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Liquid/Liquid Extraction
PreLab : Prepare a PreLab as you have for the last two experiments and do this exercise:
Draw a flow diagram similar to that in Figure 6.10 for the substances 2,4, and 6 shown in Figure
6.15.
Introduction
Extraction is the drawing or pulling out of something from something else. A lawyer extracts
the truth from a criminal; athletes try to extract the last ounce of energy from their muscles.
Chemists extract compounds from solids or liquids using an aqueous or organic solvent.
By far the most universal and ancient form of extraction is the brewing of tea or the making
of coffee. Every pot of coffee or cup of tea involves solid/liquid extraction, the extraction of
organic compounds from solid ground beans or leaves using hot water as the liquid. The lower
molecular weight polar molecules such as caffeine dissolve in the hot water and are removed from
the high molecular weight water-insoluble cellulose, protein, and lipid materials. Over 200
compounds, some in only trace quantities, are extracted from the solid into a cup of coffee or tea.
Decaffeinated coffee is also an excellent example of solid/liquid extraction. Coffee manufacturers
extract the caffeine from the coffee to provide modern society with a decaffeinated version of an
ancient drink. We will be demonstrating this chemical separation method in lab on a macroscale
by extracting caffeine from tea.
CH3
O
CH3
O
N
CH3
O
H
HO
CH3CO
CH3O
HO
H
H
Morphine
CH3
H
HO
CH3
H
CH3CO
O
H
H
Heroin
Codeine
73
CH3
Extraction will be
used in many of the
synthetic reactions.
While solid/liquid extraction is the most common technique used to brew beverages and isolate
natural products, liquid/liquid extraction is a very common method used in the organic laboratory.
Organic reactions often yield a number of by-products, some inorganic, some organic. Also, since
they do not go to 100% completion, some starting material is also often present at the end of an
organic reaction. The real work in organic chemistry is not running the reaction, but rather in
what is aptly called the work-up of the reaction mixture, that is, the separation and purification
of the desired product from the mixture of by-products and residual starting material. Liquid/
liquid extraction is often used as the initial step in the work-up of a reaction, before final
purification of the product by recrystallization, distillation or sublimation.
A concrete example will help make sense of this. One of the synthetic reactions you will be
carrying out this semester is a Grignard reaction involving the addition of phenyl Grignard reagent
to benzophenone to form triphenylmethanol.
MgCl
HCl
ether
+
MgCl
H2O
OH
MgCl 2
phenylmagnesium
chloride
benzophenone
triphenylmethanol
The final reaction contains the product, the reaction solvents ether and aqueous hydrochloric
acid, and probably traces of benzophenone starting material. Since water and ether are
immiscible, we will have two separate layers, one aqueous acid, the other organic ether. Since
ether is less dense than water, it will comprise the top layer. A novice might simply evaporate the
water and ether to get rid of them. The problem is that the inorganic by-product, MgCl2, would
not evaporate and the crystals of it would be mixed with crystals of the organic product
triphenylmethanol. Your knowledge of chemistry and application of the principle like-dissolveslike should help you to figure out that in the 2-phase ether-water reaction mixture, the ionic
inorganic salts of magnesium should want to be completely in the aqueous phase or layer, and the
water-insoluble organic product, triphenyl methanol should want to be in the organic ether phase
or layer. Extraction uses the solubility differences of these molecules to selectively draw the
product into the organic layer. Although the two layers are immiscible, they work together to
separate and select the compounds you are attempting to isolate. By simply separating these two
layers, we can separate the inorganic salts from the organic materials. In almost all cases,
extraction can be used to separate or partition ionic or polar low-molecular-weight substances
into an aqueous phase and less polar water-insoluble substances into an immiscible liquid organic
phase. This phenomenon is governed by the distribution coefficient.
Distribution Coefficient
K = distribution
coefficient
In the typical example of liquid/liquid extraction described here, the product was a fairly large
organic molecule which you would predict to be not very soluble in water. On the other hand, if
the product were a lower molecular weight or small molecule, you should predict that it might
be at least partially water-soluble. Therefore, it might not completely move into the organic
layer, but also partially dissolve in the aqueous layer. For water-soluble organic materials, such
as acetic acid or sugar, most of the solute will reside in the water phase. A quantitative measure
of the how an organic compound will distribute between aqueous and organic phases is called the
74
distribution or partition coefficient. It is the ratio, K, of the solubility of solute dissolved in the
organic layer to the solubility of material dissolved in the aqueous layer. (Note that K is
independent of the actual amounts of the two solvents mixed.)
K= distribution coefficient
K=
The constant K, is essentially the ratio of the concentrations of the solute in the two different
solvents once the system reaches equilibrium. At equilibrium the molecules naturally distribute
themselves in the solvent where they are more soluble. Inorganic and water soluble materials will
stay in the water layer and more organic molecules will remain in the organic layer. By using the
correct solvent system, a molecule can be specifically selected and extracted from another solvent.
Since the distribution coefficient is a ratio, unless K is very large, not all of a solute will reside
in the organic layer in a single extraction. Usually two, three, or four extractions of the aqueous
layer with an organic solvent are carried out in sequence in order to remove as much of the desired
product from the aqueous layer as possible. The effectiveness of multiple small volume
extractions versus one large volume extraction can be demonstrated by a simple calculation.
Imagine that one extraction can recover 90% of the compound. A second extraction with the same
solvent may be able to pull out 90% of the remaining material. Effectively 99% of the compound
was recovered with two extractions. One large extraction would have only obtained the initial
90%. Many smaller extractions are more efficient than one large extraction. This phenomenon
can be proved mathematically, but in short follows the equation:
1
1 + VB
VAn K
This equation provides the fraction of material extracted by solvent B where n is the number
of extractions performed, K is the distribution coefficient, VA is the volume of solvent A and VB
is the volume of solvent B. There is a problem at the end of this chapter to demonstrate that more
extractions are better than one larger extraction. Give it a try!
Distribution coefficients play a large role in the efficacy of a drug. In order for a drug to be
absorbed into a brain cell, it must pass through what is called the blood-brain barrier, into the brain
cell. The drug must have enough water solubility to dissolve in the blood and be carried to the
brain. However, to pass through the cell wall which consists largely of water insoluble fatty lipids
with solubility properties similar to an organic solvent, the drug must have a reasonable organic
solvent solubility too. Cell membranes use the same fundamental solubility principles as the
extraction process. The cell membrane shown in Figure 6.4 consists of an ionic head and a very
nonpolar or hydrophobic center.
Ionic Head
Nonpolar interior
Ionic Head
Figure 6.4: Simple schematic of a cell membrane.
75
Cell membranes
use the same
solubility principles
as extraction.
The ionic head of the lipid orients itself in aqueous environments creating a very nonpolar
interior. Ions such as K+ and Ca+ can not traverse the interior of the cell readily because the interior
is very nonpolar and will not support these ions. Extraction uses this same partitioning effect to
isolate organic compounds. Just like this biological example, in the extraction process organic
compounds will choose where to dwell according to the distribution coefficient. Synthetic drug
design must take into account the importance of having a distribution coefficient that will allow
transport in both aqueous blood and through organic membranes.
One important aspect when choosing a solvent system for extraction is to pick two immiscible
solvents. Some common liquid/liquid extraction solvent pairs are water-dichloromethane, waterether, water-hexane. Notice that each combination includes water. Most extractions involve
water because it is highly polar and immiscible with most organic solvents. In addition, the
compound you are attempting to extract, must be soluble in the organic solvent, but insoluble in
the water layer. An organic compound like benzene is simple to extract from water, because its
solubility in water is very low. However, solvents like ethanol and methanol will not separate
using liquid/liquid extraction techniques, because they are soluble in both organic solvents and
water.
There are also practical concerns when choosing extraction solvents. As mentioned previously,
the two solvents must be immiscible. Cost, toxicity, flammability should be considered. The
volatility of the organic solvent is important. Solvents with low boiling points like ether are often
used to make isolating and drying the isolate material easier. If ether is used (bp = 35 C) then
evaporation to collect the solid is fast.
One common mistake when performing an extraction is to mix-up the layers and discard the
wrong one. The densities of the solvents will predict which solvent is the top or bottom layer. In
general, the density of nonhalogenated organic solvents are less than 1.0 g/mL and halogenated
solvents are greater than 1.0 g/mL. One common solvent pair is dichloromethane and water. The
density of dichloromethane is 1.325 g/mL and water is 1.000 g/mL. Dichloromethane is more
dense that water; therefore, dichloromethane will be the bottom layer and water will be the top
layer. Table 6.1 lists the densities of some extraction organic solvents.
Solvent
hexane
ether
toluene
water
dichloromethane
chloroform
Density (g/mL)
0.695
0.708
0.867
1.000
1.325
1.492
76
then the drop will mix with the solution. If the solvent is the mistaken organic layer, then the water
drop will create a second layer. In general, this method can help determine the identity of the layer.
However, it is still best to keep ALL the layers until the extraction is complete and your product
has been isolated.
Use a separatory
funnel to separate
the two layers.
After making sure the stopcock at the bottom is closed (in the horizontal position), the complete
reaction mixture including both aqueous and ether layers is poured into the separatory funnel. The
lower aqueous layer is drained into a beaker or flask by opening the stopcock. Just as the interface
between the two layers enters the stopcock, the stopcock is closed. The ether can then be drained
out the bottom or poured out the top into a separate beaker or flask. However, since there are
usually droplets of water containing inorganic salts clinging to the walls of the separatory funnel
or floating in the ether, chemists often keep or place the organic layer in the separatory funnel and
extract it with a volume of pure distilled water. Removing traces of unwanted materials this way
is often called washing. Extraction and washing are not very effective unless the two layers are
77
Be careful adding
the liquid to the
separatory funnel.
Remember to close
the stopcock!!
Washing
mixed together vigorously to provide maximum surface contact between the two immiscible
layers so that substances can be pulled or extracted from one into the other. To do this, the
separatory funnel is stoppered. With one hand gripping the top of the funnel so that a finger holds
in the stopcock, the separatory funnel is tipped upside down. Gently shake or swirl the funnel to
mix the two layers. Open the stopcock with your other hand to relieve pressure that usually builds
up from the vapor pressure of ether or another solvent. Vent often and point the funnel away from
yourself and classmates while shaking the solution. Since extraction solvents typically have a
very high vapor pressure (low boiling point), considerable vapor pressure is created while mixing
the two layers. Several times during lab, separatory funnel caps have popped off due to built
up vapors.
Microscale
Extraction
Thorough mixing is very important because the two solutions must be in contact with each
other to allow the solute to be extracted into the second layer. Once the immiscible layers have
been thoroughly mixed, with the funnel open to the atmosphere, drain the bottom layer into a clean
Erlenmeyer by slowly turning the stopcock as described above. Each layer can be easily separated
using this method. Again, several extractions should be performed to completely extract the
materials. Pool the organic layers, evaporate the solvent, and your separated compound is left
behind.
For microscale separations, pipet layer separation is convenient and normally very little
product loss is incurred. Since the two solvents are already in a reaction tube, instead of
transferring the small volumes of solvent to another piece of glassware and ultimately losing
product, the solvents can be mixed and separated directly from the reaction tubes. Use a Pasteur
78
pipet to gently mix the layers. This can easily be accomplished by gently drawing the liquid up
and down with the pipet. Do not simply swirl the tube. This mixing method will not allow the
two layers to mix properly and decreasing the success of the extraction. Once the layers are
thoroughly mixed, use the pipet to draw up the bottom layer as shown in Figure 6.7 below.
Water Layer
Ether Layer
Ether Layer
Water Layer
Caution- do not
discard the wrong
layer.
Emulsions
An emulsion is a suspension of tiny droplets of one solvent mixed in the other. Emulsions
are common in extraction because proper mixing is essential. In Italian salad dressing, an
emulsion is desired to keep the water and oil mixed. Additives are added to the dressing in order
to keep the two normally immiscible solvents miscible. In a liquid/liquid or solid/liquid extraction
however, an emulsion will lead to a poor separation. Gentle shaking and swirling the separatory
funnel is the best technique to avoid emulsions. However, if an emulsions occurs, there are several
simple methods to destroy it. The first is time. Over time the layers will eventually separate. With
a severe emulsion, you may not have time during a three hour lab period to wait. Another method
is to add brine or salt water to the mixture. Since ether is less soluble in a highly ionic solution
such as salt water, the ether and water will be forced to separate. This method works well with
79
small emulsions. If you have a more difficult emulsion, separate the layers as much as possible
and dry the organic layer with a drying agent. The water will be removed from the organic layer
along with the drying agent. Subsequent extractions should proceed without further trouble.
Drying Agents
One significant problem with liquid/liquid extraction is that no solvent is COMPLETELY
insoluble in another solvent. In practice, one additional step is usually carried out before
evaporating the organic solvent: drying over anhydrous sodium sulfate or other drying agent.
Drying a liquid might seem like a peculiar concept, since we normally think of all liquids as being
wet. Drying an organic liquid in the organic lab has a special meaning to chemists. It means to
remove all traces of water. Even water and hexane are slightly soluble in each other. After
separating the two solvents, residual water will remain in the hexane or ether organic layer. This
will remain and stick to the solid product when we remove the more volatile solvent. Therefore,
chemists remove the water from the organic layer by adding an insoluble inorganic solid to the
solution which will absorb the water, thus drying it. Granular anhydrous sodium sulfate is the
drying agent most often used although other drying agents are also available. All of the inorganic
solids work by reacting with the water to form hydrates, which is their preferred form if water is
available.
Na2SO4
Na2SO4.5H2O
H 2O
sodium sulfate
MgSO4
MgSO4.7H2O
H 2O
magnesium sulfate
CaCl2
Sodium sulfate is
used most often in
this course.
CaCl2.6H2O
H2 O
calcium chloride
2CaSO4
[CaSO4]2.H2O
H2 O
calcium sulfate
"Drierite"
Formula
Na2SO4
Speed
Medium
Capacity
High
Hydration
7-10
7
MgSO4
Fast
High
Calcium Chloride
CaCl2
Fast
Low
CaSO4
Fast
Low
1/2-2
Capacity refers to the amount of water removed per given weight of drying agent.
Hydration is the number of water molecules removed per molecule of drying agent.
80
These drying agents do not dissolve in the solvent they are drying. They may change
somewhat, for example, sodium sulfate will clump together as it reacts with water, but they will
remain solids in normal extraction solvents. This makes them easy to remove by decantation
(pouring off) of the liquid or by gravity filtration. Usually the organic solvent will go from cloudy
to clear in the process of being dried. You should be careful to remove all of these solid drying
agents before solvent evaporation or you might think they are your product. When you take a
melting point and the product doesnt melt by 300C, you probably have isolated your drying
agent. Sodium sulfate is a widely used drying agent and the one predominately used in this course.
It is relatively inexpensive and fast.
It is recommended that the drying agent you choose be in a granular form. After the drying
agent has removed the residual water, it is easier to remove large granular particles. Drying a
solvent however, is not an exact science. An excess of drying agent should be used to ensure that
all the water is removed. If the water remains after the materials are collected, it could interfere
with the analysis. Add drying agent until there are no longer clumps of drying agent stuck to the
sides or bottom of the flask. The drying agents should be free floating in the beaker, like snow.
Do not be afraid to use too much.
There are many other choices for drying agents including molecular sieves and sodium metal.
There are benefits and disadvantages to each one. Sodium, for example, is an excellent drying
agent, however it violently decomposes in water to create NaOH and H2 gas and may ignite
spontaneously. Therefore it should be used with caution and only when removing very small
amounts of water. Many times a particular drying agent will work better than others in a certain
situation. Use the Purification of Laboratory Chemicals as a guide when purifying organic
compounds.
Acid/Base Extraction
There are also three special cases of liquid/liquid extraction that are extremely useful for
isolating and purifying amines, carboxylic acids and phenols. All three of these functional groups
can be interconverted from non-ionic organic-soluble forms to water-soluble ionic forms by
changing the pH.
Amines:
RNH2
H+
Phenols:
PhOH
OH-
Carboxylic Acids:
RCOOH
RNH3+
PhO-
OH-
H2O
RCOO-
H2O
COONa
Base
(NaOH)
Benzoic Acid
81
H2O
Acid/base
extraction is useful
to separate acidic,
basic and neutral
components.
Changing the pH of
the aqueous phase
changes the
distribution
coefficient.
By converting benzoic acid to the sodium salt of benzoic acid, the solubility has drastically
changed. Now the sodium salt is soluble in the water and will migrate to the water layer. Because
the solvents chosen are immiscible in each other, the layers can be easily separated. Although the
separation is complete, we no longer have benzoic acid. To obtain the original compound, the salt
must be protonated with a strong inorganic acid. Once the benzoic acid is recovered by adding
acid, it will precipitate in the water to provide a pure compound. This method works very well
with mixtures of strong organic acids, weak organic acids, bases and neutral compounds. We can
use the acid/base functionality to our advantage.
By changing the pH of the aqueous phase in a liquid/liquid extraction, the distribution
coefficient is drastically changed, thus pulling molecules into either an organic layer or aqueous
layer at will. Carboxylic acids, phenols, and amines can be easily separated from neutral
components. However, all other common functional groups are not affected by changes in
aqueous pH and so they will always distribute between layers the same way because their
distribution coefficient is unaffected by pH. Figure 6.9 details the reagents needed to separate
benzoic acid, aniline and phenol.
Acid/Base
Equations
COOH
Acid
(NaHCO3)
Benzoic Acid
Benzoic Acid
NH3 Cl
NH 2
Acid
(HCl)
Aniline
(1)
(HCl)
NH 2
Base
(2)
(K2CO3)
Aniline
Protonated aniline
OH
OH
O Na
Strong Base
Acid
(NaOH)
Phenol
COOH
COO Na
Weak Base
(3)
(HCl)
Sodium salt of phenol
Phenol
Be sure you
understand the
chemistry before
beginning your
unknown
separation.
Acid/base extraction is one of the more difficult principles in organic chemistry to understand.
The most straight forward approach to understanding this subject is to create a flow chart
(mentally or on paper) to follow which species has been created and where the molecule resides.
If you can imagine the molecule changing and moving to the appropriate layer, you will be able
to complete the unknown separation very easily. Figure 6.10 is a detailed flow chart of the
separation of a strong organic acid, a weak organic acid, an organic base, and a neutral component.
If you can follow the steps involved below, the unknown extraction in this chapter will be much
easier to understand.
82
OH
COOH
NH 2
separate
COO Na
organic layer
OH
HCl
NH 2
COOH
separate
water layer
NH 2
O Na
NaCl
HCl
separate
water layer
NH 3 Cl
OH
NaCl
Evaporate Organic Solvent
Allow to Dry
NaOH
NH 2
+
NaCl
H 2O
83
Sublimation
Another easy and inexpensive purification technique is sublimation. It will be used as the final
purification step in the isolation of caffeine from tea.
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
liquid
solid
triple point
vapor
temperature
84
to vacuum
White Septa
Sample
85
Extraction Experiments
Procedure 1 demonstrates the Microscale Separation of Acidic, Basic and Neutral Substances
and Procedure 2 demonstrates the Macroscale Extraction of Caffeine from tea bags. Chem 35
students should do both liquid/liquid extractions (Procedure 1 & 2) in one lab period. Chem 36
students may do this too or do Procedure 2 in the second lab and carry out the sublimation of
caffeine during the TLC Experiment (Ch 7), which is normally a shorter experiment.
Caution!!
Note!!
O
C
OH
CH3
or
OH
2
3-Toluic Acid
m.p. 109C
Benzoic Acid
m.p. 121C
O
C
CH3
or
H 2N
CH3
4
H 2N
4'-Aminoacetophenone
m.p. 106C
3'-Aminoacetophenone
m.p. 97C
OCH 3
O
C
or
OCH 3
1,4-Dimethoxybenzene
m.p. 57C
CH3
CH3
4,4'-dimethylbenzophenone
m.p. 92C
Figure 6.15: Possible unknowns for acid/base extraction. (Note: Compound 6 is not listed in
older versions of Aldrich)
86
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.0
4.0
3.5
3.5
3.0
Let layers
separate
O
R
OH
R NH2
R H
in ether
3.0
2.5
2.0
2.5
OH
2.0
in ether
1.5
1.0
0.7
0.7
0.5
0.5
5% HCl(aq)
R H
1.5
1.0
0.7
R NH3+
Cl-(aq)
Extract ether
with water
0.5
Add 2 mL of ether to the solid mixture in the reaction tube which is now designated tube 1 by
mrling with a wax pencil. Make sure the solid is completely dissolved before going on to the
next step. Add 1.0 mL of 5% aqueous hydrochloric acid to tube 1. Mix the two immiscible layers
vigorously by drawing up as much as liquid as possible into a Pasteur pipet so that the pipet (but
not the pipet bulb!) is completely filled and then squirting it back into the reaction tube briskly.
Do this between 15 and 20 times so that there is maximum mixing between the aqueous and
organic layers, thus allowing extractable material to move from one layer to the other. Let the
layers separate, draw off the lower layer using the pipet and place it in tared reaction tube labeled
tube 2. Extract tube 1 with one 0.25-mL portion (6-7 drops) of water, again using pipet mixing.
After separation, draw off the lower water layer and add it to tube 2.
Now add 6-7 drops of ether to tube 2, pipet mix it thoroughly, and remove and discard the top
ether layer (let it evaporate in a beaker in the hood). This is called backwashing and serves to
remove any non-ionic organic material that might contaminate the contents of tube 2. Exactly
what chemical species is in tube 2?
Basic Component
Question #1:
What chemical
species is in
tube 2?
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.0
4.0
4.0
3.5
3.5
3.0
3.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
OH
2.0
1.5
Let layers
separate
in ether
2.5
1.5
R H
1.0
1.0
0.7
0.7
0.5
2.5
in ether
2.0
0.5
R H
O
R
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.7
0.5
NaHCO3(aq)
again.
Add 1.0 mL of a saturated aqueous solution of sodium bicarbonate (approx. 5-10% NaHCO3)
to tube 1. Pipet mix the layers thoroughly, allow the layers to separate completely and then draw
off the lower layer into another tared reaction tube (tube 3). Add 6-7 drops (about 0.25 mL) of
sodium bicarbonate solution to tube 1, mix the contents as before and add the lower layer to tube
3. Exactly what chemical species is in tube 3? Backwash the contents of tube 3 with 6-7 drops
of ether and discard the ether wash just as was done for tube 2.
87
Acid Component
Question #2:
What chemical
species is in
tube 3?
4.0
3.5
3.0
4.5
Cork,
Shake
occasionally
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.5
2.0
for 5 - 10 min
Continued below
2.0
in ether
1.5
1.5
R H
1.0
1.0
0.7
0.5
0.7
To tube 1 add 1 mL of saturated NaCl solution, pipet mix, and remove the aqueous layer. If
the volume of your ether layer has now dropped below 1.5 mL, add enough ether to make the total
volume about 2 mL. Now add to this enough anhydrous sodium sulfate to fill the tube with solid
up to the 0.5 or 1.0 mL mark. Cork with a size 0 cork and shake occasionally over a period of 5
to 10 min. This drying agent does not react with the product, but only absorbs the water from,
i.e. dries, the ether. It will be washed off with ether after the drying process is finished.
During the 10 min drying time, you can work on steps D and E, then return to this point.
1
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.0
4.0
4.0
3.5
3.0
3.5
Evaporate Ether
3.5
3.0
3.0
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.0
2.0
2.0
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.7
0.7
0.5
0.5
0.7
0.5
Na2SO4 (anhyd.)
0.5
into tube 4
Na2SO4 (anhydrous)
RH
The neutral component is recovered by decanting (carefully pouring off) the ether from the
solid drying agent into a tared reaction tube, tube 4. The drying agent in tube 1 is washed once
or twice with additional small amounts of ether to ensure complete transfer of the product, the
88
ether washes being combined with the main ether extract in tube 4 by decanting. Do this carefully
so that no solid sodium sulfate is transfered into tube 4. The used sodium sulfate should be
allowed to dry in the hood and discarded in the waste bin. Set tube 4 in a beaker in the your locker
and allow the ether to evaporate until the next lab period. Alternatively, if you have time, blow
off the ether in the hood with a stream of nitrogen from a plastic pipet connected to the nitrogen
line with a piece of Tygon tubing. Warm the tube in a beaker of warm water to speed up this
process.
Determine the weight and m.p. of the crude neutral compound and, if necessary,
(re)crystallize it from methanol/water. The product is dissolved in approximately 0.5 mL of
methanol and a few drops of water is added until the solution gets very slightly cloudy or turbid,
indicating the solution is saturated. This process is best carried out while heating the tube in a
hot water bath at 50C. [Because the product melts at 58-60C, it is obviously impossible to have
crystallization occur above 58C.] Allow the tube to cool slowly to room temperature and then
cool it thoroughly in ice. The product is best isolated by removing the solvent using a Pasteur
pipet with a square tip. Dry the sample thoroughly and determine the percent recovery, the
melting point and thus the identity of your neutral compound. Do not hand in any products.
Discard them in the proper recycling containers in the hooded shelves.
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.0
4.0
4.0
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.0
3.0
2.5
R
2.0
NH3+
Cl-(aq)
50% K2CO3(aq)
2.5
R NH2
2.0
3.0
Pipet Filter
Dry 2-5 days
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.5
1.0
1.0
0.7
0.7
1.0
0.7
0.5
0.5
0.5
1.5
To precipitate the
basic component
add base.
R NH2
Make the contents of tube 2 basic by adding small amounts (3 or 4 drops) of 50% potassium
carbonate (aq). Test with litmus paper for a slightly basic pH of 8 to 10. Agitate to mix and then
cork (Size O, Common Shelf) and shake for a minute. This will cause the amine to precipitate out.
Cool the tube in ice for a few minutes and remove the solvent from the crystals with a Pasteur pipet
(make sure pipet tip is square!) Wash them with a very small quantity of ice water and allow to
dry in a beaker, on a watch glass or on a filter paper until the next lab. The percent recovery and
melting point are determined and the amine thus identified.
89
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.0
4.0
4.0
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.0
2.0
O Na (aq)
3.0
Conc. HCl
2.5
Question #3:
Calculate the
approximate
amount of HCl
needed to acidify
the contents of
tube 3.
Pipet Filter
OH
ppct. in H2O
2.0
3.0
2.5
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.5
0.5
0.5
O
R
OH
Assuming the NaHCO3 solution used to extract the acid in step B was 1M and using the
information that concentrated HCl has a volume of 85.5 mL/mole, calculate roughly how
much concentrated hydrochloric acid is needed to acidify the contents of tube 3. Then, by
dropwise addition of concentrated hydrochloric acid, carry out this acidification, finally testing
the solution with litmus paper to assure its acidic. (Be sure to mix thoroughly before testing the
litmus paper, since in the process of transferring a drop onto litmus paper, youre really testing
the pH of the top of the solution in the tube!) An excess of hydrochloric acid does no harm. This
acidification must be carried out with extreme care because much carbon dioxide is released in
the process.
Cool the tube in ice and remove the liquid by the pipet microscale filtration method (make sure
pipet tip is square!) and discard the liquid. Add 0.75 to 1.0 mL of distilled water and a boiling stick
to the tube and very cautiously heat it in a sand bath to bring most of the solid carboxylic acid into
solution. (The water may need to reflux up the sides of the tube to dissolve all the crystals.) Allow
the tube to cool slowly to room temperature and then cool it in ice. Remove the solvent from the
crystals with a Pasteur pipet (make sure pipet tip is square, i.e., not chipped!) [The solubility
of benzoic acid in water is 1.9 mg/mL at 0C and 68 mg/mL at 95C. 3-toluic acid is not much
different.] Dry the crystals by spreading them out on a watch glass or filter paper in your locker
for a few days. When thoroughly dry, determine the weight and percent recovery of the solid
carboxylic acid. Determine the identity of your carboxylic acid by its melting point.
90
Procedure 2
As discussed in the introduction, the extraction of organic compounds from natural products
is widely used. In this experiment, caffeine will be extracted from hot tea bags.
O
CH3
CH3
N
Caffeine
2. Extract with CH2Cl2
N
CH3
Heat 75 mL of water in a 250-mL beaker to boiling on a hot plate (located on the shelf above
your bench). Remove the boiling water from the hot plate and using paper towels as a hot pad,
drop in three tea bags and allow them to steep (soak) for seven to ten minutes. Steeping involves
soaking, but not boiling in hot water. The water solution is decanted into a 125-mL-Erlenmeyer
flask and an additional 15 mL of hot water is added to the tea bags. This water solution is also
decanted into the original tea extract, and the tea bags are gently pressed with a spatula to remove
as much of the excess water as possible. The dark brown/red solution which results has a total
volume of between 80 and 85 mL. If it is less than this add enough saturated aqueous sodium
chloride solution to make it up to this volume.
The solution must be allowed to cool to room temperature and is then placed in the 125 mL
separatory funnel from your blue Kimble glassware kit. Add 15 mL of dichloromethane to the
separatory funnel. The two liquids form two separate layers with the dichloromethane layer
(initially colorless) on the bottom. The solutions are shaken gently together for approximately two
minutes (Review Figure 6.6) and then allowed to separate. A glass stirring rod can be used to break
up the emulsion. If the emulsion persists, try adding some more saturated salt solution. Using a
3" iron ring to hold the separatory funnel, the bottom layer is removed (drained out through the
stopcock) along with a small emulsion layer into a clean 125-mL-Erlenmeyer flask. The
extraction of the tea solution is repeated a second time by gently shaking with another 15 mL of
dichloromethane and adding this to the first extract. The remaining tea solution can be discarded
down the sink drain. The resulting dichloromethane extract solution is a pale greenish yellow with
some undissolved brown liquid spots floating on the surface. Add enough anhydrous sodium
sulfate to dry the solution. Swirling absorbs any water and brown liquid droplets. After drying
the extracts over the anhydrous sodium sulfate for 5 to 10 min, the solution is decanted from the
sodium sulfate into a 50-mL Erlenmeyer flask. Rinse the sodium sulfate with an additional 5-10
mL of dichloromethane and add this to the previous extract solution. Label this flask with your
name and desk number and set it in the back of your hood until the next lab period (or, if the volume
is rather small before you leave, in your locker) by which time the dichloromethane will have
evaporated, leaving behind greenish crystals.
Remove the
emulsion by adding
salt water or using a
drying agent.
Add a few drops of dichloromethane to the crystals and gently warm to dissolve them.
Carefully transfer the solution to a 13 x100-mm test tube (not a reaction tube). Rinse the flask with
additional drops of dichloromethane until you are sure the caffeine has been thoroughly
transferred or washed into the test tube. Set the test tube in a rack or beaker and allow the solvent
to evaporate in your locker until the next lab period. Or, if you have time, place a boiling stick
in the tube and gently heat the dichloromethane solution until it boils. Once all the dichloromethane
has evaporated or boiled off, insert the test tube into a hot sand bath (remove the boiling stick).
The caffeine will sublime up the sides of the tube over a period of 20 to 30 min, forming long
needles that attach to the cool walls at the top of the tube.
Remove the test tube from the sand bath and lay it on the bench to cool. Reach in with a micro
spatula and pull out one or two pure crystals and take a melting point. Tap the rest of the sublimed
crystals onto a tared sheet of weighing paper and determine the weight of sublimed caffeine
isolated.
91
Final Report
Final Report
In your RESULTS AND DISCUSSION section, answer the questions that are embedded in the
procedure for part 1 about what species are present in each of the extracts. (There are three
questions that are required in the text.) Show explicitly the calculation of the amount of
concentrated HCl required to neutralize the base in tube 3. Assuming each component was onethird of your starting mixtures weight, calculate the percent recovery of each. Give the identity
of each of your three compounds based on the melting point. Be sure to give your unknown
number. Discuss liquid/liquid extraction. as a compound separation method; what functional
group classes is it good for? Use the point distrubution on the grade sheet as a check list to see
if you have included the required information.
Post-Lab Question
PostLab Question
Using the formula below, determine whether or not it is preferable to make a single extraction
with the total quantity of solvent or to make several successive extractions with smaller portions
of the solvent. The formula to determine the
1
1 + VB
VAn K
12
RESULTS/DISCUSSION
Overall
organization, readability, completeness
13
Calculations and answers to questions in experimental procedures
25
Correct identity of the three unknown compounds in your mixture.
24
Melting point accuracy of caffeine
PostLab Questions
12
100
92