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Electrical and Electromechanical Systems 2
Electrical and Electromechanical Systems 2
Chapter 6
Electrical Systems and
Electromechanical Systems
A. Bazoune
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The majority of engineering systems now have at least one electrical subsystem. This
may be a power supply, sensor, motor, controller, or an acoustic device such as a speaker. So
an understanding of electrical systems is essential to understanding the behavior of many
systems.
i=
dq
dt
or
q ( t ) = i dt
The unit of charge is the coulomb (C) (in recognition of Charles Augustin Coulomb, French
physicist and mathematician, 1736-1806), which represents
6.24 1018
electrons.
The unit of current is the ampere, or simply, amp (in recognition of Andre Marie Ampere,
French physicist and mathematician, 1775-1836) which is defined as a coulomb per second:
Ampere = coulomb / second
Thus, 1 amp is
6.24 1018
Energy is required to move a charge between two points in a circuit. The work per
unit charge required to do this is called voltage. The voltage difference between two points in
a circuit is a measure of the energy required to move charge from one point to the other.
The unit of voltage is volt (V) (in recognition of the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta, 17451827), which is defined as a charge of 1 joule of energy per coulomb of charge.
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A joule (named in recognition of the English physicist James Joule, 1818-1889) is a unit of
energy or work and has the units of Newton X meter. Thus,
volt = joule / coulomb
joule = Newton x meter
active or passive.
Passive Element: an element that contains no energy sources (i.e. the element
needs power from another source to operate); these include resistors,
capacitors and inductors
e (t )
i (t )
Figure 6.1
(a) Voltage source; (b) constant voltage source; (c) current source
Resistance elements.
The resistance
R=
where
eR
( ) , where
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eR
i
ohm=
volt
ampere
eR
Resistances do not store electric energy in any form, but instead dissipate it as heat. Real
resistors may not be linear and may also exhibit some capacitance and inductance effects.
PRACTICAL EXAMPLES: Pictures of various types of real-world resistors are found below.
Wirewound Resistors
Capacitance Elements.
Two conductors separated by a nonconducting
medium form a capacitor, so two metallic plates separated by a very thin dielectric material
form a capacitor. The capacitance C is a measure of the quantity of charge that can be stored
for a given voltage across the plates. The capacitance C of a capacitor can thus be given by
C =
where
farad =
( F ) , where
q
ec
ampere-second coulomb
=
volt
volt
i = dq dt
and
ec = q C
, we have
i =C
or
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dec
dt
ec
dec =
1
i dt
C
Therefore,
t
1
ec = i dt + ec ( 0 )
C 0
Although a pure capacitor stores energy and can release all of it, real capacitors exhibit
various losses. These energy losses are indicated by a power factor , which is the ratio of
energy lost per cycle of ac voltage to the energy stored per cycle. Thus, a small-valued power
factor is desirable.
PRACTICAL EXAMPLES: Pictures of various types of real-world capacitors are found
below.
Inductance Elements.
di dt
L=
eL
di dt
The unit of inductance is the henry (H). An electrical circuit has an inductance of 1 henry
when a rate of change of 1 ampere per second will induce an emf of 1 volt:
henry =
The voltage
eL
volt
weber
=
ampere second ampere
across the inductor
iL
eL
is given by
eL = L
Where
di L
dt
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i L (t )
1
i L (t ) = e L dt +i L ( 0 )
L0
Because most inductors are coils of wire, they have considerable resistance. The energy loss
due to the presence of resistance is indicated by the quality factor Q , which denotes the ratio
of stored dissipated energy. A high value of Q generally means the inductor contains small
resistance.
Mutual Inductance refers to the influence between inductors that results from interaction of
their fields.
PRACTICAL EXAMPLES: Pictured below are several real-world examples of inductors.
TABLE 6-1.
v (t ) =
1
dv (t )
i ( ) d i (t ) = C
c 0
dt
v( t) = Ri (t )
i (t ) =
1
v (t )
R
v (t ) =
1
q (t )
c
v (t ) = R
dq (t )
dt
t
d 2q (t )
1
di (t )
(
)
v
t
=
L
(
)
(
)
i t = v d
v (t ) = L
dt 2
L 0
dt
1
Cs
Ls
The following set of symbols and units are used: v(t) = V (Volts), i(t) = A (Amps), q(t) = Q
(Coulombs), C = F (Farads), R = (Ohms), L = H (Henries).
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i =
were
e
R
Series Circuit.
Figure 6-2
e1 = i R 1 ,
Series Circuit
e = e1 + e 2 + e 3
e2 = i R 2 ,
e3 = i R 3
Thus,
e
= R1 + R 2 + R 3
i
R = R1 + R 2 + R 3
In general,
n
R = Ri
i =1
Parallel Circuit.
Figure 6-3
6/19
Parallel Circuit
i1 =
Since
e
,
R1
i2 =
e
,
R2
i3 =
e
R3
i = i 1 + i 2 + i 3 , it follows that]
e
e
e
e
i =
+
+
=
R1 R 2 R 3 R
where
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
R R1 R 2 R 3
or
R=
1
R1R 2 R 3
=
1
1
1
R1R 2 + R 2 R 3 + R 3R1
+
+
R1 R 2 R 3
In general
n
1
1
=
R i =1 R i
i3
i1
i5
i4
i2
Figure 6-4
Node.
i1 + i 2 + i 3 i 4 i 5 = 0
or
i1 + i 2 + i 3 =
1424
3
Entering currents
7/19
i4 + i5
{
Leaving currents
Kirchhoffs Voltage
The algebraic sum of the voltages around any loop in an electrical circuit is zero.
or
The sum of the voltage drops is equal to the sum of the voltage rises around a loop.
Figure 6-5
Diagrams showing voltage rises and voltage drops in circuits. (Note: Each circular
arrows shows the direction one follows in analyzing the respective circuit)
A rise in voltage [which occurs in going through a source of electromotive force from the
negative terminal to the positive terminal, as shown in Figure 6-5 (a), or in going through a
resistance in opposition to the current flow, as shown in Figure 6-5 (b)] should be preceded
by a plus sign.
A drop in voltage [which occurs in going through a source of electromotive force from the
positive to the negative terminal, as shown in Figure 6-5 (c), or in going through a resistance
in the direction of the current flow, as shown in Figure 6-5 (d)] should be preceded by a
minus sign.
Figure 6-6 shows a circuit that consists of a battery
and an external resistance.
Here E is the electromotive force, r is the internal
resistance of the battery, R is the external resistance
and i is the current. Following the loop in the
( A B C A ) , we have
r
r
r
r
e AB + e BC + eCA = 0
i
E
clockwise direction
or
E iR ir = 0
E
i =
R +r
8/19
C
Electrical Circuit.
9/19
10/19
11/19
12/19
i1 i2
R1
ei i
1
C1
i2
Figure 6-18
R2
C2
eo
Electrical system
1
( i1 i2 ) dt = ei
C1
1
1
( i1 i2 ) dt + R2i2 +
i2 dt = 0
C1
C2
1
i 2dt = eo
C2
R1i1 +
(6-17)
(6-18)
(6-19)
1
I1 ( s ) I 2 ( s ) = Ei ( s )
C1s
1
1
I2 ( s ) = 0
I1 ( s ) I 2 ( s ) + R2 I 2 ( s ) +
C1s
C2 s
1
I 2 ( s ) = Eo ( s )
C2 s
R1 I1 ( s ) +
R1 I1 ( s ) +
I1 ( s ) =
1
1
I1 ( s )
I 2 ( s ) = Ei ( s )
C1s
C1s
1
I2 ( s )
C sE ( s ) + I 2 ( s )
C1s
= 1 i
R1C1s + 1
R1C1s + 1
C1s
Ei ( s ) +
E o (s )
1
=
2
E i ( s ) R1C 1R 2C 2s + ( R1C 1 + R 2C 2 + R1C 2 ) s + 1
=
1 R1C 1R 2C 2
( R C + R 2C 2 + R1C 2 ) s +
1
s2 + 1 1
R1C 1R 2C 2
R1C 1R 2C 2
13/19
(6-20)
(6-21)
(6-22)
which represents a transfer function of a second order system. The characteristic polynomial
(denominator) of the above transfer function can be compared to that of a second order
system s 2 + 2n s + n2 . Therefore, one can write
n2 =
1
R1C 1R 2C 2
2n =
and
( R1C 1 + R 2C 2 + R1C 2 )
R1C 1R 2C 2
or
Complex Impedance.
E (s) = Z (s) I ( s )
corresponds to Ohms law for purely resistive circuits. (Notice that, like resistances,
impedances can be combined in series and in parallel)
Z2
Z1
e1
e2
e
Z = Z1 + Z 2 =
Figure 6-19
E (s)
I ( s)
Electrical circuit
eo are the input and output of the circuit, respectively. Then the TF of this circuit can be
obtained as
Z1
Z 2 ( s) I ( s )
E ( s)
Z 2 (s)
=
=
Ei ( s ) Z1 ( s ) I ( s ) + Z 2 ( s ) I ( s ) Z1 ( s ) + Z 2 ( s )
For the circuit shown in Figure 6-21,
ei (input)
Figure 6-20
14/19
Z2
eo (output)
Electrical circuit
Z1 = Ls + R,
Hence, the transfer function
Z2 =
1
Cs
E ( s)
, is
Ei ( s)
1
Cs
E ( s )
Z 2 ( s)
1
=
=
=
2
1
Ei ( s ) Z1 ( s ) + Z 2 ( s ) Ls + R +
LCs + RCs + 1
Cs
Z1
L
ei (input)
Z2
eo (output)
The solution of the equation describing one physical system can be directly applied to
analogous systems in any other field.
2.
Since one type of system may be easier to handle experimentally than another, instead
of building and studying a mechanical system (or a hydraulic system, pneumatic
system, or the like), we can build and study its electrical analog, for electrical or
electronic system, in general, much easier to deal with experimentally.
Mechanical-Electrical Analogies
Mechanical systems can be
studied through their electrical analogs, which may be more easily constructed than models
of the corresponding mechanical systems. There are two electrical analogies for mechanical
systems: The Force-Voltage Analogy and The Force Current Analogy.
Force Voltage Analogy
15/19
Figure 6-24
d 2x
dx
+ b + kx = p
2
dt
dt
(6-24)
where x is the displacement of mass m , measured from equilibrium position. The equation
for the electrical system is
di
1
+ Ri + idt = e
dt
C
d 2q
dq 1
+R + q=e
2
dt
dt C
(6-25)
Comparing equations (6-24) and (6-25), we see that the differential equations for the two
systems are of identical form. Thus, these two systems are analogous systems. The terms that
occupy corresponding positions in the differential equations are called analogous quantities,
a list of which appear in Table 6-2
TABLE 6-2
Mechanical Systems
Force p (Torque T )
Mass m (Moment of inertia J )
Viscous-friction coefficient b
Spring constant k
Displacement x (angular displacement )
Velocity x& (angular velocity & )
16/19
17/19
18/19
19/19