise 1 can be printed, assembled and taped (PRINTa-EX1-X-SEC).

A complete .pdf image of the cross-section with the solution to

Exercise 1 that can be printed as one image or segmented
(PRINT-b-EX1-X-SEC).
You can also view the solution file as a smaller image (VIEWEX1-X-SEC).
All the well logs (from left to right W-1, W-2, W-3) were placed
side-by-side and aligned with the top correlation marker
(dotted line at the top of each well log).
For each of the SP curves (the right trace) the areas of the
curve with the "0" or low SP values are inferred to represent
shale, while high SP values are inferred to represent sand,
i.e. those values further from center line.
The adjacent well logs are correlated on the basis of similarly
shaped curves, by drawing a boundary surface under each
correlatable interval.
On each of the well logs shale is colored green and sand
yellow.
You can review the data sheet sheet at the bottom of the xsection solution file for more precise values.
EXERCISE 2 Solution
A .pdf image of the cross-section representing the solution to
Exercise 2 can be printed, assembled and taped (PRINT-AEX2-X-SEC).
A complete .pdf image of the cross-section with the solution to
Exercise 2 that can be printed as one image or segmented
(PRINT-B-EX2-X-SEC).
You can also view the solution file as a .jpg image (VIEW-EX2X-SEC).
All the well logs (from left to right W-1, W-2, W-3, etc.) were
placed side-by-side and aligned with the top correlation
marker (dotted line at the top of each well log).
For each of the SP curves (the right trace) the areas of the
curve with the "0" or low SP values are inferred to represent

shale, while high SP values are inferred to represent sand,

i.e. those values further from center line.
On each of the well logs shale is colored green and sand
yellow.
The adjacent well logs are correlated on the basis of similarly
shaped curves, by drawing a boundary surface under each
correlatable interval.
The cross-section is divided into parasequences and
the systems tracts are identified within each parasequence.
The transgressive surfaces were indentified first.
These surfaces coincide with thin intervals of winnowed
sediment that are produced as the sea transgresses across
the underlying sediments. Thus the inferredtransgressive
surfaces are thin intervals that show a slight increase in grain
size over thin shale intervals that may in turn overlie blocky
sands. Thetransgressive surface is often indicated on the SP
by an increase in grain size and a coincidental local increase
in resistivity which matches carbonatecementation.
The maximum flooding surfaces (mfs's) of
each parasequence was interpreted next. On the well logs
these surfaces are interpreted to coincide with the
occurrence of shale (kicks on the logs with the lowest SP
values) just beneath sections that coarsen upward (i.e., the
SP values increase, exhibiting a vertical funnel shape on the
SP log). Three parasequences (eachparasequence being
enveloped by mfs) were identified and were labelled from the
base up as A, B, and C.
The sequence boundary (SB) on the cross-sections was the
final surface identified. This was picked at the base of the
channel sands (incised valleyfill). A massive boxcar trend in
log character was inferred to represent the channel fill
of incised valleys and this fill was correlated to adjacent well
logs.
For each parasequence the total sand content in feet (utilize
the middle log scale) was estimated while utilizing the middle
of the log to mark sand bodyboundaries and triangles to
record changes in grain size within eachparasequence). The
values were recorded in a spreadsheet.

Based on the mfs surfaces and the identified channels,

the systems tracts for each of the well logs (LST, TST, and
HST) were identified. Channel sands were interpreted to
represent a lowstand systems tract which was incised into
the underlying Highstand systems tract, and is overlain
by transgressive systems tract deposits. Where no channels
were present, the mfs were utitilized to identify the HST (the
deposits above the mfs) and the TST (the deposits below the
mfs).
The final step should be to write up an analysis describing your
conclusions based on your interpretation of the depositional
setting and the evolution of each parasequence.
You can review the data sheet sheet at the bottom of the xsection solution file for more precise values.
EXERCISE 3 Solution
Three .pdf images of the cross-sections represeting the
solution to this exercise can be printed, assembled and taped
(PRINT-X-SEC-A, PRINT-X-SEC-B, PRINT-X-SEC-C).
You can also view and /or print the solution files as complete
smaller *.pdf images (VIEW-X-SEC-A, VIEW-X-SECB,VIEW-X-SEC-C).
You can also view and /or print the solution files as .jpg images
(VIEW-X-SEC-A, VIEW-X-SEC-B,VIEW-X-SEC-C).
Three well cross-sections were created: two parallel to strike
and the third in the dip direction (see base map).
The sequence stratigraphy of the sediments in the sections
was interpreted using the cross-sections and the associated
maps you created should illustrate your interpretations.
All the well logs (from left to right W-1, W-2, W-3, etc.) were
placed side-by-side and aligned with the top correlation
marker (dotted line at the top of each well log).
For each of the SP curves (the right trace) the areas of the
curve with the "0" or low SP values are inferred to represent
shale, while high SP values are inferred to represent sand,
i.e. those values further from center line.

On each of the well logs shale is colored green and sand

yellow.
The adjacent well logs are correlated on the basis of similarly
shaped curves, by drawing a boundary surface under each
correlatable interval.
The cross-section is divided into parasequences and
the systems tracts are identified within each parasequence.
The maximum flooding surfaces (mfs's) of
each parasequence was identified first. On the well logs
these surfacesare interpreted to coincide with the occurrence
of shale (kicks on the logs with the lowest SP values) just
beneath sections that coarsen upward (i.e., the SP values
increase, exhibiting a vertical funnel shape on the SP log).
Three parasequences (each parasequence being enveloped
by mfs) were identified and were labelled from the base up
as A, B, and C.
The transgressive surfaces were indentified next.
These surfaces coincide with thin intervals of winnowed
sediment that are produced as the sea transgresses across
the underlying sediments. Thus the inferredtransgressive
surfaces are thin intervals that show a slight increase in grain
size over thin shale intervals that may in turn overlie blocky
sands. Thetransgressive surface is often indicated on the SP
by an increase in grain size and a coincidental local increase
in resistivity which matches carbonatecementation.
The sequence boundaries (SB) on the cross-sections were the
final surfacesidentified. These were picked at the base of the
channel sands (incised valley fill). A massive boxcar trend in
log character was inferred to represent the channel fill
of incised valleys and this fill was correlated to adjacent well
logs.
For each parasequence the total sand content in feet (utilize
the middle log scale) was estimated while utilizing the middle
of the log to mark sand bodyboundaries and triangles to
record changes in grain size within eachparasequence). The
values were recorded in the spreadsheet.
Based on the mfs surfaces and the identified channels,
the systems tracts for each of the well logs (LST, TST, and
HST) were identified. Channel sands were interpreted to
represent a lowstand systems tract which was incised into

the underlying Highstand systems tract, and is overlain

by transgressive systems tract deposits. Where no channels
were present, the mfs were utitilized to identify the HST (the
deposits above the mfs) and the TST (the deposits below the
mfs).
The final step should be to write up an analysis describing your
conclusions based on your interpretation of the depositional
setting, the evolution of eachparasequence and the sand
isopach maps.
You can review the data sheet sheet at the bottom of each xsection solution file for more precise values.
EXERCISE 4 Solution
A cross-section representing a potential solution to this exercise can be
viewed on the .pdf file that can be accesses via the thumbnail and/or
the.gif file from the link provided below. This solution to this exercise
can be printed from either the .pdf and .jpg figures provided.

As an alternative the above .pdf file this cross section can also
be viewed by clicking on the link to a large .jpg file of the 5
Well Section Interpreted which provides the same solution to
this exercise seen on the .pdf file.
For each of the SP curves (the right trace) the areas of the
curve with the "0" or low SP values are inferred to represent
shale, while high SP values are inferred to represent sand,
i.e. those values further from center line.
On each of the well logs shale is now colored brown and sand
yellow.
The adjacent well logs are correlated on the basis of similarly
shaped curves, by drawing a boundary surface under each
correlatable interval.

The cross-section is divided into parasequences and

the systems tracts are identified within each parasequence.
The transgressive surfaces (TSs) of each parasequence was
identified first. These surfaces coincide with thin intervals of
winnowed sediment that are produced as the sea
transgresses across the underlying sediments. Thus the
inferred transgressive surfaces are thin intervals that show a
slight increase in grain size over thin shale intervals that may
in turn overlie blocky sands. The transgressive surface is
often indicated on the SP by an increase in grain size and a
coincidental local increase in resistivity which
matchescarbonate cementation.
The maximum flooding surfaces (mfs's) of were identified next.
On the well logs these surfaces are inferred to coincide with
the occurrence of shale (kicks on the logs with the lowest SP
values) just beneath sections that coarsen upward (i.e., the
SP values increase, exhibiting a vertical funnel shape on the
SP log). Three parasequences (each parasequence being
enveloped by mfs) were identified and were labelled from the
base up as A, B, and C.
The sequence boundaries (SB) on the cross-sections were the
final surfacesidentified. These were picked at the base of the
channel sands (incised valley fill). A massive boxcar trend in
log character was inferred to represent the channel fill
of incised valleys and this fill was correlated to adjacent well
logs.
For each parasequence the total sand content in feet (utilize
the middle log scale) was estimated while utilizing the middle
of the log to mark sand bodyboundaries and triangles to
record changes in grain size within eachparasequence). The
values were recorded in the spreadsheet.
Based on the mfs surfaces and the identified channels,
the systems tracts for each of the well logs (LST, TST, and
HST) were identified. Channel sands were interpreted to
represent a lowstand systems tract which was incised into
the underlying Highstand systems tract, and is overlain
by transgressive systems tract deposits. Where no channels
were present, the mfs were utitilized to identify the HST (the
deposits above the mfs) and the TST (the deposits below the
mfs).

EXERCISE 5 Solution
Cross-sections of the interpreted North-South Dip line, and the two
strike lines represented by a Northern Strike Line (split into an Eastern
section and a Western Section) and a Southern Strike Line (split into
an Eastern section and a Western Section) are provided as potential
solutions to this exercise with .pdf files that can be accesses via the
thumbnails and .gif or .jpg files from the links provided below. These
solutions to the exercises can be printed from either the .pdf, .gif or .jpg
images of the figures provided.

As an alternative this cross section can also be viewed as a

large .gif file by clicking on the North-South Dip line

As an alternative this cross section can also be viewed as a

large .jpg file by clicking on the South Eastern Section

As an alternative this cross section can also be viewed as a

large .gif file by clicking on the South Western Section

As an alternative this cross section can also be viewed as a

large .gif file by clicking on the South Eastern Section

As an alternative this cross section can also be viewed as a

large .gif file by clicking on the South Western Section

For each of the SP curves (the right trace) the areas of the
curve with the "0" or low SP values are inferred to represent
shale, while high SP values are inferred to represent sand,
i.e. those values further from center line.
On each of the well logs shale is now colored brown and sand
yellow.
The adjacent well logs are correlated on the basis of similarly
shaped curves, by drawing a boundary surface under each
correlatable interval.
The cross-section is divided into parasequences and
the systems tracts are identified within each parasequence.
The transgressive surfaces (TSs) of each parasequence was
identified first. These surfaces coincide with thin intervals of
winnowed sediment that are produced as the sea
transgresses across the underlying sediments. Thus the
inferred transgressive surfaces are thin intervals that show a
slight increase in grain size over thin shale intervals that may
in turn overlie blocky sands. The transgressive surface is
often indicated on the SP by an increase in grain size and a

coincidental local increase in resistivity which

matchescarbonate cementation.

The maximum flooding surfaces (mfs's) of were identified

next. On the well logs these surfaces are inferred to coincide
with the occurrence of shale (kicks on the logs with the
lowest SP values) just beneath sections that coarsen upward
(i.e., the SP values increase, exhibiting a vertical funnel
shape on the SP log). Three parasequences
(each parasequence being enveloped by mfs) were identified
and were labelled from the base up as A, B, and C.

The sequence boundaries (SB) on the cross-sections were the

final surfacesidentified. These were picked at the base of the
channel sands (incised valley fill). A massive boxcar trend in
log character was inferred to represent the channel fill
of incised valleys and this fill was correlated to adjacent well
logs.
For each parasequence the total sand content in feet (utilize
the middle log scale) was estimated while utilizing the middle
of the log to mark sand bodyboundaries and triangles to
record changes in grain size within eachparasequence). The
values were recorded in the spreadsheet.
Based on the mfs surfaces and the identified channels,
the systems tracts for each of the well logs (LST, TST, and
HST) were identified. Channel sands were interpreted to
represent a lowstand systems tract which was incised into
the underlying Highstand systems tract, and is overlain
by transgressive systems tract deposits. Where no channels
were present, the mfs were utitilized to identify the HST (the
deposits above the mfs) and the TST (the deposits below the
mfs).
The final step should be to write up an analysis describing your
conclusions based on your interpretation of the depositional
setting, the evolution of eachparasequence and the sand
isopach maps.
Sedimentology and Stratigraphic of rocks and sediments:

ACCOMMODATION
Accommodation was defined by Jervey (1998) as "the space available
for potential sedimentaccumulation. This space is the combined
product of movement of:
1. The sea surface: global sea level measured from a datum
such as the center of earth)
2. The sea floor (tectonics)

3. Changes in rates of sediment accumulation.

Jervey (1998) further suggested that the major controls

on accommodation are changes in relative sea level (i.e. the combined
product of eustasy and tectonic movement). Curray, (1964),
Posamentier & Allen, (1999), Coe et al (2002), and Catuneanu (2002),
among many others, put an emphasis on rates of sedimentation as at
least a co-equal control of accommodation. As demonstrated below
changes of balanced against rates of sediment accumulation lead
to accommodation space that is responsible totransgressions
and regressions.

If the relative sea level rises and there is a zero or low

sediment flux, then transgressionoccurs.
If relative sea level rises and there is a low rate of sediment
flux, then retrogradation of the
coastal sequence parasequence occurs.
If relative sea level rises and the rate of sediment flux matches
the sea level rise, thenaggradation of the
coastal parasequence occurs.
If relative sea level rises and the rate of sediment flux exceeds
the sea level rise, thenprogradation of the
coastal sequence parasequence occurs.

Helland-Hansen and Martinsen (1960) consider the processes

responsible for the slope of the trajectory taken by
these retrogradational, aggradational
and progradational parasequences of a shoreline. They suggest that
this is controlled by the character of the accommodation and its
interaction with the flux of sediment into these marine settings. this flux
is reflected in transportion via the shoreline (the maximum wave
energy zone) and redistribution in response to the hydrodynamic
regime of the basin. Pomar and Kendall (2009) describe how
sediments aggrade till waves and currents move them down-shelf,
flattening of the depositional profile. These profiles are not only
associated with the originalaccommodation as it relates to the slope
but a basinward grain-size decrease that reflects the balance between
input, redistribution and accumulation of sediment (Johnson, 1919;
Reineck and Singh, 1980; Allen, 1982; Swift et al. 1991b). The
resulting "physical" accommodation is modified by this "shelf
equilibrium profile" of Swift and Thorne (1991). This profile of Swift and
Thorne (1991) represents a conceptual surface of dynamic equilibrium
similar to the "marine profile of equilibrium" of Dietz (1963). It is an
expression of the notion of wave-base matching the greatest depth to
which the bottom is stirred by waves during storms (Rich, 1951).
Thus "physical" accommodation comprises the space between sea
floor and the "shelf equilibrium profile" of Swift and Thorne (1991), and
the undaform, clinoform and fondoforms of Rich (1951). In fact the
"base level" for sediment accumulation tends to match the "shelf
equilibrium profile" and is often confused with sea level. This should be
no surprise since base-level datum will be effectively equivalent to sea
level when associated with overfed sedimentary systems like deltas.
Conversely the "dynamic equilibrium" between sediment input and
hydrodynamic power mean that deepening of the shelf equilibrium
profile (delta retreat) will result if there is a subsequent decrease in
sediment supply.
In conclusion eustasy and total sea-floor subsidence, as well as
changes in hydrodynamic conditions, govern many of the changes
of accommodation space. It should be recognized that unlike
theaccommodation of siliciclastics described above,
the accommodation space for carbonates, is affected by
hydrodynamics, but also the capacity of organisms to produce and to
accumulate sediments above certain hydrodynamic thresholds. This
later effect is the ecological accommodation defined by Pomar (2001 a
and b).
ACCUMULATION

Sediment accumulation represents the amount of sediment that

gathers and is stored in the rock records sedimentary sections in
outcrops, wells and seismic. Sediment accumulation is the result of
both the cumulative records of both sediment supply and erosion and
represents the sediment that fills accommodation.
Sediment accumulation can be accurately measured as a thickness.
Interestingly it is subject to rates of sediment supply and rates of
erosion, but neither of these latter can be measured in the rock record
but they can be inferred on the basis of nearby thicknesses, evidence
in the form erosion surfaces and projected or expected rates.
Sediment accumulation is responsible for the local variation in the
geometric character of the sedimentaryparasequence sequences sets
and facies patterns of basin fill. As with supply and rates of erosion, its
controls include climate, relief of fluvial drainage basin, lithology of
substrate, and vegetative cover. Changes of sediment supply can be
caused by tectonism and climate changes, often at a local level. The
rate and nature of sediment supply may cause changes
inaccommodation.
Sediment accumulation for both clastics and carbonates vary as a
function of sea level position. Clastic accumulation will tend to vary as
a function of accommodation. It is higher offshore duringrelative sea
level lows when higher rates of erosion of the more exposed inland
interfluve areas occur and deposition is distal to this erosion. During
the same lows carbonate accumulation will fill offshore basins if these
are shallow enough, but will be non-existent on the
exposed basin margin. The source of the clastic sediment is likely the
updip unconformities associated withsequence boundaries.
Clastic accumulation rates are lower during transgressions and
highstands in sea level. carbonates tend to accumulate in the offshore
with rapid rises in sea level, and can keep pace with the sea level rise
in the inner shelf lagoons. During highs in sea level
the carbonate accumulationfills the inner shelf and progrades seaward
across shallow shelves. carbonate turbidites are associated with the
increase in slope of the basin margins during sea level highs but will be
their most prolific when the upper part of the margin is exposed during
sea level lows while the down slope margin can become the
maincarbonate factory and the site of greatest carbonate
AGGRADATION
Vertical build up of a sedimentary sequence. Usually occurs when
there is a relative rise in sea level produced by subsidence
and/or eustatic sea-level rise, and the rate of sediment influx is
sufficient to maintain the depositional surface at or near sea level
(i.e.carbonate keep-up in a HST [highstand systems tract] or clastic
HST). Occurs when sediment flux = rate of sea-level rise.

Produces aggradational stacking patterns inparasequences when the

patterns of facies at the top of each parasequence are essentially the
same (Posamentier, 1999; Wilgus et al.; 1988, Emery, 1996).

AGGRADATIONAL PARASEQUENCES
A parasequence set of parasequences in which successively
younger parasequence were deposited above one another and there
are no significant lateral sifts. The rate of creation
of accommodation approximates the rate of accumulation.

ALLOCYCLIC SEQUENCE (or allogenic sequences)

be
d
cyc
le
rhy
th
ms
an
d
cyc
les
seq
ue
nce

Einsele et al (1991) note that processes that are influenced

byevents external to the depositional basin, including
climate, tectonic movement and eustasy, primarily control
the character of these sequences. The uniformly
repeated beds of these rythmicsequences have often have
widespread continuity with the processes involved having
operated in several adjacent or widespread basins.
Examples may include the sequences of Vail et al 1971.

ALLOSTRATIGRAPHY
Sedimentary stratigraphy is concerned with interpreting,
correlating and mapping sedimentary
rocks. Lithostratigraphy maps these sedimentary rocks solely
on the basis of their lithology and does not necessarily
consider that these rocks may have accumulated over a
particular period of time. In contrast allostratigraphy maps
the rock units on the basis of the timing of
their accumulation.
Thus the technique known as "lithostratigraphy" involves the
interpretation, correlation, and mapping of sedimentary rocks
on the basis of similarities in lithology and/orlithofacies. The
practice of interpretation, correlation, and mapping based on
"lithostratigraphy" often ignores significant breaks in the
sedimentary section, including those caused by
unconformities, omission surfaces, ravinement surfaces,
and flooding surfaces. This can lead to significant miscorrelations, particularly if it is assumed that the
"lithostratigraphic" units accumulated over the same interval
of time.

East-west cross sections across the Devonian

Catskillssequences of southern New York showing the
differences between "lithostratigraphy" and
"allostratigraphy".
(A) Traditional lithostratigraphic interpretation (pre-1930),
which treated the units a layer-cake sequence of Hamilton
and Portage shales, Chemung sandstones, and Catskill
redbeds.
(B) Present allostratigraphic interpretation, following
Chadwick and Cooper that incorporates modern concepts of
facies change. Time planes are shown by curved lines; each
unit consists of Catskill redbeds in the east, sandy facies in
the center, and shales in the west
(After Dunbar and Rodger, 1957; copied directly from
Prothero and Schwab, 1996).
In contrast, the technique known as "allostratigraphy"
involves stratigraphic interpretation, correlation, and mapping
which uses discontinuities and surfaces to subdivide the
sedimentary section. These discontinuities and surfaces are
assumed to have time-stratigraphic significance (NACSN,
1983) and may include unconformities,
omission surfaces, ravinement surfaces, and flooding
surfaces (Bhattacharya and Walker, 1991a).
"Allomembers" are defined as representing lithologically
heterogenous units that containstrata that may have
previously been included in different formations. Thus
"Allomember"boundaries cut across the

conventional lithostratigraphic boundaries and better

illustrate the genetic relationships between the
different lithostratigraphic units (Bhattacharya, 1994). This
can be seen on the movie that records the ClasticCycle and
can be accessed by clicking on the image in the vertical
menu to the left.
The "sequence stratigraphic" approach is a higher order
of allostratigraphy that assumes a connection of the
discontinuities and surfaces used to subdivide the
sedimentary section to changes in base level. It also tends to
give unconformities a higher level of significance, when
subdividing the sedimentary section,
than ravinementsurfaces and/or flooding surfaces.
Unconformities are used to bound packages of sedimentary
rock and subdivide them into sequences. "sequence
stratigraphy" involves the study of rock relationships within
the chronostratigraphic framework of a sequence, which in
turn is a cyclic succession of rocks composed of genetically
related units ofstrata (Posamentier et al., 1988).
ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS AND SEDIMENTARY
ARCHITECTURE
The analysis of complex sedimentary systems involves their
description, classification and eventual interpretation. To this
end sediment depositional settings are characterized and
subdivided into hierarchies of genetically related discrete
stratigraphic "elements", "bodies", or "units". The geometric
shapes of these depositional units are defined by
their boundaries and collectively they form the building
blocks of thesedimentary architecture.
Unit: general geological term that refers to a distinct
geologic entity with a lower and upper confining
boundary. This unit can be a bed within a larger
group, forming a bedset or, as in this specific case,
an element within a larger group of elements.
Body: general geological term that refers to a mass
of sediment with a lower and upper confining
boundary that is distinct from other masses of
sediment. This may be a group of beds or
elements.
Element: specific geological term that refers to a
distinct body or assemblage of bodies of sediment

with lower and upper confining boundaries that are

genetically related to each other and were
generated in a common depositional
milieu. Architectural elements have been defined
by Pickering et al (1998) as an interpretive
characterization of a sedimentary feature
distinguished on the basis of its geometry, scale
and facies.
Unfortunately confusion may result if "elements", "bodies", or
"units" are applied synonymously in the same description of
the stratigraphy of the sedimentary rocks. This is because of
the more general meanings of "bodies", and/or "units" and
the fact they tend to be used regardless of
the lithofacies assemblage, vertical profile, internal and
external organization, geometry and/or the depositional
system in which they occur. Each of these terms may be
prefixed by "depositional", "stratigraphic" or "architectural".
As we see above some stratigraphers making
a sequence stratigraphic analysis and wishing to avoid this
confusion define the genetically related sedimentary
"architectural elements" as the basic descriptive building
block of sedimentary basin architecture.
A top-down hierarchical classification of "architectural
elements" is used that often starts at a
sedimentary basinscale. This is sub-divided downward into a
series of broad elements, each in turn subdivided ever
downward to the ultimate subdivision of "architectural
elements", the laminae or even the individual sand grain.
This top down classification is used to provide a framework
of the basin to its interrelated broader larger scale
"architectural elements" and their tie to the smaller scale
"architectural elements". sequence stratigraphic analysis
tends to iteratively use a mix and match of the top down
classification with a bottom-up classification. This interactive
approach uses the general to guide an understanding of the
specific and vice versa.

The architectural elements of a prograding barrier island shoreline. Note the

sheets of the barrier island beaches, the lobes of the ebb tidal deltas, the stacked
and amalgamated channel fill and en-echelon shingling of the storm washover
beach materials.

A hierarchy of architectural elements" has been related by

Sprague et al (2002) directly to the hierarchy of "stratal units"
of sequence stratigraphy. Indeed when architectural
elements" are integrated with biostratigraphic data they
provide part of the framework from which cycles of base
level rise and fall can be interpreted. This approach
eventually enables the prediction of the three-dimensional
architecture of the sedimentary rocks across the basin.
The concept of architectural elements" has been built from
Brookfield's (1977) hierarchical order of theboundaries of
aeolian sediment; Allen's (1983) fluvial bounding sufaces and
his concept of "architectural elements"; Miall's (1985) apply a

hierarchy of scales to fluvial depositional units; and Pickering

et al's (1989) hierarchies of boundaries for the architectural
elements of deepwater systems .

Sprague et al (2002 a & 7 b) have combined the use of both

the boundaries and the enclosed sediments to describe a
system of hierarchical frameworks for both deepwater and
fluvial sediments that is based solely on the
physical stratigraphy of the strata; a modification from
Pickering et al (1995) illustrated above. The Sprague et al
(2002 a & 7 b) architectural framework is thus comprised of
both genetically related stratigraphic elements and their
associated boundaries.
AUTOCYCLIC /AUTOGENETIC
These are the auto genetic sequences of Dott, 1998).
(Einsele et al (1991) notes that autocyclic sequences are
primarily controlled by processes that occur in an evolving
sedimentary prism. The beds of these sequences have
limited continuity. Examples include non-periodic Kbentonite beds, seismically deformed horizons
(seismites), tempestite, or turbidite beds, migration and
superposition of channel and lobe systems in fluvial settings,

deltaic systems and deep-sea fans.

BASAL SURFACE OF FORCED REGRESSION
basal surface of forced regression
base
level
corel
ative
conf
ormi
ty
forc
ed
regr
essi
on
regr
essi
ve
surf
ace
of
erosi
on
unco
nfor
mity

This was defined by Hunt and Tucker (1992) as

the surface that underlies the marine sedimentary

wedge that builds seaward during a forced
regression of the shoreline. Catuneanu (2002)
and Catuneanu et al (2011) suggest that this
surface replace "the correlative conformity of
Posamentier et al. (1988), and that it represents
the paleo-sea floor" at the shoreline at the onset
of base level fall. He points out the in "shallow
marine successions, the basal surface of forced
regression may be conformable", making it
difficult to identify as the correlative conformity.
Similarly it may be reworked by the regressive
surface of marine erosion. Hunt and Tucker
(1992) suggest that the basal surface offorced
regression may be traced into the deepwater
setting under the prograding submarine fan
complex. Catuneanu (2002) indicates that "it
matches the scour cut by the earliest gravity flows
associated with the forced regression of
the shoreline". He explains "that during the
growth of the prograding submarine fan complex,
individual submarine fans may
gradually onlap the sediment-starved continental
slope (Vail and Wornardt, 1990; Kolla, 1993;
Embry, 1995)". He concludes that this "portion of
the basal surface of forced regression is also
known as the "regressive slope onlapsurface"
(Embry, 2001). "

BASE LEVEL

This is the surface to which

sediment accumulation fills up to or erodes down
to and is related to continental erosion. It is a
dynamic surface controlled by erosion, sediment
deposition, tectonic movement and eustasy.

Commonly base level is equated to relative sea

level position, but it can be related to the water
surface of lakes and/or local
equilibrium surfaces associated with river
systems (Wheeler, 1964). Unless indicated
otherwise on this web site base level will be
equated to relative sea level position, and so
the base level of depositional settings is thus
controlled by a combination of eustasy and
tectonic movement.

COMMENT: You should remember this is an

oversimplification but for carbonates this is a
critical consideration.
On lithoclastic shelves, the base level for
sediment accumulation tends to be the
equilibrium profile of the shelf (Swift and Thorne,
1991) and represents a balance between
sediment input and fluid motion. This shelf
equilibrium profile of Swift and Thorne (1991) is a
conceptual surface of dynamic equilibrium that
partially modifies the marine profile of equilibrium
concept of Dietz (1963). Dietz (1963) considered
the marine profile of equilibrium as a corollary of
the wave-base concept; defined by Rich (1951)
as the greatest depth to which the bottom is
stirred by waves during storms. The "shelf
equilibrium profile" of Swift and Thorne (1991)
embodies the concept of base level as it was
proposed by Wheeler (1964).
In terrigenous dominated systems, the shelf
dispersal system produces a textural gradient and
facies differentiation, and results in a seawards
shift of the locus of deposition to a slope
dominated by gravity processes (Swift and

Thorne, 1991). The ultimate balance of the power

of fluid motion on the shelf can be visualized in
terms of hydraulic competence: the ability of
water to transport detritus in terms of particle size
rather than quantity, measured as the diameter of
the largest particle transported.
Fluid power depends on wave-, storm- and tidal
energy and their induced currents. These largescale dispersal mechanisms depend on the
episodic nature of bed load transport across the
shelf occurs during short periods of intensive
movement followed by long periods of
quiescence (Swift et al., 1971).
Although on wave-dominated shelves, fairweather and storm-wave base are the keys that
are generally used to separate different zones on
the shelf, fluid power depends on the spectrum of
wave amplitudes that operate during both fairweather and storm conditions. This spectrum may
be notably different in distinct oceanic settings.
Sediments aggrade until they reach the
equilibrium profile, decreasing the subsequent
rates of net deposition, while there is sufficient
fluid power to move them down-shelf and
offshore in response to intermittent storm- and
tidal currents.
Elevation of the equilibrium profile results from
increasing sediment input, but also from
decreasing hydraulic energy. The deepening of
the shelf equilibrium profile results from increased
fluid power, but also from a decreasing sediment
supply. Pomar and Tropeano (2001) document
how important base level high-resolution
fluctuations are in controlling facies distribution
and bedding patterns and enable their seperation
into high-frequency simplesequences
and parasequences in a lithoclastic, wave
dominated system. The exceptional record of
these simple sequences are parasequences that
were the result of tectonically-induced continuous
subsidence that allowed complete preservation.
Later tectonically induced uplift and incision by
rivers produced magnificent outcrops that allow

3D observation of these features.

In carbonates, however, greater diversity of
depositional profiles and distribution of faciesbelts than in lithoclastic systems, reflects major
differences in genetic factors. Because hydraulic
energy depends on oceanographic conditions on
the shelf, differences between carbonate and
lithoclastic systems should relate to differences in
sediment input. In a stable sea-level regime,
variability of depositional profiles
among carbonate platforms can be considered as
the balance between the different types of
sediments being produced, the loci of sediment
production and the hydraulic energy.
Pomar (2001 a, b) demonstrated how the base
level for carbonate sediment to accumulate
(accommodation) depends on the type and locus
of carbonate sediment being produced, and how
the type, efficiency and area of
the carbonate factory are influenced by sea-level
changes and sea-floor morphology.
BASELAP
A term describing terminations of strata along the
lower boundary of a depositional sequence, used
only where discrimination
betweenonlap and downlap is difficult or
impossible.

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BASIN

A depression in the crust of the Earth in which

sediments accumulate. A basin is the result of
plate tectonic activity and subsidence.
Sedimentary basins vary in shape from bowls to
elongated troughs. basins are often bounded by
faults. Rift basins commonly have symmetrical

cross sections; basins along continental margins

tend to have asymmetrical cross-sections. If rich
hydrocarbon source rocks occur in combination
with an appropriate depth and duration of burial,
then a petroleum system can develop within
the basin, (modified from Schlumberger Oilfield
Glossary)

Permian basin of West Texas and New Mexico ( Ward et al., 1986)

BASIN-FLOOR FAN
his is the seaward or basinward portion of
the lowstand systems tract where deeper basins
are characterized by the deposition of submarine
fans on the lower slope or basin floor. This
fan formationis associated with the erosion of
canyons into the slope and the incision of fluvial
valleys into the shelf. Siliciclastic sediment
bypasses the shelf and slope through the valleys
and canyons to feed the basin-floor fan.
The basin-floor fan may be deposited at the
mouth of a canyon or widely separated from it, or
a canyon may not be evident. Traced from
upslope into the basin the fan has been divided
into Mid Slope Channels, Toe of Slope, Proximal
Fan, Mid Fan and Distal Fan (Beaubouef et al.,
1999) or their equivalents of Slope
Channels, Inner Fan, Mid Fan, Supra-

Fan and Basin Plain by this site.

There is some interest in differentiating
submarine fans from turbidite systems. Stelting et
al (2000) and Menard (1955) define submarine
fans are deepwater sediments exposed on the
present-day sea floor that accumulated from
sediment gravity flows while similar sediments
that form consolidated deposits in the subsurface
and/or outcrop are defined by Stelting et al (2000)
and (Mutti and Normark, 1987, 1991)
as turbidite systems. The choice is yours, but
after reviewing the literature this site believes that
these terms are so widely used for both the
recent and the ancient that they have become
interchangeable.

As demonstrated by Hunt and Tucker (1992) the

up dip erosion that builds most fan complexes is
associated with the base level fall that

drives forced regressions of the shoreline. They

show how the upper surface of downlapping and
prograding shoreline of the forced regression is
eroded and is expressed as
a diachronous subaerial unconformity. This is
Plint and Nummedal's (2000) "regressive surface
of fluvial erosion". Hunt and Tucker (1992) match
this unconformity to a downdip surface they call
the marine correlative conformity that they relate
to the end of a base level fall. The resulting
sedimentation at the base of the basin margin
slope setting produces most basin floor fan
systems. In this setting Hunt and Tucker (1992)
argue that the correlative conformity can be
traced to the top of the prograding submarine fan
complex . The Hunt and Tucker (1992) suggest
that this "sequence boundary" over the forced
regression does not match Mitchum's (1977)
original definition of asequence boundary or its
time equivalent marine correlative conformity that
was tied to the onset of a sea level fall.

forced regression diagram of Hunt and Tucker

(1992)

Note the correlative conformity on the top of

the basin floor fan as suggested by Vail, 1987,
versus the Hunt and Tucker, 1992 & 1995,
models.

Wheeler diagram with correlative conformity on

the to

BASINWARD SHIFT IN FACIES

A vertical juxtaposition of facies such that
shallow-marine to nonmarine strata deposited
directly above a sequence boundary lie directly
on strata deposited in a deeper depositional
setting with no intervening rocks deposited in a
deeper depositional environment with no
intervening rocks deposited in intermediate
depositional environments.
BAYLINE
he demarcation line between fluvial and
paralic/delta plain settings (Posamentier & Allen
1999).
BED
These are commonly layers of sedimentary rock
separated by breaks called bedding planes. The
sedimentary "bed" is the basic unit,or
fundamental building block
of stratigraphy (Campbell, 1967). The lithologic
composition of beds, their geometry, their
trajectory, stacking patterns and hierarchies are
used to interpret their depositional
setting. Beds may signal a global process that
acted over ten's of thousand of years or may be
very local products of "events" that acted over a
matter of hours or days (Einsele et al, 1991).

In the 16th century Niels Steensen (1669)

recognized that sedimentary rocks were:
Formed of layers or strata

 These over lie on another in the order they

accumulated
Were close to horizontal at deposition
Have a lateral continuity that pinches out at the
margin of a depositional basin.
Steno, as he was known in the Medici Court,
made these critical geological observations in
"De solido intra solidum naturaliter contento
dissertationis prodromus". He inspired the use
of bedding to map and interpret sedimentary
rocks. As a result Jean-Etienne Guettard
used beds, as did Georges Cuvier, in their
mapping in France, and William Smith (1815)
when mapping the sedimentary strata of England
on the basis of the lithology, "erosional" breaks,
and the sequential order the fossil content
of beds. Undoubtedly the recognition of beds
must have had earlier origins, so even in the 5th
century BC contemporaries of Pythagoras were
aware of layered accumulation of sediment found
in the exposed portions of the Earth's crust (Lyell,
1830).
In 1953 McKee and Weir defined a bed' as a
laterally traceable, three-dimensional rock body of
relatively uniform physical,
chemical/mineralogical, and biological
composition distinguishable from rock above and
below. bed size was seen to range from very thinbedded 1 cm to very thick-bedded, 1 m (McKee
and Weir, 1953, Ingram, 1954).
Most sedimentary stratigraphers probably concur
with McKee and Weir's (1953) definition and like
Boggs (2001) attribute the origin of the thickness
and composition of individual beds to nearly
constant physical, chemical, and biological
conditions in the depositional setting. However a
critical property ofbeds, whose origins are often
enigmatic, is the bedding plane that
separates beds from each other with sharply
defined upper and lower surfaces
So a bed can be considered to be a relatively
conformable succession of genetically related
sedimentary materials, laminae or laminasets
bounded by surfaces (called bedding planes

orsurfaces) of erosion, non-deposition or their

correlative conformities. boundaries form rapidly
(minutes to years) and separate all
younger strata from all other strata over the
extent of the surface. The time represented
by bedding planes probably greater than time
represented by beds (AAPG Methods in
Exploration 7, 1990). The lateral extent of
a bed across a terrain may capture the trajectory
that sedimentary fill took during for example
coastal progradation or retrogradation, hence
capturingcoastal trajectory.
BEDDING PLANE OR SURFACE
r surface

bed
depo
sitio
nal
surfa
ce
firmg
roun
ds
glos
sifun
gites

Beds are enclosed or bounded by

sharply defined upper and
lower surfaces or bedding planes.
Thesesurfaces are probably the
easiest physical features of
sedimentary rocks to identify in
outcrop. They are used to subdivide
successions of sedimentary rock into
their beds and are traditionally used to
determine the relative order and
timing of the accumulation of the
sediments forming the beds.
Concurrently the character of
the bedding planes be they eroded,
cemented, bored, bioturbated,
ordepositional surfaces is used to aid
in the interpretation of these
sedimentary rocks. To this end Allen
(1983) has described, using fluviatile
sediments as an example, that there
at least four kinds of bounding
sufaces: concordant non-erosional
(normal bedding) ; discordant nonerosional ; concordant erosional; and
discordant erosional contacts.
Never the less, the origin of
the bedding plane can be enigmatic.
The hypothesis presented here is that
most of these bedding planes are
probably surfaces formed by the

erosion of unconsolidated sediment

that collected at the sediment surface.
The weight of the sediment, just
beneath the sediment surface, causes
this sediment to dewater, compact
and become cohesive.
If this sediment surface is subjected to
the erosive force of:
Storm waves
Fast flowing currents of water (say in
tidal or fluvial channels)
Turbid flow of a density current
then the bedding plane surface will
cut down into sediment, truncating the
less cohesive sediment of the surface
and exposing a surface of the firmer
cohesive sediment below.

Should sedimentation resume over

this "firm ground" surface, it is
proposed that the density difference
between the loose uncompacted
sediment and underlying firm ground
would be expected to form abedding
plane.

In contrast if the
sediment accumulation is curtailed
and the surface not subject to
immediate deposition of further
sediment, the surface may be
burrowed by glossifungites.
Another potential outcome is that if
these surfaces are exposed to the
photosynthetic effects of
cyanobacteria, elevated salinities or
upwelling ground waters, they
become cemented at or close the
sediment water interface. If
these surfaces are exposed for any
length of time they may be colonized
and bored by marine organisms.
Bedding planes can also be the
lower surfaces of sediment bodies
that are carried into the depositional
setting by turbidities and/or crevasse
splays.

BEDSET
A relatively conformable succession of

genetically related bedsbounded

by surfaces (called bedset surfaces)
of erosion, non-deposition, or
their correlative
conformity. boundaries form over a
longer period of time than beds and
commonly have a greater lateral
extent than bedding
plane surfaces (AAPG Methods in
Exploration 7, 1990).
BIOSTRATIGRAPHY

The use of the fossil contents of

sedimentary rocks to correlate them
and determine their relative age.
BIOZONE
Classes of geological time zones
identified on the basis of the fossils
they contain. All the strata that
actually contain a given fossil species
are within that particular zone. In a
local section, the observed range of
fossil is its teilzone (Prothero &
Schwab 2004).
BOUNDARIES AND THEIR
HIERACHIES
Sedimentary sections are subdivided
by a variety of surfaces that envelope
& enclose discrete geometric bodies
of sediment. The partings with the
greatest frequency are those in shales
butbedding planes are the
commonest of these surfaces to catch
the geologists eye and are used
bysequence stratigraphers to interpret
the origin of the sedimentary section.
Brookfield (1977) was one of the first
to recognize the importance of
hierarchical order to
theboundaries seen in sedimentary
rocks. He applied this concept to the
Stokes (1968) surfaceboundaries that

occur in aeolian sediments. He

classified these as:
First order boundaries that cut
across underlying aeolian
sediments when the
migration of draa dunes
occured
Second order that were
related to migration of
transverse dunes
Third order boundaries that
enclose groups of laminae
interpreted to be the
products of
localevents within the
depositional cycle

Allen (1983) went on to establish,

using fluviatile sediments as an
example, that there at least four kinds
of boundaries:
Concordant non-erosional
(normal bedding)
Discordant non-erosional
(reactivation surfaces)
Concordant erosional
Discordant erosional contacts.
This led to his concept of
"architectural elements" from which
Miall (1985) developed a hierarchy of
scales for the depositional units of
fluvial depositional systems to better
classify communicate something of
their origins.
Pickering et al (1998) working with
deeper water sedimentary bodies
recognized that these were
subdivided by a hierarchy of
enveloping boundaries that define
genetically related discrete
stratigraphic architectural elements",

"bodies", or "units" or groups. They

defined the architectural
elements enclosed by
these boundaries as:
An interpretive characterization of a
sedimentary feature distinguished on
the basis of its geometry, scale and
facies.
The top end of this hierarchy includes
the boundaries of basins, and/or the
larger stacked channel complexes, or
larger reef complexes while the low
end of this hierarchy includes
the boundaries tolaminae
or beds found within groups of
discrete stratigraphic"elements",
"bodies", or "units".
Sequence stratigraphers use a
framework of certain of
these surfaces or boundaries to define
"sequences" and the "systems tracts"
they contain. The
commonest boundaries and surfaces
used in this characterization are:
The enveloping sequence
boundary (SB) of
a sequence, or its down
dip correlative conformity,
lies between the highstand
systems tract (HST) and
the falling stage systems
tract (FSST)
Basal surface of falling stage
systems tract (FSST) (Plint
and Nummedal, 2000) (also
known as the early lowstand
systems tract (ELST)
(Posamentier and Allen,
1999)
transgressive surface (TS)
that lies over the lowstand

system tract (LST) and

thetransgressive systems
tract (TST)
maximum flooding
surface (mfs)

Sequence stratigraphic interpretation

involves the identification of the
subdividing "surfaces" that envelope
and enclose discrete geometric
bodies of sediment. It tracks these in
order from oldest to youngest. They
are mentally disassembled
(backstripped) and then reassembled
in order in which they formed. This
reassembly considers the
subdividing surfaces,
geometry, lithofacies and fauna and
their evolving character in terms of the
depositional setting. Each stratal unit
is defined and identified only by
physical relationships of the strata,
including lateral continuity and
geometry of the surfacesbounding the

units, vertical stacking patterns, and

lateral geometry of the strata within
the units." (Van Wagoner et al., 1990).
In the process of interpreting the
origins of these surfaces, the
depositional setting and gross
sedimentary geometry of the rocks
that form that sequence are
established. Underlying these
interpretations is the use of a
simplified version of Walther's Law
that states:
Sedimentary facies with adjacent
depositional settings in plan view will
succeed one another in a vertical
progression of facies within a system
tract or a sequence.
Paradoxically the surfaces used to
subdivide stratigraphic sections
are diachronous (transgress time),
rendering Walther's law invalid.
However, if in the process of
interpretation,
the diachronous character of
the surfaces is ignored, an
oversimplified version of Walther's
Law can be applied to vertically
adjacent sediments subdivided by
the surfaces within the system tract or
a sequence. The result is a powerful
interpretation of depositional setting
and a prediction of gross sedimentary
geometry, both of which combine data
from these boundaries and
the parasequence stacking
patterns exhibited by thesystems
tracts (Van Wagoner et al., 1988).
The terminology of a number of
the surfaces used in sequence
stratigraphy are listed in the table
below (modified from Catineanu,
2006). Highlighted in red are the more
commonly used terminology

forboundaries and surfaces used to

characterize sequences and
their systems tracts. The less
commonly used terms
and surfaces associated with shallow
shelf clastics and the
immediate shoreline are not
highlighted.
surfaces of sequence stratigraphy
base level fall
sequence
boundary (SB)
(and
its correlative
conformity)

base level rise

maximum
regressive
surface

basal surface
of forced
regression

transgressive
surface (TS
or ravinement)

regressive
surface of
marine
erosion

maximum
flooding
surface (mfs)

To conclude fundamental keys

to sequence stratigraphic

interpretation are the surfaces that

subdivide the sedimentary section.
Unfortunately the nomenclature of
each of these sequence stratigraphic
surfaces is constantly changing as our
understanding of sedimentary
systems and their interpretation
improves. Though the changes in
nomenclature are well intentioned
they often add to the confusion to a
scientific methodology that is already
weighed down with complex multiword and multi-syllable terminology. A
surface can be given a name that has
been used before for a different
surface. The innocent reader, even
the seasoned stratigrapher, not
knowing the terminology has been
changed and lacking the
understanding of the reason for the
change, may feel that they are going
stark raving mad as they try to make
sense of what they read.
CARBONATE
Commonly a sedimentary rock,
either limestone (whose mineralogy is
calcium carbonate (CaCO3), or
a dolomite (Ca(Mg)CO3)). Often
formed of the remains of
calcium carbonate tests of marine
organisms, and/physicochemical
grains
including oolites, intraclasts, pellets a
nd/lime mud or micrite. Rates
of accumulation are often sensitive to
photosynthesis and so depth of water.

CYCLES THAT DEEPEN UPWARD IN THE STRATIGRAPHIC

RECORD
Rates of carbonate sediment production respond to photosynthesis and this production rate
increases as the water becomes shallower . For this reason carbonate depositional systems
commonly fill towards sea level and so "shoal" or "shallow" upward. The result is the
depositionalcycles of Goldhammer et, 1990), and the "simple" carbonate sequence cycles of the
platformcarbonate cycles of the Upper Miocene of Mallorca (Pomar, personal communication).
However working in the Murray basin Lukasik & James, 2003 have established that varying
nutrient levels affected the carbonate fill of this basin. As can be seen in the animated gifs and
summary diagrams below the carbonate depositional surface of the Murray basin built towards
sea level but did not reach it. The carbonates responded not only to base level change but also
the varying nutrient levels in the basin. Thus during sea level "lows" the shallower and more
isolated the basincaused nutrient productivity to rise (the setting became eutrophic)
while carbonate accumulationslowed. In contrast as the basin deepened during the onset of the
following sea level rise, the rate of nutrient productivity fell (the setting became oligotrophic)
while the rate of carbonate production increased. Eventually during the greatest rate of base
level rise the rate of carbonate production was reduced by the increasing depth of water.
Simultaneously as the Murray basin increased in size and deepened upward in response to this
sea level rise with the result that the increased fetch enabled storms to scour the sediment
surface while it was starved of higher rates of carbonateproduction. The effect that Lukasik &
James, 2003 describe is probably not uncommon in the many deepening
upward carbonate cycles of the geological record.

References Cited
Goldhammer, R. K., Dunn, P. A., and Hardie, L. A., 1990, Depositional cycles,
composite sea-level changes, cycle stacking patterns, and the hierarchy of
stratigraphic forcing: Examples from Alpine Triassic
platform carbonates: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 102, p. 535562.
[Landmark paper on the use of the character of cycles to determine their origins?].
Lukasik, Jeff J., and Noel P. James, (2003), Deepening-Upward Subtidal cycles,
MurrayBasin, South Australia, Journal of Sedimentary Research, Vol. 73, No. 5, P.
653671
[Mix of ichnology & faunal diversity are used to determine Deepening Upward Cycles,
depositional setting & correlate Lithofacies and chronoStratigraphic Surfaces.].

DEEPWATER SEDIMENTS

The majority of modern deepwater system sediments collect in bathyal

water depths (200 - 2000 meters) on the outer margin of the
continental shelf, down the continental slope and often to its base on
the continental rise flanking the abyssal plain, and also on this plain
(2,000 to 6,000 meters) itself.

The term "deep-water" refers to bathyal water-depth (>200 m) seaward of continental shelf
break on the slope, and basin where sediment-gravity processes "slides, slumps, debris flows,
and turbidity currents), and bottom currents are dominant depositional mechanisms. In
petroleum exploration and production the term "deep-water" has two meanings. 1) Denotes
deep-water depositional origin of the reservoir, even if drilling for this reservoir commences from
the shelf (e.g., Well A); and (2) to denote deep-water drilling depths (e.g., Well B) even if target
reservoir is of shallow-water origin.
Gravel symbol = reservoirs of shallow-water origin. Sand symbol = reservoirs of deep-water
origin (After Shanmugan, 2000).

In contrast examples of ancient deepwater settings tend to flank

foreland basins, active margins, failed rift and pre-drift passive margin
settings. Their sediments are usually found to have collected
downslope from shallower ancient shelf-edge systems or margins, and
were often fed by deltaic systems.
The character of deepwater sediment reflects their major sources and
depositional settings. These in order of greatest potential thickness
are:
Mass movement over the sea floor driven by gravity and often
by slope failure (Stow, 1994.):
o Sliding both as a cohesive plastic flow of sediment
over the sea floor debris and mud flows
o Suspended as a non-cohesive frictional flow, much
of it as a Newtonian fluid in a turbulent water

column, and then accumulating below this at the

sediment surface - hyperconcentrated to
concentrated density flows to turbidity flows
These cohesive and non-cohesive end members collect
as deepwater fans and other mass movement sediment
bodies at the base of the breaks in slope on the sea floor.

Suspended sediment:
o Flow of deltaic sediment plume (Bates, 1953):
Homopycnal
Hyperpycnal
Hypopycnal
o Storm winnowed shelf sediment
o Glacially rafted material
o Pelagic fauna
o Air born dust
All usually expressed as widespread sheets covering the
abyssal plain.

Benthic in situ accumulations usually expressed as or within

sheets that thin distally and accumulated on shelves or
downslope from basinmargins on basin plains.
Volcanic output.
For data on the total sediment thickness of the world's oceans and
marginal seas you should link to: Divins, D.L., NGDC Total Sediment
Thickness of the World's Oceans & Marginal
Seas, http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/sedthick/sedthick.html
DELTAIC SEDIMENT PLUME
The proximal portion of a deltaic system collects sediments carried in
suspension from the adjacent river. The distances of transportation
vary from inshore to distal portions of the adjacent shelf, and down
slope into the basin to even collect on deepwater fFans. Bates (1953)
explained this transportation and accumulation of sediments on the
basis of the properties of the decelerating flows of different mixed
water and sediment plumes. Basically he tied
sediment accumulation to the density of the suspension load of the
river, its velocity at the river mouth, its interaction with wave and
current energy in the depositional setting, and the density of the
adjacent sea water.
The density of sediment may match that of the sea water, be less than
it, or more. These density flows are:
Hypopycnal Flows in which density of the suspended
sediment flow is less than that of the water
Homopycnal Flows in which density of the suspended
sediment flow is equal to that of the water
Hyperpycnal Flows in which density of the suspended
sediment flow is more than that of the water

The diagram above captures the role of hypopycnal, homopycnal, andhyperpycnal flows and
the bedload sediment, and fluvial discharge.

In the upper portion "A" of the figure Orton & Reading (1993) show
how hypopycnal flowof suspended sediment can be detached from the
bedload and extend some distance seaward, buoyantly entrained in
the sea water as are fine grained sediments associated with the
Mississippi delta. In contrast mixed load channels like those of the
middle portion "B" of the above figure produce a friction dominated
river mouths with bifurcating channels. Finally gravelly bedload or
mass-flow dominated channels of the lower portion "C" of the above
figure produce an inertia dominated river mouth with a propensity for

over steepening of the basin margin and the development of mass

flows.
Van Wagoner,et al, (2003) have recently expanded on this concept to
develop depositional models that are based on the properties of the
decelerating flows. They use them to explain most clastic most
deposits, including those associated with fluvial systems, deltas, beach
profiles and deepwater fans.
DENSITY LOG
This log provides a continuous measure of the bulk density of aformation, and is
related to the density of the rock (a mix of the solid matrix of the rock and the
fluid it contains in its porosity). Thus the bulk density represents the density of
the minerals forming the rock being measured and the liquid it contains
(porosity). If the lithology of a formation is know, the density logcan be used to
determine its porosity. Uncompacted shales have lower density than sandstone
of same porosity, making this log a good indicator of grain size.
density log values (in gm/cm3) for some rock types are: sandstone with no
porosity 2.65g/cm3, sandstone with with 10% porosity
2.49g/cm3, limestone with no porosity 2.71g/cm3,limestone with with 10%
porosity 2.54g/cm3, dolomite with no porosity 2.87g/cm3, dolomite with with
10% porosity 2.68g/cm3, anhydrite with no porosity 2.96g/cm3, halite with no
porosity 2.16g/cm3.
A good source of further information on well logs, one that this web site has
used, is Malcolm Rider, 1996, "The geological interpretation of well logs", 2nd
edition, Gulf Publishing Company, Houston p. 280 ISBN 0-88415-354-1.
DIACHRONUS

A diachronous sediment layer or stratigraphic surface is a sedimentary

layer and/or depositional or erosional surface that is time transgressive
An example of this includes the erosional ravinement surface that
parallels the migration of the shoreface across previously deposited
coastal deposits during the transgressive movement of the landward
margin of the lowstand systems tract with a subaerial landward margin
and/or the transgressive systems tract. The attached movie in the
vertical menu bar shows how this erosional surface transgresses time,
or is diachronous, wherever the landward edge of the sea rises over an
underlying sedimentary surface.
If the transgressive surface is equated to the ravinement surfaces in
outcrop, then it should be recognized that these are diachronous too!
Further, the attached movie shows how the erosion associated with
the early lowstand systems tract forced regression is time
transgressive or diachronous. Thus if in outcrop this erosion is

ascribed to a sequence boundary unconformity then this too is time

transgressive or diachronous.
The animated Gifs are provided below if you are unable to operate the
Quick Time movie in the left vertical menu bar.

DISCONFORMITY

An unconformity in which the beds above and below are parallel, but
where the unconformity is of regional extent (AAPG Methods in
Exploration 7, 1990.). See section on unconformities for more details.
DISCORDANCE
The lack of parallelism of strata to sequence boundaries, with
consequent stratal terminations against the boundary surfaces.
(Mitchum, AAPG Memoir 26)
DISTAL FAN
This is the most seaward and deepest portion of a basin floor fan. It is
just down slope from the mid fan which in turn extends into the
proximal fan, then the toe of slope channels and their associated
coarser sediment (Beaubouef et al, 1999). Erosion from the canyons
into the slope and the updip incision of fluvial valleys into the shelf feed
the sediment that are spread out over the fan proper. This portion of
thebasin-floor fan has the most flattened surface and few if any
channels. Traced seaward across thebasin floor fan is the basin floor.

DOLOMITE

Most dolomites are diagenetic replacements of limestone.

Sedimentarydolomite may have been more important in the past but
the best known Holocene examples come from the evaporative coastal
lagoons of the Coorong, of South Australia. Currently
sedimentary dolomite is thought to have been rare in the sedimentary
record and most is thought to be a product of diagenesis.

In contrast diagenetic dolomitization is the more important but the

understanding of the process is still evolving. This encompasses an
ever-increasing number of settings and geochemical models.
Whatever the model proposed high magnesium to calcium ratios occur
in the waters responsible for this diagenesis. This is particularly true of
mixing zone brines with different compositions where dolomitization
can become locally important. Although the deep burial diagenetic
realm is not as well understood as near-surface conditions, it is
apparent that dolomitization, pressure solution compaction, and
cementation are associated with the deeper parts of the section. The
subsurface fluids responsible for the diagenesis are thought to be
derived from a variety of sources (figure above), and most likely from
down-dip basinal shales and fine carbonates that expel fluids as they
are compacted during burial.
The term dolomite may be used as both a mineral name and a name
for acarbonate rock containing more than 50% dolomite. Where good
evidence exists that the rock was once limestone, the adjective
dolomitized may be used. Although staining is the best method to
distinguish dolomite from calcite, development of good rhombohedral
structure is typical of dolomites and uncommon in calcites. This
criterion should be employed with caution, however. Much mudsized carbonate material can often be dolomite.

A subsurface setting for the diagenesis associated with dolomitization

is important but this process can occur in the following listed settings:
Arid supratidal salt flats
Capillary crusts in the up slope portions of tidal and supratidal
flats
Near surface submarine sediments of the margins
of carbonatebanks
Flanks and interior of carbonate banks with circulating marine
waters
Near surface mixing zone with magnesium remobilization
Late diagenesis by late movement of subsurface waters
Arid Supratidal Salt Flats
The association of dolomite and ancient tidal flat deposits is common.
The exact mechanism for magnesium enrichment and subsequent
dolomitization is not known, but several theories have been proposed
(right figure). Freshwater mixing with marine waters that are washed
onto tidal flats and evaporated are likely mechanisms in the tidal flat
environment.

Mineralogical changes are common in Holocene supratidal flats of arid

areas including those of the United Arab Emirates (Butler et al 1982;
Swart et al, 1987; and Kendall & Warren 1988). Here aragonitic
sediments can be dolomitized and evaporites emplaced in
these carbonate sediments (figure below). Landward, gypsum followed
by anhydrite and halite may be precipitated. The gypsum may form
individual displacive crystal laths or layers of mush, whereas anhydrite
occurs in contorted layers or as nodules. The origins of the brines
associated with this dolomitization is thought to be both marine
groundwater influxing from the adjacent Arabian Gulf (Patterson and
Kinsman 1977; and Butler et al 1982) and subsurface brines coming
from the adjacent Oman Mountains (Wood et al 2001).

Where the sulphates precipitate in standing bodies of water, for

instance isolated coastal lagoons or playas, they form horizontal layers
that parallel the sediment-water interface. The occurrence of
evaporites at the updip side of a carbonate shelf or platform is
important to the hydrocarbon industry since the evaporites often form
the updip seals to reservoirs developed in dolomitized
shelf carbonates.
Capillary Crusts of Tidal and Supratidal Flats
Evaporation of near surface waters in the capillary zone of tidal and
supratidal flats in tropical and subtropical areas like the Bahamas
(Whittle et al, 1992; Shinn et al, 1976) Shark Bay (Logan et al, 1970)
and the coast of Abu Dhabi (Kendall et al, 1995) can lead to the
precipitation of acarbonate that cements this surface. An increase in
magnesium to calcium ratios in the capillary waters is believed to be
responsible for the dolomitization of this cemented crust.
Near Surface Submarine Sediments of the Margins
of carbonateBanks
This setting for dolomitization has been recorded in the Upper Tertiary
section of the Bahamas (Vahrenkamp & Swart 1994; and Swart &
Melim 2000) and occurs beneath non-depositional surfaces, with the
concentration and extent of the dolomitization being controlled by the
length of time involved with non-deposition. These dolomites are
recognized by their association with the non-depositional surfaces, and
are thought to form from cold bottom waters, and in the presence of
diffusive temperatures.
Flanks and Interior of Carbonate Banks Penetrated by Circulating
Marine Waters

Two kinds of dolomitization occur in this setting. One is caused by in

pore fluids in which the cation and anion profiles are governed by
diffusive processes. The dolomite forming here is termed as
background dolomite(Vahrenkamp & Swart 1994; and Swart & Melim
2000). These authors record the occurrence of
microsucrosic dolomite and explain that this forms both by
recrystallization of the existing sediment and precipitation directly into
void space. They suggest that dolomitization of this kind has a local
source for Mg2+, so that the dolomite never constitutes more than
between 5 and 10% of the sediment.
The second form of dolomitization associated with this setting occurs in
coarse-grained reefal sediments (Swart and Melim 2000). It is
suggested that the circulation of normal marine water in a relatively
open system explains the pervasive character of the dolomitization and
the relatively normal Sr concentrations.
Near Surface Mixing Zone Remobilization of Magnesium
Humphrey et (2001) have shown that in the low-flow freshwater lenses
and meteoric vadose zones of Holocene and Pleistocene sediments in
the Caribbean, some skeletal calcites including red calcareous algae
have as much as 40 mol% MgCO3. They propose the additional
magnesium as coming from the cannibalization magnesium from the
algae. They found nodolomite in these samples but suggest that the
very high magnesium calcite is a probable dolomite precursor. They
note that Pleistocene red algae from Barbados mixing zones has
preferentially partially dolomitized the hypothallus regions of the red
algae where there is an increase in porosity. They believe that
dissolution-reprecipitation of the high magnesian calcite of the less
dense hypothallus in red algae is the start of early dolomitization. This
process may explain the occurrence of discreet
euhedral dolomite rhombs that often dispersed throughout
ancientcarbonates that show no sign of regional dolomitization related
to ground water movements.
Late Dolomitization Associated with the Late Movement of
Subsurface Waters
The genesis of dolomites that replace limestone in the deeper
subsurface is currently explained by two models of fluid-flow that
invoke the movement of waters with higher magnesium to calcium
ratios in the subsurface. One is related to regional subsurface flow
models, or burial-flow models which assume high temperatures for the
subsurface fluids (Mountjoy and Amthor, 1994; Nadjiwon et al 2000);
and the other less fashionable model assumes the evaporation of
seawater in restricted lagoons and salt flats that produce dense near
surface brines that move down into porous and permeablelimestones
and produce coarsely crystalline "early" seepage refluxdolomites

(Shields and Brady 1995). Both models require magnesium and fluid to
move this but differ in the character of the geochemical setting and
timing. The first model requires a longer time period and higher
temperatures than the second reflux model.
However it is formed, the dolomite has the potential for creating
reservoir quality porosity and permeability in originally tight limestones
(left figure). Early dolomitization may preserve porosity by creating a
rigid framework that inhibits compaction. In still other cases
dolomitization in lime muds may enhance porosity, because dolomites
are denser and so consequently take up less volume than the original
calcite.

Intercrystalline porosity in dolomites is responsible for many Paleozoic

reservoirs, a good example is the Mississippian Little Knife
fieldcarbonates. Dolomitization may reduce, redistribute, preserve or
create porosity. In a few carbonate reservoirs, as in the Jurassic
Arab limestones of Ghawar field in Saudi Arabia,
replacement dolomite crystals extend into adjacent pores thereby
reducing the primary porosity. In many dolomitized reservoirs such as
the Jurassic Smackover formation of Alabama and the Leduc
reef carbonates in Alberta, porosity and permeability have beeb
redistributed during dolomitization and associated leaching and
enhance reservoir character. Porosity that was formed during
dolomitization is common in the Mission Canyon and Red
River formations of the Willistonbasin.
DOWNLAP SURFACE
A marine-flooding surface onto which the toes of progradingclinoforms
in the overlying highstand systems tract downlap or terminate.

EARLY LOWSTAND SYSTEMS TRACT

n a sequence the lowest of the systems tracts is the falling stage
systems tract, (FSST) or the early lowstand systems tract, (ELST). It is
bounded at its base by a diachronoussequence boundary (SB) that
marks the fall of relative sea level below the shelf margin of the high
stand systems tract (see animated gif below). This fall is evidenced by
the erosion of the subaerially exposed sediment surface updip and the
creation of adiachronous dequence boundaformformry that caps the
high stand systems tract and the eroded surface of the downstepping
sediments deposited during accompanying forced regression.
The upper boundaformformry of this systems tract is marked by the
first occurrence of sediments that onlap onto the underlying
prograding clinoforms (see animated gif associated with the lowstand
systems tract). This change in sediment geometry occurs
when accommodation starts to expand in response to a relative rise in
sea level that occurs when a rise in eustasy exceeds the rate of
subsidence. On seismic data the upper boundary is a potentially
definable horizon but when well logs and outcrops are used instead it
is recognized as a marine flooding surface that may be marked by a
time transgressive ravinement surface overlain by a sediment lag.
stacking patterns exhibit the downward stepping prograding clinoforms
of a forced regression.
Posamentier and Allen (1999) divided a lowstand systems tract into
early and late phases. They indicated that during early
lowstand, relative sea level is falling, forced regression takes place,
and an unconformity forms a sequence boundary on the exposed
surface landward of the shoreline, representing a surface of
sedimentary bypass.Theincised valleys may form in the interfluve lows.
Vail et al 1977, like many other referenced authors, also equate
this systems tract to the accumulation of sediments as basin floor fans.
However Posamentier and Allen (1999) suggest that care should be
taken with this interpretation since the development of these fans may
often be independent of a relative fall in sea level and are instead tied
to higher rates of sedimentation and the character of the updip slope!
Since this systems tract is equated with the relative fall in sea level,
Plint and Nummedal, (2000) and Coe et al (2002) believe that it should
be called the falling stage systems tract and this is the terminology this
web site tends to favor.

EQUILIBRIUM POINT

The point along a depositional profile where the rate of eustaticchange

equals the rate of subsidence/uplift. It separates zones of rising and falling relative sea
level (Posamentier, et. al., 1988) This is point at which accommodation is neither being created
or destroyed.
EUSTATIC INFLECTION POINTS

The point at which a curve or arc changes from concave to convex, or

vice versa. The "Inflection Point" on a sinusoidal sea level curve is the
location at which the rate of sea level fall or rise is at its most rapid.
A sequence boundary will usually occur prior to the inflection point of a
relative fall but at least by this point. A condensed section will usually
accumulate prior to or at least coincide with the inflection point of
a transgression.
EVENTS IN
SIGNATURE

THE

STRATIGRAPHIC

RECORD

AND

THEIR

Seilacher (1991) defines event stratigraphy as the sedimentary

products of unpredictable, sudden, and therefore often catastrophic:
storms, floods, earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions. He
sees events as "aperiodic" and of varying magnitudes, the larger the
more rare. He notes that larger events wipe out the signatures of
earlier
smaller
ones.
Brett et al (2002) in their GSA abstract focus on event horizons and
note how persistent marker beds may represent rare, large
magnitude events. They list K-bentonite beds, seismically deformed
horizons (seismites), widespread tempestite, orturbidite beds, and
smothering or "obrution" deposits. Some of these are the products of
rapid deposition as "thin sediment packages, separated by condensed,
debris-rich horizons that record "background" conditions. As with ash
layers, beds with unique sedimentological, taphonomic, or faunal

signatures (e.g., trilobite molt layers) are "fingerprinted" and provide

excellent markers that imply widespread (10s of square km) and
uniform sediment blanketing of broadly similar environments on gently
dipping ramps. However, over larger areas, across facies strike, subtle
facies changes may occur within eventsbeds, indicating that the layers
are, indeed, isochronous. Various types of event beds occur nonrandomly within depositional sequences. Relatively condensed
offshore transgressive marine facies may exhibit a disproportionate
preservation of rareevents due to "event concentration". This effect is
exemplified by a frequent occurrence of K-bentonites, and well
preserved hardgrounds at flooding surface. Event deposits actually
may have higher absolute frequencies in expanded (e.g. highstand )
deposits; however, these horizons are commonly obscured by
"dilution". Conversely, seismites appear most frequently in silty to fine
sandy ("deformation prone") sediments of late highstands. Regional
high resolution event stratigraphy in combination with sequence
stratigraphy permits temporal correlations that are orders of magnitude
greater than those based on traditional litho- and biostratigraphy."
FACIES TRACTS
Genetically linked association of lithofacies and
vertical lithofacies successions (VFS) record a discrete energy/water
depth/sediment supply setting. Thesefacies tracts are recognized in
the carbonate ramp model that includes the ramp crest (or shelf),
middle ramp, outer ramp, and distal outer ramp or deep ramp (Kerans
& Tinker, 1997).

FIRM GROUNDS

A firm ground is formed by a stiff but uncemented carbonate and/or

clastic sediment that, at one time, was close to the sediment water
interface (Droser et al 2002). In Holocene settings firm grounds tend to
be exposed at the sediment water interface after the overlying layers of
unconsolidated soft sediment have been eroded. This erosive surface
may be one origin ofbedding planes. The firm conditions exhibited by a
sediment are usually the result of dewatering and compaction.
When carbonate or clastic silty to muddy sediments accumulate in the
absence of bioturbators, they tend to de-water rapidly. With the erosion
of the overlying softer sediment, this process of compaction alone will
tend to result in the exposure of a cohesive sediment surface. The
character of the sedimentary structures,
particularly glossifungitesburrows that formed close to the sediment
water interface are used to identify the setting in which firm
grounds were formed.
The erosive ravinement associated with transgressive surfaces is
developed with the onset of a sea level rise across a sediment suface
over a lowstand system tract which may expose thesefirm grounds that
become the site of colonization by the organisms that collectively
burrow the surface to form the glossifungites ichnofacies. Examples of
these firm ground surfaces include the transgressive surfaces formed
just below the maximum flooding surfaces
markingparasequence boundaries. It should be recognized that, as
Pemberton and MacEachern (1995) explain, that the maximum
flooding surface is associated with anoxic conditions and has not been
recognized as burrowed. Any burrowing is likely associated with the
underlying transgressive event!

The glossifungites facies are an ichnofacies which represents an

assemblage of burrows (vertical, U-shaped, or sparsely branched) that
occur in firm, but not lithified siliciclastic and/orcarbonate muds and
silts of the intertidal and shallow marine where scouring has often
removed the unconsolidated layers at the sediment surface.
The surfaces on which glossifungites occur are interpreted to have
formed following a regression and sea level fall and just after the inital
transgressive phase immediately following sea level lowstands. At
these discontinuity surfacessedimentation appears to have temporally
ceased, and erosion has occured. Examples of these surface include
the transgressive surfaces formed just below the maximum flooding
surfaces of parasequence boundaries.

The image above from University College of London course on trace

fossils).

The above photograph of a ravinement surface penetrated by glossifungites in the Cretaceous

prograding shoreline at the Book Cliffs in Utah. Photograph by Janiel Rivera in 2002.

Link to the Ichnology Research Group (IRG) at the University of

Alberta, Edmonton, Canada web site logo to the left for a more
complete description of this and other ichnofaci
FLOODING SURFACE

A general term that usually refers to surface that separates older from
younger rock and is marked by deeper-water strata resting on
shallower-water strata. Thus this flooding surface commonly refers to
a marine flooding surface associated with storm events. However it
may also be synonymous and synchronous with either atransgressive
surface or even the maximum flooding surface (mfs) (Vail, et al., 1977;
Van Wagoner et al., 1988, 1990, 1995; Posamentier et al., 1999 ) but
usually that is not the intent of the term, which has a more general
application.
FORMATION
Schlumberger define this as "The fundmental unit oflithostratigraphy. A
body of rock that is sufficiently distinctive and continuous that it can be
mapped. In stratigraphy, a formation is a body of strata of
predominantly one type or combination of types; multiple formations
form groups, and subdivisions of formations are members."
GAMMA RAY LOG
This log records the radioactivity of a formation. Shales (or clayminerals) commonly have a relatively high gamma radioactive
response, and consequently gamma ray logs are taken as good
measures for grain size (and subsequently inferred depositional
energy). Thus coarse-grain sand, which contains little mud, will have
low gamma ray value, while a fine mud will have a high gamma ray
value. The values range of gamma ray is measured in API (American
Petroleum Institute) units and range from very few units (in anhydrite)
to over 200 API units in shales.
The gamma ray logs are among the most commonly used logs by
the sequence stratigrapher.
A good source of further information on well logs, one that this web site
has used, is Malcolm Rider, 1996, "The geological interpretation of well
logs", 2nd edition, Gulf Publishing Company, Houston p. 280 ISBN 088415-354-1.
GENETIC SEQUENCE

depositional sequence
The boundaries of depositional sequences include a combination of
subaerial unconformities that are the classic "sequence boundaries" of
Vail et al (1977), and their marine correlative conformity. Catuneanu
(2002) equates the timing of this subaerial unconformity with a stage in
the base levelfall at the shoreline. He explains how Haq et al, (1987)
and Posamentier et al. (1988) match the correlative conformity with the
sea floor at the start of a forced regression. In contrast Van Wagoner et
al. (1988, 1990) and Christie-Blick (1991) match this to the sea floor at
the end of a forced regression. Hunt and Tucker (1992, 1995) and Plint
and Nummendal (2000) agree but introduce the concept of and
terminology of the Falling Stage systems tract that matches the period
of forced regression.

The concepts associated with the depositional sequence model are

important in that the correlativeconformity can be considered as a
chronostratigraphic marker. The problem is that a
correlativeconformity of the shallow marine portion in most outcrops,
cores, or on wireline logs is difficult to identify though it can be inferred
from seismic data (Catuneanu, 2002). However that in deep marine
settings, the correlative conformity is relatively easy to identify beneath
falling stage submarine fan systems (Catuneanu, 2002).
The genetic stratigraphic sequence
The genetic stratigraphic sequence of Galloway (1989) uses maximum
flooding surfaces assequence boundaries. He indicates that this lies
between the transgreesive system tract and that of the highstand. He
also equates the lowstand sytem tract with a relative fall and early rise.
Catuneanu (2002) points out the importance of the maximum flooding
surfaces is tied to the ease with which it can be mapped across
a basin. On the down side the maximum flooding surface may
be diachronous (Posamentier and Allen, 1999) and Catuneanu (2002)
suggest that genetic sequences have subaerial unconformities within
the sequence which potentially cross from one genetic'' package to a
completely unrelated one.
The transgressive-regressive sequence (T-R sequence)
The transgressive-regressive sequence (T-R sequence) of Embry and
Johannessen (1992) is enveloped by "composite surfaces" that include
subaerial unconformities and/or ravinementsurfaces and their
correlative maximum regressive surfaces (Catuneanu, 2002).
Catuneanu (2002) suggests that the "T-R sequence has more utility
than the depositional and genetic stratigraphicsequences". He
indicates the "correlative conformity is replaced with the marine portion
of themaximum regressive surface." He believes that the "latter surface
has the advantage of being recognizable in shallow marine settings of
virtually any type of outcrop." The problem with this approach is that
nonmarine and marine portions of the sequence boundary (the
subaerialunconformity and the maximum regressive
surface respectively) are potentially diachronous and may also be
mixed with the ravinement surface.

GLAUCONITE
The iron-rich minerals that form glauconites (K,Na)
(Fe,Al,Mg)2(Si,Al)4O10(OH)2 are found in sandstones,limestones, and
siltstones. These sediments are associated with the
widespread condensed sections that are related to maximum flooding
surfaces. These often merge landward withtransgressive
surfaces. glauconites are associated with slow rates of
sediment accumulation and occur in conjunction with organic matter,
and fecal pellets that fill glossifungites burrows within an oxidizing
setting. Examples of glauconite rich sediments include have ages that
range from the Precambrian to the present and they are associated
with the maximum flooding surfaces of parasequence boundaries that
occur just abovetransgressive surfaces throughout the geologic
column.. Theseglauconite rich sediments are often called "greensands"
and are particularly common in the Cretaceous sediments of the
United Kingdom and the United States. The minerals
of glauconite formin situ on the present day continental shelf.

Click on this thumbnail for full view

The above image is a section photomicrograph of trilobite/echinoderm
biosparite with glauconite grains typical of Cambrian platform (epieric)
seas that once covered Central Texas. The glauconite grains are the
green pellets, possibly faecal, and composed of this iron-rich clay. As
explained aboveglauconite is an indicator of shallow-water, nearshore,
marine sedimentation.
GLOSSIFUNBGITES
facies are an ichnofacies which represents an assemblage of burrows
(vertical, U-shaped, or sparsely branched) that occur in firm, but not
lithified siliciclastic and/orcarbonate muds and silts of the intertidal and
shallow marine where scouring has often removed the unconsolidated
layers at the sediment surface. The surfaces on
which glossifungites occur are interpreted to have formed following
a regression and sea level fall and just after the inital transgressive
phase immediately following sea level lowstands. At these
discontinuity surfacessedimentation appears to have temporally
ceased, and erosion has occurred. Examples of these surface include
the transgressive surfaces formed just below the maximum flooding
surfaces of parasequence boundaries.

This image from the University College of London course on trace fossils.

This ravinement surface is penetrated by glossifungites in the Cretaceous

prograding shoreline at the Book Cliffs in Utah. (Photograph by Janiel Rivera in 2002).

Link to the Ichnology Research Group (IRG) at the University of

Alberta, Edmonton, Canada web site logo to the left for a more
complete description of this and other ichnofacies.
HEMIPELAGIC SEDIMENTS
Pelagic muddy sediment of the deep sea with more than 5% biogenic
grains and a terriginous component that may be more than 40% silt.

Others believe that at least 25% of the sediment coarser than 5

microns is composed of terrigenous, volcanogenic, and/or neritic
material. Usually accumulates near continental margins (see
also NOAA).
HIATUS
The total interval of geologic time which is not represented bystrata at
a specified position along a given stratigraphic surface. This could be a
response to non deposition or erosion, though most think of this as a
time of non deposition. If the hiatusencompasses a measurable
interval of geologic time, the stratigraphic surface is
an unconformity (Mitchum, 1977).
Wheeler (1964) identified missing time is a lacuna of two parts:
Hiatus - time value of non-deposition and erosion degradation
Vacuity - time value of previous deposits that were removed by
erosion
He saw an hiatus as represented by a single surface with three
separate domains of time
Non-deposition
Erosion
Material that has been removed

HIGH-FREQUENCY CYCLE CYCLE

The high-frequency cycle cycle is the smallest set of genetically related
facies deposited during a single base-level cycle. Thesecycles are
comparable to and often equivalent to the "parasequence".
The cycle boundaries mark the turnaround from base-level fall to base
level rise (a period of time during which sea level rises from a
highstand position, through a lowstand, and returns to a highstand).
These cycles can be mapped across multiple facies tracts and include
multiple vertical facies successions (VFS) and are therefore
chronostratigraphic units. (Kerans & Tinker, 1997, Mitchum & Van
Wagoner,1991).
HOMOCLINAL RAMP

homoclinal ramp
accommod
ation
distally
steepened
ramp
ecological
accommod
ation
eustasy
low angle
ramp
massive
steep
margin
physical
accommod
ation
reefrimmed
margin

Read (1982, 1985) divided ramps into homoclinal

ramps and distally steepened ramps. In the figure
above homoclinal ramp geometries are portrayed as
the product of finer shallow-water carbonate. These
ramps have uniform, gentle slopes (<1) that extend
out into the adjacent basin. They capture depositional
settings that extend from 1) peritidal and lagoonal
settings; 2) shallow-water bank complexes; 3) open
marine, deeper ramp, muddy sediments; and 4) slope
and basin lime muds and interbedded shales (Read,
1985; DeKeyser et al 2010). Modern
homoclinal carbonate ramps include the Arabian or
Persian Gulf and Shark Bay, Australia. In these
examples of physical
accommodation the carbonate accumulation rates do
vary slightly down depositional dip. They illustrate
that despite their similar depositional profiles, the
facies differences reflect down dip differences in the
production/accumulation processes (Pomar and
Kendall, 2008).
Carbonate systems, and in particular platform exhibit
a diversity that is a result of a wide variety
of carbonate production processes and mechanisms
that cause their redistribution within the basin. Each
different biotic system has a unique competence
(ecological accommodation) for building above and
below the hydrodynamic shelf equilibrium profile of
Swift and Thorne (1991). Thus production depends
on biological evolution including ecological
requirements (substrate, competitive displacement,
etc); the type, size and efficiency of

the carbonate factory, which in turn, depends on the

area available to thriving carbonate producing biota
(basin floor physiography), on intrabasinal conditions
(nutrients, temperature, water energy, water
transparency, salinity, oxygen, Ca2+ and CO2
concentrations, Mg/Ca ratio, alkalinity, etc).
Furthermore, sediment dispersal depends on the
interaction between the physical characteristics of the
different types of sediment being produced (grain
size, bulk density as determined by porosity within
the grain e.g. intraskeletal porosity, etc) and the
hydraulic energy ambient to the production loci, and
its modification by binding, trapping, baffling and
framework building (Ginsburg and Lowenstam, 1958)
as well as by early cementation processes.
So, ecological accommodation matches
the accommodation of Jervey (1998) as the "the
space available for potential sediment accumulation"
but with some less than subtle considerations.
This ecological accommodation represents the
"potential" space available for carbonate sediment to
fill and is the combined product of rates
ofcarbonate sediment accumulation as modulated by
the ecological requirements of
thecarbonate producing organisms, movement of the
sea surface (eustasy: global sea level measured from
a datum such as the center of earth) and movement
of the sea floor (tectonics).
INCISED VALLEY
The channel or valley formed by fluvial systems that extend their
channelsbasinward and erode into underlying strata in response to a
relative fall in sea level. incised valleys can be up to several hundred
feet deep and range in width from a half mile to many tens of miles.
Timing of the incision of the incised valley will often be within the falling
stage systems tract, while the fill of the incision will tend to occur
during the followinglowstand systems tract to be capped by a
Trangressive Surface.

Coe, Angela, Dan Bosence, Kevin Church, Steve Flint, John

Howell and Chris Wilson, (2002) "The Sedimentary Record of Sea
Level Change" ,Cambridge University Press, 288 pp.
INTRACLASTS
non-skeletal grains
Nonskeletal carbonate grains are quite variable in origin and
appearance. Their value as indicators of the environment of in which
they are generated varies among authors and their nomenaclature, so
care must be taken to define the name that one uses. Our terminology
includes lithoclasts,intraclasts, pellets and peloids, and coated grains.

Lithoclasts
Lithoclasts (see illustration above) are irregular fragments
of limestones that were eroded and transported within or from outside
of the basin of deposition. They are sometimes called extraclasts or
detrital grains (right figure). The clast boundaformry cuts across
cement and particles in the fragment, reflecting its well-indurated
nature. Lithoclasts are indicative of processes that rip-up, abrade, and
transport pieces of previously lithifiedcarbonates.
intraclasts

intraclasts are irregularly-shaped grains that form by syndepositional

erosion of partially lithified sediment. Examples include mudlumps that
are torn up from the bottoms of lagoons during storms, hardened
desiccated mud flakes produced in intertidal and supratidal
environments and fragments broken from cemented deep-sea crusts
(above figure). Otherintraclasts are aggregates of carbonate particles
(figure below). These include grapestones and botryoidal grains.
Grapestones are composite grains with an irregular shape that

resembles a bunch of grapes, whereas botryoidal grains are similar but

with oolitic coats enveloping the aggregate grain. These types
of intraclasts from in shoal water environments with intermediate wave
and current activity, where grains that are cemented on the sea floor
are broken into aggregate fragments and lumps during storms.

PROXIMAL BASIN-FLOOR AFN

his is upper segment of the basin floor fan proper. It is just down slope
from the toe of slope channels and their associated coarser sediment
(Beaubouef et al, 1999). Erosion of canyons into the slope and the
updip incision of fluvial valleys into the shelf feed the sediment that are
spread out over the fan proper. This portion of the basin-floor fan has a
flattened surface that is usually channelled. Traced seaward
the basin floor fan further divided into mid fan and distal fan.

REGRESSION
are defined as either normal or forced.
normal regression: regression of the shoreline driven by sediment
supply, during a time of base-level rise at the shoreline (Posamentier,
& Allen, 1999; Catuneanu, 2002). The necessary condition for normal
regressions to occur is that sedimentation rates must outpace the rates
of base-level rise at the shoreline. In a most complete scenario,
two normal regressions are expected during a full cycle of base-level
changes: a lowstand normal regression following the onset of baselevel rise (early stage of base-level rise), and a highstand normal
regressionduring the late stage of base-level rise (Posamentier, &
Allen, 1999; Catuneanu, 2002). Normal regressive deposits display a
combination of progradational and aggradational depositional trends
(Posamentier, & Allen, 1999; Catuneanu, 2002).
forced regression: regression of the shoreline driven by base-level fall.
Forced regressive deposits display diagnostic progradational and
downstepping stacking patterns (Posamentier, & Allen, 1999;
Catuneanu, 2002).

A seaward movement of the shoreline indicated by seaward migration

of the littoral facies (Mitchum, 1977).

RELATIVE SEA LEVEL

Position of of sea surface relative to a fixed datum near the sea floor
which takes into account two components: eustasy and vertical
movement of the sea floor (tectonism and/or sediment compaction)
(Posamentier, and Allen 1999).

ReSISTIVITY LOGS
This log measures the bulk resistivity (the reciprocal of conductivity) of
the formation. Resistivity is defined as the degree to which a substance
resists the flow of electric current. Resistivity is a function of porosity
and pore fluid in a rock. Porous rock containing conductive fluid (such
as saline water) will have low resistivity. A non-porous rock or
hydrocarbon-bearing formation has high resistivity. This log is very
useful for determining the type of fluids informations and is frequently
used as an indicator of formationlithology and grain size.
A good source of further information on well logs, one that this web site
has used, is Malcolm Rider, 1996, "The geological interpretation of well
logs", 2nd edition, Gulf Publishing Company, Houston p. 280 ISBN 088415-354-1.
RETROGRADATION
he movement of coastline land-ward in response to a transgression.
This can occur during a sea-level rise with low sediment
flux. retrogradational stacking patterns ofparasequences refer to
patterns in which facies become progressively more distal when traced
upward vertically (Posamantier, 1988; Wilgus, 1988; Emery, and
Meyers, 1996).

SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES
The sedimentary structures found in sedimentary rocks are important
keys to the interpretation of their depositional setting, and provide
critical versus general clues as to the depositional setting of the
sedimentary rocks in which they occur. They are features found within
the sedimentary section, and/or on, and/or between, bedding
plane surfaces subdividing that section. They have characteristic
fabrics or features formed at the surface ofbeds of sedimentary rock
(bedforms) that often extend from the surface to within the
rock. sedimentary structures are formed in response to the processes
that deposited the sediment (primarysedimentary structures) or
modified them during or following deposition (secondary sedimentary
structures). Primarysedimentary structures provide critical
information on the depositional setting of the sediment and may be the
result of in situ physical, biogenic, or chemical processes.
Physical processes responsible for bedforms and associated layering
and cross-stratification include the wind, water driven currents and

waves. These bedforms commonly migrate across the sediment

surface forming the cross-stratification common to sandstones. Both
current and wave produced bedforms are extremely diverse but are
valuable indicators of depositional process, water depth, current
velocity, and current. Some develop in quiet water low energy
conditions, and others form in moving water or high energy
conditions. sedimentary structuresassociated with physical processes
are related to scale and hierarchy of features they occur in, whether in
sediments that have been confined (as in a channel) or unconfined
settings (as on a shelf), & associated but similar sized structures.
Structures vary from plane bedding, graded beds, imbricate bedding,
bedforms and cross-beds generated by unidirectional currents,
bedforms and cross-beds generated by multidirectional flow currents,
bedforms and cross-beds generated by waves.
The inter-relationships of physical processes active in depositional
and/or erosional setting are responsible for the grain size of the
sediments. As Hjulstrom & Sundborg have shown a critical current
velocity is required to move sediment of a specific grain size for a fixed
water depth, while sediment entrainment is also found to be dependent
on sediment cohesion and consolidation
Post depositional events include: hydrations/dehydration; compaction
and chemical signals. For instance deformationalsedimentary
structures form when soft, highly water saturated sediment undergoes
deformation before lithification. These structures include convolute
bedding, flame structures and load casts. In contrast
biogenic sedimentary structures are expressed by the modification of
depositional fabric by burrowing and/or other organisms at and post
deposition by biological activity and include trace fossils, stromatolites,
escape structures and reefs. Finally chemical sedimentary
structures reflect the setting in which they form by chemical processes
including oxidation-reduction, precipitation, evaporation, etc. Examples
include stylolites, concretions, evaporites, physico
chemical carbonategrains including pisolites, ooids, and grapestons,
etc.
SEISMIC SEQUENCE
A depositional sequence identified on a seismic section (Mitchum,
AAPG Memoir 26). Thus this is a relatively conformable succession of
seismic reflectors bounded at its top and base
by sequence boundaries (unconformities and theircorrelative
conformity) (Vail, et al., 1977). Within this package of reflectors it is
sometimes possible to identify reflector geometries representing a
succession of genetically linked deposition systems (systems tracts)

which are interpreted to have been deposited between eustatic-fall

inflection points(Posamentier, et al., 1988).
EUSTATIC AND MEASUREMENT OF WORLD WIDE SEA LEVEL
EXCURSIONS
he term eustasy refers to global sea level independent of local factors;
namely the position of the sea surface with reference to a fixed datum
including the center of the earth or a satellite in fixed orbit around the
earth.
The word "eustatic" was first used by Eduard Suess in 1888 and was
translated by William Johnson Sollas in 1906. Clarence Dutton in 1889
first used the term eustacy but when it was realized that Greek had no
c changed the spelling of the word to eustasy. Hallam (1984) drives
this etymological point home by pointing out that out ecstasy has no c
either.

Size of changes in eustatic Levels

It is impossible to determine the size of the variations
in eustatic position that occurred during deposition sedimentary section
(Guidish et al, 1984; Burton et al, 1987; Kendall and Lerche, 1989).
This is because of the position of the sea varies as a function
of eustasy, tectonic behavior and sedimentary fill. It can be
demonstrated that if the size of two of the variables are specified then
third can be established. This presents a problem since the sizes of all
three of these variables are unknown. The solution chosen by most

earth scientists is to assume a "reasonable" size for two of the three

variables and solve for the third.
In contrast the position of the present day sea level can be measured
and determined from orbiting satellites.
Schemes that purport to measure the size of Sea Level Variations
Tidal gauges sited along modern coastlines assume general models of
tectonic behavior and sediment deposition.
Hypsometric curves compiled for present-day topography of the
continents have been the basis for many estimates of the magnitude of
excursion is eustasy. They are used as a general baseline from which
to measure and overall sea-level rise through the Phanerozoic, and a
means for examining the relative magnitudes of sea level.
Sediment aggradation and onlapping geometries from
seismic stratigraphy is used and based on the argument that the
position of the onlapping seismic reflectors is controlled by thebase
level of the mean high water mark. The problem is that crustal
movement and sediment compaction varies from basin to basin and
also exaggerate the size of the eustatic excursions.
Paleobathymetric markers tied ancient strandline positions and/or the
sediment thickness of shoaling upward cycles equted with the size of
sea level excursions require assumptions either about the tectonic
behavior of the depositional setting, and/or eustasy, and/or
sedimentation.
Backstripped subsidence to determine the magnitudes of eustasy from
the differences between crustal subsidence and thermo-tectonic
curves. This scheme assumes an equilibrium isostatic burial history; a
model of isostatic and flexural response to sediment and water weight;
a model of sediment compaction.
Isotope ratios and coral reef terraces assume models of ice volume
and tectonic subsidence.
Models that simulate the sediment geometry at basin margins again
use assumed general models of tectonic behavior and sediment
deposition.
SONIC (ACOUSTIC) LOG
his log measures of the speed of sound in the formation, and is related
to both the porosity and lithology of the rock being measured. Thus, if
the lithology of a formation is know, this log can be used to determine
its porosity. Shales have lower velocity (higher transit time) than
sandstone of same porosity, making this log a good indicator of grain
size.
sonic log values (in ms/ft) for some rock types are:

Sandstone 51-56
limestone 47.5
dolomite 43.5,
Anhydrite 50,
Halite 67
SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL(SP) LOG
This log measures the electrical current that occurs naturally in
boreholes as a result of salinity differences between
the formationwater and the borehole mud filtrate (formation and
surface). These logs are used as indicators of
permeable beds (including determining permeable sands and
impermeable shales) or for locating bed undaries');">boundaries. The
SP log was one of the first tools to be used to distinguish shale from
sand in clasticsequences (zero matches pure shale while high SP
values match sand)
A good source of further information on well logs, one that this web site
has used, is Malcolm Rider, 1996, "The geological interpretation of well
logs", 2nd edition, Gulf Publishing Company, Houston p. 280 ISBN 088415-354-1.
STRATUM (STRATA)
A tabular or sheet-like mass, or a single and distinct layer, or
sedimentary material, visually separable from other layers above and
below, by a discrete change in character, or by a sharp physical break
in deposition, or by both. It has been defined as a general term that
includes both "bed" and "lamination". The term is more frequently used
in its plural form, strata (Mitchum, AAPG Memoir 26).

TERMINATIONS OD STRATA
he terminations expressed by strata within depositional sequences is
used to discriminate the location of the depositional setting of
a systems tract and/or from one sequence geometry to another. Terms
expressed in this diagram
include truncation, toplap, offlap, onlap and downlap. The movies to
the left capture how these various geometric relationships are
connected to rates of sedimentaion and changing base level.

TEMPESTITES DISTINGUISHED FRON TURBIDITE

Sediment deposition and reworking associated with storms
(tempestites) and turbidite currents (turbidites) are unpredictable,
sudden, and catastrophic. Both experience many of the same
processes, have similar character and so are difficult to distinguish
from each other.
tempestites are the products of storms that produce waves and
currents that extend to and just below wave base in shallow shelf
settings. In contrast turbidites are the products of the suddent
mobilization of sediment on the shelf margin by the sediment surface
over-steepening on the sea floor and sudden movement downslope
triggered potentially by too much sediment, storms and/or
earthquakes.
Both tempestites and turbidites are the products of events that are
"aperiodic" and of varying magnitudes, the larger the more rare. The
larger events wipe out the signatures of earlier smaller ones. These
dicyclic or non-periodic sequences are caused by irregular
stratigraphic events, often the recurrent processes associated with the
depositional regime (autocyclic processes) (Einsele et al , 1991). The
sedimentary cycles of both tempestites and turbidites tend to be
composed of graded bed s that fine upward, form symmetric or
asymmetric cyclic bundles of sequences, as well as complete and
incomplete cycles, the latter reflecting non-deposition and/or erosion
during the depositional cycle. Recurring processes generate
successions of bundles cyclic beds. Myrow in a series of publications,
sometimes alone and sometimes with others (see below), has
developed models that explain the hierarchy of expectedsedimentary
structures associated with tempestites and also considers how
the surfaces of shallow turbidites are modified by waves.

The table and attached diagram below suggest strategies for

separating tempestite deposits from those of turbidites.
tempestite
s

turbidites

Wave ripples and

wave ripple
cross lamination

Common
(apart from
distal types)

Absent

Current ripples and

current
ripple bedding

Less
common
than
inturbidites

Common

sedimentar
y structures

Convolute laminatio
n

Rare

Common

(from top to
bottom
of bed)

Hummocky crossstratification

Common

Absent

Biofacies

Stratigraphi
c context

Traction carpet with

inverse grading

Absent

Common in
proximal
types

Nature of sole
marks

Often
bipolar,
pronounced
irregular
scouring,
gutter-casts
channeling

Unidirectional

Benthic background
community (in
muddy
intercalations)

Shallow
water
fauna,
differing
with
substrate
consistency

Deep-water
fauna,
mainly
represente
d by
burrows

Displaced body
fossils within
event beds

Shallow
water
species
only

Shallow
and deepwater

Autochthonous
post-event fauna
and bioturbation

Fauna
similar to
pre-event
fauna
(return to
background
fauna, if
substrate
similar)

Episodic
colonization
by specific
fauna
preceding
return to
background
conditions

Amalgamation

Very
common
and
pronounced
including
"maturation"
of sediment

Less
common,
no
maturation
effect

Continuity of
single beds

Mostly
limited

Often over
wide
distance

Thickness
of sequence

Table (After Einsele et al, 1991)

Limited
associated
with
shallowwater facies

In general
great,
associated
with deepwater
facies

WEELER DIAGRAM

A stratigraphic summary chart on which geologic time is plotted as the

vertical scale, and distance across the area of interest as the horizontal
scale, and on which a variety of stratigraphic information is brought
together (Mitchum, 1977). These are also called Wheeler diagrams
after the geologist who initially formalized this timestratigraphy concept in 1958 and expanded on this in 1964. His
diagrams display both the horizontal distribution of the component
sedimentary layers of a sequence but also the significant hiatuses in
sedimentation.

O
n the cross section the A5 surface is truncated by an unconformity but on the area-time plot the
A5 surface extends across the entire region, with a large portion of it is within the lacuna domain

On the cross section above the A5 surface is truncated by an unconformity but on this area-time
plot of Wheeler (1964) the A5 surface extends across the entire region, with a large portion of it
is within the lacuna domain

These diagrams enable the analysis of a stratigraphic cross section so

the component sedimentary layers and systems tracts of sequences
can be considered in terms of their relationship to baselevel, hiatuses,
timing and geographic location.
Diagrams are commonly are built from seismic and/or geologic crosssections and may used to identify trends in potential hydrocarbon
reservoir, seal and/or source rocks facies
THE End