Fundamental Equations of Fluid Mechanics

Calculus

1.1

Gradient of a scalar, s

The gradient of a scalar is a vector quantity. The forms of the differential gradient operator depend on the particular geometry of interest. Below, these forms
are provided in rectangular, cylindrical polar, and spherical polar coordinates.
Rectangular coordinates
s
s
s
ix +
iy +
iz .
x
y
z

(1)

s
1 s
s
ir +
i +
iz .
r
r
z

(2)

1 s
1 s
s
ir +
i +
i .
r
r
r sin

(3)

s =
Cylindrical polar coordinates
s =
Spherical polar coordinates
s =

1.2

Gradient of a vector, u

The gradient of a vector u is a tensor quantity. The differential forms of the

gradient of a vector are provided below in rectangular, cylindrical polar, and
spherical polar coordinates.
Rectangular coordinates
The vector is given by u = ux ix + uy iy + uz iz , so u is given by:
u =
+
+

ux
ux
ux
ix ix +
iy ix +
iz ix
x
y
z
uy
uy
uy
ix iy +
iy iy +
iz iy
x
y
z
uz
uz
uz
ix iz +
iy iz +
iz iz .
x
y
z

(4)

Cylindrical polar coordinates

The vector is given by u = ur ir + u i + uz iz , so u is given by:
u =
+
+



1 ur
1
ur
ur
ir ir +
u i ir +
iz ir
r
r
r
z


u
1 u
ur
u
ir i +
+
i i +
iz i
r
r
r
z
uz
1 uz
uz
ir iz +
i iz +
iz iz .
r
r
z
1

(5)

Spherical polar coordinates

The vector is given by u = ur ir + u i + u i , so u is given by:

u =
+
+

1.3





1 ur
ur
1 ur
u
u
i ir +
i ir
ir ir +

r
r
r
r sin
r




u
1 u
ur
1 u
cot
ir i +
+
i i +

u i i
r
r
r
r sin
r


u
cot
1 u
1 u ur
ir i +
i i +
+
+
u i i .
(6)
r
r
r sin
r
r

Divergence of a vector, u

The divergence of a vector u is a scalar quantity. The differential forms of the

divergence depend on the particular geometry of interest. Below, these forms
are provided in rectangular, cylindrical polar, and spherical polar coordinates.
Rectangular coordinates
The vector is given by u = ux ix + uy iy + uz iz , so u is given by:
u=

ux uy
uz
+
+
.
x
y
z

(7)

Cylindrical polar coordinates

The vector is given by u = ur ir + u i + uz iz , so u is given by:
u=

1 (rur ) 1 u
uz
+
+
.
r r
r
z

(8)

Spherical polar coordinates

The vector is given by u = ur ir + u i + u i , so u is given by:
u=

1.4

1 (sin u )
1 u
1 (r2 ur )
+
+
.
2
r
r
r sin

r sin

(9)

Divergence of a tensor, T

The divergence of a tensor T is a vector quantity. The differential forms of the

divergence depend on the particular geometry of interest. Below, these forms
are provided in rectangular, cylindrical polar, and spherical polar coordinates.
Rectangular coordinates
The tensor is given by T = Txx ix ix + Txy ix iy + Txz ix iz + Tyx iy ix + Tyy iy iy +
Tyz iy iz + Tzx iz ix + Tzy iz iy + Tzz iz iz , so T is given by:


Txx Tyx Tzx
ix
T =
+
+
x
y
z


Txy
Tyy
Tzy
+
iy
+
+
x
y
z


Tyz
Txz
Tzz
+
iz .
+
+
x
y
z


(10)

Cylindrical polar coordinates

The tensor is given by T = Trr ir ir + Tr ir i + Trz ir iz + Tr i ir + T i i +
Tz i iz + Tzr iz ir + Tz iz i + Tzz iz iz , so T is given by:



Tzr
T
1 (rTrr ) 1 Tr
+
+

ir
r r
r
z
r


Tz
1
1 (r2 Tr ) 1 T
+
+
+ (Tr Tr ) i
+
r2
r
r
z
r


1 (rTrz ) 1 Tz
Tzz
+
+
+
iz .
r r
r
z

T =

(11)

Spherical polar coordinates

The tensor is given by T = Trr ir ir + Tr ir i + Tr ir i + Tr i ir + T i i +
T i i + Tr i ir + T i i + T i i , so T is given by:

1 (r2 Trr )
1 (sin Tr )
1 Tr
1
T =
+
+
(T + T ) ir
r2
r
r sin

r sin
r


3
1 (r Tr )
1 (sin T )
1 T
1
+
+
+

(cot
T
+
T

T
)
i +

r
r
r3
r
r sin

r sin
r


1 (r3 Tr )
1 (sin T )
1 T 1
+
+
+ (cot T + Tr Tr ) i .
+
r3
r
r sin

r sin
r
(12)


1.5

Curl of a vector, u

The curl of a vector is also a vector quantity. Once again, the differential forms
of the curls depend on the particular geometry of interest. Below, these forms
are provided in rectangular, cylindrical polar, and spherical polar coordinates.
Rectangular coordinates
The vector is given by u = ux ix + uy iy + uz iz , so u is given by:

u=

uy
uz

y
z


ix +

ux uz

z
x
3


iy +

uy
ux

x
y


iz .

(13)

Cylindrical polar coordinates

The vector is given by u = ur ir + u i + uz iz , so u is given by:

u =

1 uz
u

r
z


ir +

ur
uz

z
r


i +

1 (ru ) 1 ur

r r
r


iz . (14)

Spherical polar coordinates

The vector is given by u = ur ir + u i + u i , so u is given by:

u =

1.6

1 (sin u )
1 u

r sin

r sin


ir +

1 ur
1 (ru )

r sin
r r



1 (ru ) 1 ur
i +
i .

r r
r
(15)

Laplacian of a scalar, 2 s

The Laplacian is formed from the divergence of a gradient operator: = 2 .

The Laplacian of of a scalar is a scalar quantity. The forms of the differential
Laplacian operator depend on the particular geometry of interest. Below, these
forms are provided in rectangular, cylindrical polar, and spherical polar coordinates.
Rectangular coordinates
2 s =

2s
2s 2s
+
+
.
x2 y 2 z 2

(16)



s
1 2s 2s
r
+ 2 2 + 2.
r
r
z

(17)

Cylindrical polar coordinates

2 s =

1
r r

Spherical polar coordinates





1
s
1

s
1
2
2 s = 2
r2
+ 2
sin
+ 2 2
.
r r
r
r sin

r sin 2

1.7

(18)

Laplacian of a vector, 4u

The Laplacian of a vector is a vector quantity. The forms of the differential

Laplacian operator depend on the particular geometry of interest. Below, these
forms are provided in rectangular, cylindrical polar, and spherical polar coordinates.
Rectangular coordinates
The vector is given by u = ux ix + uy iy + uz iz , so 4u is given by:


2 ux 2 ux 2 ux
+
+
ix
x2
y 2
z 2

 2
2 uy
2 uy
uy
iy
+
+
+
x2
y 2
z 2
 2

uz
2 uz
2 uz
+
iz .
+
+
x2
y 2
z 2


4u =

(19)

Cylindrical polar coordinates

The vector is given by u = ur ir + u i + uz iz , so 4u is given by:


1
1 2 ur
2 u
4u =
(rur ) + 2
2
+
2
r r r
r
r

 
1 2 u
2 ur
1
(ru ) + 2
+ 2
+
+
r r r
r 2
r




1
uz
1 2 uz
2 uz
+
r
+ 2
+
iz .
r r
r
r 2
z 2



2 ur
ir
z 2

2 u
i
z 2
(20)

Spherical polar coordinates

The vector is given by u = ur ir + u i + u i , so 4u is given by:





1
1

ur
1
2 ur
2 ur
r
+ 2
sin
+ 2 2
ir
r2 r
r
r sin

r sin 2


2 u
cot
2 u
2
ur + 2
+ 2 2 u + 2
ir
2
r
r
r
r sin






1
1

u
1
2 u
2 u
r
+ 2
sin
+ 2 2
i
r2 r
r
r sin

r sin 2


2 ur
1
2 cos u
2 2 u 2 2
i
r2
r sin
r sin






1
1

u
1
2 u
1
2 u
r
+ 2
sin
+ 2 2
2 2 u i
r2 r
r
r sin

r sin 2
r sin


2 ur
2 cos u
+ 2 2
i .
(21)
2
r sin
r sin


4u =

+
+
+
+

1.8

Vector identities

The relationships below are valid for any coordinate system, and for any scalar
s, vector fields u, u1 , and u2 , and tensor T.
s = 0,

(22)

u = 0,

(23)

4u = ( u) ( u),

(24)

(su) = s u + s( u),

(25)

(sT) = s T + s( T),

(26)

(T u) = T : u + u ( T),

(27)

sI : u = s( u),

(28)

(u1 u2 ) = u1 u2 + u2 ( u1 ),

(29)

(u1 u2 ) = (u2 )u1 + (u1 )u2 + u2 ( u1 ) + u1 ( u2 ). (30)

1.9

Gauss divergence theorem

The following relationships are valid for any vector u and any tensor T.
Z
Z
udV =
n udS,
V

(31)

Z
TdV =

n TdS,

(32)

where n is the outer unit normal to an element dS of the surface S of a volume

V.

2
2.1

Mass conservation (continuity) equations for an

incompressible fluid
Vector form
u = 0,

(33)

where u is the velocity vector.

2.2

Cartesian coordinates

For velocity vector u = ux ix + uy iy + uz iz , u is given by

uz
ux uy
+
+
= 0.
x
y
z

2.3

(34)

Cylindrical polar coordinates

For velocity vector u = ur ir + u i + uz iz , u is given by

1 (rur ) 1 u
uz
+
+
= 0.
r r
r
z

2.4

(35)

Spherical polar coordinates

For velocity vector u = ur ir + u i + u i , u is given by

1 (r2 ur )
1 (u sin )
1 u
+
+
= 0.
2
r
r
r sin

r sin

(36)

Momentum conservation equations for an incompressible fluid

3.1

Vector form


u
+ u u
t


= g + ,

(37)

where t is time, u is the velocity vector, is the stress tensor, is the density,
and g is the gravitational acceleration vector.

3.2

Cartesian coordinates

For the following quantities:

Velocity vector u = ux ix + uy iy + uz iz ;
Gravitational acceleration vector g = gx ix + gy iy + gz iz ;
Total stress tensor = xx ix ix + xy ix iy + xz ix iz + yx iy ix + yy iy iy +
yz iy iz + zx iz ix + zy iz iy + zz iz iz ,
the momentum conservation equations are given by


ux
ux
ux
ux
+ ux
+ uy
+ uz
t
x
y
z

uy
uy
uy
uy
+ ux
+ uy
+ uz
t
x
y
z

uz
uz
uz
uz
+ ux
+ uy
+ uz
t
x
y
z

3.3

= gx +

xx yx zx
+
+
,
x
y
z

(38)

= gy +

xy
yy
zy
+
+
,
x
y
z

(39)

= gz +

yz
xz
zz
+
+
.
x
y
z

(40)

Cylindrical polar coordinates

For the following quantities:

Velocity vector u = ur ir + u i + uz iz ;
Gravitational acceleration vector g = gr ir + g i + gz iz ;
Total stress tensor = rr ir ir + r ir i + rz ir iz + r i ir + i i +
z i iz + zr iz ir + z iz i + zz iz iz ,

the momentum conservation equations are given by



ur
ur
1 ur
1
ur
+ ur
+ u
u 2 + uz
t
r
r

r
z

u
u
1 u
1
u
+ ur
+ u
+ ur u + uz
t
r
r

r
z

3.4

uz
uz
1 uz
uz
+ ur
+ u
+ uz
t
r
r

= gr +

1 (rrr ) 1 r rz
+

+
,
r r
r
r
z
(41)


= gz +

= g +

1 (r2 r ) 1 z
+
+
,
r2
r
r
z
(42)

1 (rrz ) 1 z zz
+
+
. (43)
r r
r
z

Spherical polar coordinates

For the following quantities:

Velocity vector u = ur ir + u i + u i ;
Gravitational acceleration vector g = gr ir + g i + g i ;
Total stress tensor = rr ir ir + r ir i + r ir i + r i ir + i i +
i i + r i ir + i i + i i ,
the momentum conservation equations are given by



ur
1 ur
1
ur
1
ur
+ ur
+ u
+
u

u 2 + u 2
= gr
t
r
r

r sin

r
1 (r sin )
1 r +
1
+ 2 (r2 rr ) +
+

, (44)
r r
r sin

r sin
r



u
u
1 u
1
u
1
cot 2

+ ur
+ u
+
u
+ ur u
u = g
t
r
r

r sin

r
r
1 (r2 r )
1 ( sin )
1 r
cot
+ 2
+
+
+

, (45)
r
r
r sin

r sin
r
r


u 1 u
u 1
u
1
cot

+ ur
+ u
+
u
+ u ur +
u u
t
r
r

r sin

r
r
1 (r2 r ) 1
1 r 2 cot
+ 2
+
+
+
+
.
r
r
r
r sin
r
r


= g
(46)

Stress, rate of strain, vorticity, and the constitutive relation for Newtonian fluids

4.1

Rate of strain

The rate of strain tensor, e, for an incompressible fluid is given by

e=

1
u + (u)T .
2

(47)

Note that e is a symmetric tensor.

4.1.1

Cartesian coordinates

The Cartesian components of e for velocity components (ux , uy , uz ) in (x, y, z)

directions are

exx exy exz

e = eyx eyy eyz .
(48)
ezx ezy ezz
These component are given by
uy
uz
ux
, eyy =
, ezz =
,
x
y
z




1 ux uz
1 ux uy
+
, exz = ezx =
+
,
=
2 y
x
2 z
x


1 uy
uz
eyz = ezy =
+
.
2 z
y
exx =

exy = eyx

(49)

(50)
(51)

Note that exy = eyx , exz = ezx , and eyz = ezy since e is symmetric.
4.1.2

Cylindrical polar coordinates

The e components for velocity components (ur , u , uz ) in directions (r, , z) are

err er erz
(52)
e = er e ez .
ezr ez ezz
These component are given by
1 u
ur
uz
ur
, e =
+ , ezz =
,
r
r
r
z




1 1 uz
u
1 ur
uz
+
, ezr = erz =
+
,
=
2 r
z
2 z
r


1
 u  1 ur
er = er =
+
r
.
2
r r
r
err =

ez = ez

Note that ez = ez , er = er , and erz = ezr since e is symmetric.

10

(53)
(54)
(55)

4.1.3

Spherical polar coordinates

The e components for velocity components (ur , u , u ) in directions (r, , ) are

err er er
e = er e e .
(56)
er e e
These component are given by


1 u ur
1 u
u
ur
, e =
+ ur , e =
+
+
cot ,
err =
r
r
r sin
r
r



1 1 ur
1
1 ur
u
u
u
er = er =
, er = er =

+
2 r
r
r
2 r sin
r


1 1 u
1 u
u
e = e =
+

cot .
2 r
r sin
r

(57)

u
,
r
(58)
(59)

Note that er = er , er = er , and e = e since e is symmetric.

4.2

Stress

The total stress, , is given by

= pI + ,
(60)

1 0 0
where p is pressure, I = 0 1 0 is the unit matrix, and is the deviatoric
0 0 1
stress tensor.

4.3

Constitutive relation

For Newtonian, incompressible fluids, the constitutive relation for is given by

the following vector form expression
= 2e,

(61)

where is the dynamic viscosity, and e is the rate of strain tensor (see above).

4.4
4.4.1

Components of stress
Cartesian coordinates

The Cartesian components of are

xx xy xz
= yx yy yz .
zx zy zz

11

(62)

These components are given by

ux
,
x
uy
p + yy = p + 2
,
y
uz
p + zz = p + 2
,
z


ux uy
,
+
xy = yx =
y
x


uy
uz
yz = zy =
,
+
z
y


uz
ux
zx = xz =
.
+
x
z

xx = p + xx = p + 2
yy =
zz =
xy = yx =
yz = zy =
zx = xz =
4.4.2

(63)

Cylindrical polar coordinates

The components of in cylindrical polar

rr
= r
zr

coordinates are

r rz
z .
z zz

(64)

These components are

ur
,
r


1 u
ur
p + = p + 2
+
,
r
r
uz
p + zz = p + 2
,
z  

u
1 ur
r = r = r = r
+
,
r r
r


u
1 uz
z = z = z =
+
,
z
r


uz
ur
rz = zr = rz =
+
.
r
z

rr = p + rr = p + 2
=
zz =
r =
z =
zr =
4.4.3

(65)

Spherical polar coordinates

The components of in spherical polar coordinates are

rr r r
= r .
r

12

(66)

These components are

ur
,
r


1 u
ur
,
p + = p + 2
+
r
r


1 u ur
u cot
p + = p + 2
,
+
+
r sin
r
r


 u  1 ur
,
r = r = r = r
+
r r
r



u
sin
1 u
,
= = =
+
r sin r sin


1 ur
 u 
r = r = r =
.
+r
r sin
r r

rr = p + rr = p + 2
=
=
r =
=
r =

13

(67)

4.5
4.5.1

Vorticity
Vector form

The vorticity is given by the following vector form expression

= u.
4.5.2

(68)

Cartesian coordinates

The = x ix + y iy + z iz components in cartesian coordinates for a velocity

vector u = ux ix + uy iy + uz iz are






uy
uy
ux uz
uz
ux
, y =
, z =
.
(69)
x =

y
z
z
x
x
y
4.5.3

Cylindrical polar coordinates

The = r ir + i + z iz components in cylindrical polar coordinates for a

velocity vector u = ur ir + u i + uz iz are
r =
4.5.4

1 uz
u
ur
uz
1 (ru ) 1 ur

, =

, z =

.
r
z
z
r
r r
r

(70)

Spherical polar coordinates

The = r ir + i + i components in spherical polar coordinates for a

velocity vector u = ur ir + u i + u i are


1

u
1 ur
1 (ru )
r =
(u sin )
, =

,
(71)
r sin

r sin
r r
=

4.6

1 (ru ) 1 ur

.
r r
r

(72)

Rotation tensor

It is also useful to define the rotation tensor, , which has the following vector
form expression


1
=
u (u)T .
(73)
2
It is possible to relate the components to the components. We illustrate
this in Cartesian coordinates
1
xy = yx = z ,
2
1
xz = zx = y ,
2
1
yz = zy = x .
2
Note that is not symmetric, unlike the rate of strain tensor e.

14

(74)

The Navier-Stokes equations for an incompressible, Newtonian fluid

5.1

Vector form


5.2

= p + g + 2 u.

(75)

Cartesian coordinates

ux
ux
ux
ux
+ ux
+ uy
+ uz
t
x
y
z

p
= gx +
x


2 ux 2 ux 2 ux
+
+
,
x2
y 2
z 2
(76)

uy
uy
uy
uy
+ ux
+ uy
+ uz
t
x
y
z

p
= gy
+
y


2 uy
2 uy
2 uy
,
+
+
x2
y 2
z 2
(77)

uz
uz
uz
uz
+ ux
+ uy
+ uz
t
x
y
z

p
= gz
+
z


2 uz
2 uz
2 uz
+
+
.
x2
y 2
z 2
(78)

u
+ u u
t

5.3

Cylindrical coordinates



ur
ur
1 ur
1 2
p
ur

+ ur
+ u
u + uz
= gr
t
r
r

r
z
r
 


2
2
1
1 ur
2 u
ur
+
(rur ) + 2
2
+
,
2
r r r
r
r
z 2

u
u
1 u
1
u
1 p

+ ur
+ u
+ ur u + uz
= g
t
r
r

r
z
r
 


2
2
2 ur
u
1
1 u
+
(ru ) + 2
+ 2
+
,
r r r
r 2
r
z 2

(79)


uz
uz
1 uz
uz
p

+ ur
+ u
+ uz
= gz
t
r
r

z
z




2
2
1
uz
1 uz
uz
+
r
+ 2
+
.
r r
r
r 2
z 2

(80)

15

(81)

5.4

Spherical coordinates


ur
ur
1 ur
1
ur
1
u 2 + u 2

+ ur
+ u
+
u

t
r
r

r sin

r





1
u
1

u
r
r
2
+ 2
r
+ 2
sin
r r
r
r sin



2
2 u
2 u
1
ur
2 cot
2
u 2
,
+ 2 2

r
r2
r sin
r sin 2



= gr

u
u
u
1 u
1
1
cot 2

+ ur
+ u
+
u
+ ur u
u
t
r
r

r sin

r
r





1
1

u
2 u
+ 2
r
+ 2
sin
r r
r
r sin



2
u
2 cos u
2 ur
1
1
+ 2
2 2 u 2 2
,
+ 2 2
r
r sin 2
r sin
r sin

p
r

(82)


= g

1 p
r


u 1 u
1
u 1
cot
u
+ ur
+ u
+
u
+ u ur +
u u

t
r
r

r sin

r
r





1 p
1
1

u
2 u
= g
+ 2
r
+ 2
sin
r sin
r r
r
r sin



2
1
u
1
2 ur
2 cos u
+ 2 2
2 2 u + 2
+ 2 2
. (84)
r sin
r sin 2
r sin
r sin


16

(83)

Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes equations

6.1

Cartesian coordinates
ux uy
uz
+
+
= 0.
x
y
z



 2
p
ux
ux
ux
ux 2 ux 2 ux
ux
= gx
+ ux
+ uy
+ uz
+
+
+
t
x
y
z
x
x2
y 2
z 2

+
u0x u0x +
u0x u0y +
u0x u0z ,
(86)
x
y
z



 2
2 uy
2 uy
uy
uy
uy
uy
uy
p
= gy
+
+
+ ux
+ uy
+ uz
+
t
x
y
z
y
x2
y 2
z 2

+
u0y u0x +
u0y u0y +
u0y u0z ,
(87)
x
y
z


 2

uz
uz
uz
uz
p
uz
2 uz
2 uz
+ ux
+ uy
+ uz
= gz
+
+
+
t
x
y
z
z
x2
y 2
z 2

+
u0z u0x +
u0z u0y +
u0z u0z .
(88)
x
y
z

(85)

17

6.2

Cylindrical coordinates
1 u
1
uz
(rur ) +
+
= 0,
r r
r
z

ur
ur
ur
p
1 ur
1 2

= gr
+ ur
+ u
u + uz
t
r
r

r
z
r


 
2
2
2 u
1 ur
ur
1
2
(rur ) + 2
+
+
r r r
r 2
r
z 2

 0 

1
+
ru0r u0r +
u u0r +
u0z u0r + u0 u0 ,
r r
r
z
r

(89)


u
u
1 u
1
u
1 p

+ ur
+ u
+ ur u + uz
= g
t
r
r

r
z
r
 


2
2
1
1 u
2 ur
u
+
(ru ) + 2
+ 2
+
r r r
r 2
r
z 2







2
+
u0r u0 +
u0 u0 +
u0z u0 u0r u0 ,
r
r
z
r

(90)


1 uz
p
uz
uz
uz
+ ur
+ u
+ uz
= gz

t
r
r

z
z




2
2
1
uz
1 uz
uz
+
r
+ 2
+
r r
r
r 2
z 2



+
ru0r u0z +
u0 u0z +
u0z u0z .
r r
r
z

(91)

18

(92)

6.3

Spherical coordinates


1
1 u
1
2
u
+
r
(sin u ) +
= 0,
r
2
r r
r sin
r sin


ur
ur
ur
1 ur
1
1

u
u 2 + u 2
+ ur
+ u
+

t
r
r

r sin

r





u
1

u
1
r
r
2
r
+ 2
sin
+ 2
r r
r
r sin



2
1
2 u
2 u
ur
2 cot
+ 2 2
2
u 2

r
r2
r sin
r sin 2



r2 u0r u0r +
+ 2
sin u0 u0r
r r
r sin

1 0 0

1
+
u0 u0r + u u + u0 u0 ,
r sin
r
r


(93)


= gr

u
u
cot 2
1 u
1
u
1

u
+ ur
+ u
+
u
+ ur u
t
r
r

r sin

r
r





u
1

u
1
r2
+ 2
sin
+ 2
r r
r
r sin



2
1
u
2 ur
1
2 cos u
+ 2 2
+ 2
2 2 u 2 2
r
r sin 2
r sin
r sin






r3 u0r u0 +
sin u0 u0
+ 3
r r
r sin

 0 0  cot 0 0
+
u u +
u u ,
r sin
r


p
r

(94)


= g

1 p
r


u
u 1 u
1
u 1
cot

+ ur
+ u
+
u
+ u ur +
u u
t
r
r

r sin

r
r





1 p
1
1

u
2 u
+ 2
r
+ 2
sin
= g
r sin
r r
r
r sin



2
2 cos u
1
u
1
2 ur
+ 2 2

u
+
+

r2 sin
r sin 2
r2 sin2
r2 sin2





+ 3
r3 u0r u0 +
sin u0 u0
r r
r sin

cot

+
u0 u0
u0 u0 .
(96)
r sin
r

19

(95)