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Chapter 3: Education and Social Mobility

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Table of Contents
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter

1: Introduction
2: Schools and Socialisation
3: Education and Social Mobility
4: Education and Occupation
5: Peer Group
6 : Home
7 : Academic Underachievers
8 : Teaching Profession

LEARNING OUTCOMES

When you complete this chapter you should be able to:

Explain the meaning of social mobility
Differentiate between ascription and achievement
Describe how education facilitates social mobility.
Discuss how education has facilitated social mobility of women
Compare intergenerational mobility across countries
Illustrate how the resources parents transmit to their children affect
their socioeconomic standing

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Preamble
Society based on ascription
and achievement
What is social mobility?
Upward and downward
mobility
Education facilitating social
mobility
Education facilitating social
mobility of women

Social mobility and earnings

Intergenerational mobility
Government intervention
and intergenerational
mobility

Key Terms
Summary
References

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Chapter 3: Education and Social Mobility
PREAMBLE

Chapter 3 focuses on the issue of mobility and the role of education in facilitating
both economic and social mobility. Different types of social mobility are examined
and how schooling influences both upward and downward mobility. Also discussed is
how education has bridged the gap in gender differences in terms of social mobility
and impacted intergenerational mobility.

SOCIETY BASED ON ASCRIPTION OR ACHIEVEMENT

In the novel, Animal Farm by George Orwell, the character Snowball makes
the statement: All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others.
This may be reflect of society a thousand years ago, but has it changed today! Status
describes the positioning of individuals or groups in their society. The fundamental
base can be what someone DOES, or what someone IS. All societies have some form
of social stratification where people are grouped based on kinship ties, family
prestige, ethnicity, gender, age, religious groups, caste and so forth. Social
stratification is the dividing of society into levels based on wealth, ancestry, position,
function, power and so forth.
In his book The Study of Man, published in 1936, anthropologist Ralph Linton
coined the terms ascribed status and achieved status. Society based on
ascription assigns its people into groups or categories from birth. The most common
criteria for stratifying people into groups is age, sex, family relationships, ancestry or
class. In most instances individuals remain in the assigned grouping and are not able
to shift or move to another grouping.

Feudal Society in Japan (15th

century)

Daimyo (Lords)
Samurai (Warrior)
Farmers
Artisan
Merchants
Others (actors, outcasts)

Caste System in India

Brahmin (priest / scholars)

Kshatriya (rulers / warriors
/landlords)
Vaisyas (farmers / merchants)
Sudra (peasants / labourers)
Dalit (menial work)

Table 3.1 Stratification of Society based on Ascription

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Chapter 3: Education and Social Mobility
For example, in 17th century feudal Japan, society was stratified as follows:
daimyo (lords), samurai (warrior), farmers, artisan, merchants and others (actors and
outcasts). An individual born into the samurai class, will remain a warrior for the rest
of his life and cannot aspire to be someone else (see Table 5.1). There were special
schools for the children of each social class. In the caste system in India which
originated from ancient times, society is classified into five main groups or varnas
based on the type of jobs done and inherited social status.
According to Linton, ascription was practiced in societies because it facilitated
preparation of individuals from birth for their role and function in society future. The
assumption is that the earlier the training begins for a particular class, the more
successful it will be for that individual. It also proved to be an efficient and
inexpensive way to solve problems within each group, category or subsystem.
On the other hand, in a society based on achievement, individuals can strive
through entrepreneurial activities, industry and acquisition of knowledge, move
upwards to a high place in society or to another profession or vocation. For
example, a person may be born in a low income farming family but with education
can aspire and move up and achieve middle class status. In countries such as the
United States, Finland and Germany, people are measured by how successful they are
in their jobs and what an individual has done. It is common for people to interact with
people relating to their function, profession, role or position. These "powerful
positions" are held by people because of their skills, knowledge and talents.
WHAT IS SOCIAL MOBILITY?
Aldridge (20023) defines social mobility as ...the movement or opportunities
for movement between different social classes or occupational groups. (p.189). An
open or fluid society is one where individuals are able to move freely, as a result
of factors such as aptitude, intelligence, ability and effort, up the social scale,
regardless of their social position in childhood (Heath and Payne, 1999). As such, the
extent to which social mobility is possible is often used as one proxy measure of
societal fairness.
The importance of the concept of social mobility as a measure of social
fairness has increased, being seen as a measure of equality of opportunity in a world
where outcomes are not equal. Social mobility, therefore, is closely associated with
related concepts such as inequality, social exclusion and inclusion, class and social
stratification where mobility refers to movement between different and unequal social
groups, or classes and between exclusion and inclusion. As Miller (2005) argues,
chances for social mobility are one aspect of the concept of equality of opportunity,
which itself is, in turn, one of the four foundational principles of social justice,
alongside equal citizenship rights, a guaranteed set of minimum social rights and fair
distribution of additional social rights that are outside of citizenship and the absolute
social minimum.
The term social mobility refers to the ability of someone to move from one
position in the social order to another, from one class or socio-economic status to
another. Social mobility is seen as a mechanism for an individual to achieve his
personal goals. Social mobility can be measured by comparing an individuals present
position with his parents. If the individuals present income, lifestyle, and working

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Chapter 3: Education and Social Mobility

condition are better than his parents then he is said to display an upward mobility. For
example, if he holds a professional job such doctor or lawyer whereas his father was a
truck driver and a school dropout, you can say that he has displayed an upward
mobility. On the other hand, if he leads a lesser comfortable life compared to his
parents then he is said to display downward mobility. For example, despite having
parents who are professionals, the individual works as a bricklayer in a construction
site.
Social mobility allows people to move up or down the class ladder. The
opportunity for improving ones life or falling below the class ladder is a major force
that moves people to go far in school and to work hard at their studies. A child may be
born into a family that present obstacles that may deprive him of the chance of
success in life or he may be born into a family that provides him all the opportunities
to succeed in life.
MOVING UP THE SOCIAL LADDER
In a closed society or immobile society, it is
very difficult or virtually impossible for individuals to
move upwards or even downward from their class of
origin. In these societies, members hardly move and
remain forever in the social class in which he or she was
born. An example will be the caste society in India and
other similar societies practicing the caste system, and
ethnic minorities subjected to social barriers or created
social barriers. Individuals from lower socio-economic
groups have less access to certain social and educational
facilities and jobs.
On the other hand, in an open society,
individuals are able to ascend and descend along the social mobility ladder. Societies
can be said to be open or mobile and closed or immobile depending on the extent
that the individual is able to move along the social ladder. An example will be the
present modern society where the economy changes ever so often that an individual
who is a supervisor in a factory may lose his job the next day where he is retrenched
because of the economic recession.
However, social mobility can only happen if conditions allow a working class
person to move up to middle and upper class. Havighurst (1961) suggested that social
mobility may be facilitated by the following steps:

The use of technology to replace semi-skilled and unskilled employees. With

the use of modern technology, there will be a demand for technical and highly
skilled workers and this would mean better paid positions.

A move from labour intensive, unskilled jobs to jobs requiring technical

training. For example, change from agriculture base to manufacturing
industry, faming with human labour to farming with machinery.

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Chapter 3: Education and Social Mobility

Case Study: Indian Governments Policy on Social Mobility

The Indian government adopts a policy of positive discrimination or affirmative
action termed as reservation towards the backward classes of society.
In accordance to this policy, 15% of government jobs and 15% of students
admitted to universities must be reserved for individuals from the
scheduled caste or Dalits. These were people who have been
disadvantaged because of the long history of discrimination, socially,
economically and politically.
Another group of people given priority were the scheduled tribes or
minorities where 7.5% of government jobs and places in educational
institutions were reserved for this group.
Along with the central government, the state governments of India too
follow a policy of reservation. Different states have different figures of
reservation based on the population composition of each state.
While most Indians support the policy, tensions have arisen because high
caste communities feel discriminated against by the government. Large
number of high caste members have to compete for a few places reserved
for them. At times, reserved positions remain unmanned because there were
few candidates from the lower caste causing further tension between the
castes.
Source: S. Sarker, J. Manor, M. Weiner, P. Bardhab, A. Basu & A. Kohli (2001).
The Success of Indias Democracy. London: Cambridge University Press.

Move into industries that require highly technical trained and well-paid
workers. Ensuring high productivity so as to increase salaries. This in turn
encourages people to spend on services provided by professional people. This
increases the mobility of such professions.

Providing free land and incentive to start business. This creates owners of
wealth.

Provide free and easy access to education that is based on achievement rather
than of birth (see Case Study of India).

Applications for middle and upper status jobs to be based on achievement

rather than on birth.

Allowing upward mobility to lower classes, thus increasing their living

standards. This in turn enables them to provide better education and health for
their children, increase future upward mobility.

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Chapter 3: Education and Social Mobility

LEARNING ACTIVITY

a) What is the difference between a society based on

ascription and society based on achievement?
b) Explain the difference between upward and downward
social mobility?
c) How can social mobility be facilitated according to
Havighurst (1961)?

EDUCATION FACILITATING SOCIAL MOBILITY

There are various ways of facilitating social mobility, such as political power,
marriage, family affiliations and education. But the
most sought after is education which is more readily
available to more people as educational facilities are
expanded all over the world. Education is regarded
as the primary channel of mobility as it is:
High educational achievement is the
aspiration of most people.
Few would question about a persons integrity
when he has high academic qualification.
Education has high relationship with income
and occupation. The higher the educational
level, the more prestigious the occupation,
leading to higher annual income.
This in turn is associated with property, prestige, and power.
Formal education is closely linked to upward social mobility and in this
aspect, schools play an important role in sorting out individuals into their prospective
levels. This is done through the system of examinations, supervision and promotions.
Thus, education can assist the movement of persons into the top positions in society
or elite mobility. Hence, formal education has become a prerequisite for many
established professions such as doctors, lawyers, accountants, teachers, engineers and
so forth. How does education enhance social mobility?

First, education plays the role of a mechanism whereby social class positions
are maintained across generations. A person from a higher social class is
more likely to have be better educated which will enable him or her to
maintain social class position.
Second, education acts as a mechanism for social mobility. In this case,
access to education is the key in determining the extent of mobility an
individual can aspire in society. However, this is only possible if everyone

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Chapter 3: Education and Social Mobility

gets an equal education; thus providing an avenue for mobility among the
disadvantaged. For this group of people, education serves to move upwards or
to reduce the likelihood of downward mobility.
Education has a functional value as well as a symbolic value. What is meant
by functional value? Education is said to have a functional value when a person
attends university to study education and upon graduation becomes a teacher. Or a
person who studies pharmacy and becomes a pharmacist. Here, education has a
functional value.
What is meant by symbolic value? You could have a situation where a person
who graduates with a degree in engineering but chooses not want to work. Instead he
uses the degree as a symbol of status. Similarly, an uneducated man works hard and
earns money to send his daughter to study in a private college. When his daughter
graduates and gets good job, the daughters education is seen as a symbol of value.
In the United States, after 1900, parents were convinced that educating their
children would open opportunities for better jobs and salaries. Schools and higher
education institutions began developing and designing programmes to meet the needs
of the job market. Student enrolment in technical and engineering courses increased
because there were more job opportunities in factories and industries. In short, stress
was on the functional value of education.
Great Britain and Australia also stressed on the functional value of education
in the 1940s with emphasis on educating children at the secondary and tertiary levels.
Prior to this, societies in these countries believed that people could be successful in
politics, business, and public service even without formal education.
EDUCATION FACILITATING SOCIAL MOBILITY OF WOMEN

Though women in many societies continue to work taking care of the home
and working in various kinds of agricultural occupations, the trend is changing with
more women seeking work for pay outside the home. These changes have been
associated with womens increasing educational attainment, increasing demand for
services provided by traditionally female occupations, changes in family and life
patterns and changing social norms. For example, in the United States, in 1890 fewer
than 5% of women of working-age group were in the labour force and in the 1990s

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Chapter 3: Education and Social Mobility

about 60% of women of working-age group were in the labour force, and the most
striking change in the labour force is the increasing participation of married women.
The more education a woman has, the more likely she is to be in the labour force
(Mandelson, 1996).
Education was the key factor for women to be employed, especially when
higher education is being made more accessible to women. For example, in 1970 only
one-third of women were pursing bachelors degree in the United States in 2000, this
increased to 58%. With expanded opportunities for women in higher education, more
women sought and attained high-status professional degrees in law, medicine,
engineering, management and the sciences. With increasing life spans, women can
realise higher returns on their educational investment. Therefore, increasing education
attracts more women to the labour force, and women in the labour force may in turn
seek more education (Mandelson, 1996, p.5).
Besides education, other factors also contributed to more women seeking work
and moving upwards in the ladder of success. Society supported womens right to
equal pay for equal work, to hold public office and to hold multiple roles as
housewives, mothers and members of the labour force. For example, in the United
States the discrepancy in pay between men and women was virtually eliminated in the
mid-1980s.
Another factor explaining more women joining the work-force is the
increasing demand for workers in the service, manufacturing and other office-related
jobs which tend to be predominantly female. Also, several countries introduced antidiscrimination legislation against women and laws which protected women in the
workplace which further led to more women seeking jobs in factories, hospitals,
educational institutions, banks and various types of business enterprises.

The United States before 1950: Marriage Bars

Women were viewed as too delicate and small for many

jobs
Many employers actually implemented written rules that
prohibited married women from being hired as teachers and
clerical occupations.
In 1942, 87% of American school districts forbade hiring
married women, and 70% fired single women who married.

Source: Claudia Goldin (1990). Understanding the Gender Gap: An

Economic History of American Women. New York: Oxford
University Press.

Social mobility for women is further enhanced by employers who provide paid
maternity leave and childcare facilities in the workplace. Also, as more women
became consumers, jobs that serviced other women, especially in the service industry
became more available. However, it should be noted that working class women or
from low income backgrounds suffered from a lack of mobility compared to middle-

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Chapter 3: Education and Social Mobility

class or professional occupations. Typically, working-class women work in jobs

considered unskilled, usually with little job security, with low pay and few or no
benefits (health and retirement insurance or paid vacation). The work is often
repetitive, tedious, physically demanding and most of all, boring (Katz, Mark, S., &
Fader, J. 2005).
LEARNING ACTIVITY

a) Are women in your society better educated?

b) Are women in your society enjoying greater social
social mobility by joining the work-force?
c) List other factors that have contributed towards women
being more socially mobile?
SOCIAL MOBILITY AND EARNINGS
Besides examining the role of education in facilitating social mobility,
individuals working in an organisation whether it be a factory, hotel, hospital,
educational institution, government department or military, cannot avoid being
involved in one of the following types of mobility in their workplace.
1. inter-firm mobility,
2. intra-firm mobility, and
3. within-job mobility.
Inter-Firm Mobility
Most job changes are inter-firm mobility. Inter-firm mobility can be classified
as voluntary or involuntary mobility. Voluntary job mobility could be due to:
pressure from employers, poor quality performance, immediate salary increase, longterm prospects in a new firm or sheer frustration. On the other hand, involuntary job
mobility could be because of redundancy, dismissal or closure of the organisation. It
is also least likely to allow an individual to gain an increase in responsibility on the
job.
In terms of income, voluntary job mobility on average has the largest increase
in earnings compared to involuntary job mobility. This is because an individual who
opted for voluntary job change is motivated by the desire to gain an immediate
increase in salary.
Intra-Firm Mobility
There are also those who change jobs because of transfer or promotion within
the organization which is referred to as intra-firm mobility. This is a change in
occupation status but does not involve a change of firm. Intra-firm can be a major
contributor to upward job mobility.
Within-Job Mobility

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Chapter 3: Education and Social Mobility
Within-job mobility on the other hand, is only evident after some time. This
is because you can only gauge the within-job mobility by comparing the level of
responsibility held and the type of task undertaken at the beginning and end of each
job held by the individual.
In terms of earnings, most inter-firm mobility generates significant increase in
earning compared to intra-mobility. Similarly, voluntary mobility is likely to generate
higher income compared to involuntary inter-firm mobility.
LEARNING ACTIVITY

a) What is the difference between inter-firm, intra-firm and

job mobility?
b) Give specific examples of these three types of mobility
in organisations.

INTERGENERATIONAL MOBILITY

Australian has always prided itself with being a society in

which individuals can move from one social class to another with
great ease. It began as a penal colony and today has achieved
the status of a developed nation.
Samuel Terry, a thief from England was sent to Australia
in 1801 as a convict. At the time of his death in 1838, he had
amassed wealth equal to AUD 24 billion in todays dollars
(measured relative to GDP)
Source: Rubinstein, W.D. 2004. The All-Time Australian 200 Rich
List. Sydney: Allen and Unwin. .

Do you think you are better of socio-economically compared to your parents?

Intergenerational mobility is a measure of the changes in social status which occurs
from the parents' to the children's generation. It can effect anyone in the population, as
ones economic standing can increase or decrease from the position they were born
into. Society is constantly changing and because of this, various opportunities can
cause one to advance or digress in their economic standing. Ones talents can cause
them to surpass the economic position into which they were born. As Blanden, Gregg
& Machin (2005) put it:

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Chapter 3: Education and Social Mobility
The level of intergenerational mobility in society is
seen by many as a measure of the extent of equality of
economic opportunity or life chances. It captures the
extent to which a persons circumstances during
childhood are reflected in their success in later life, or,
on the flip-side, the extent to which individuals can
make it by virtue of their own talents, motivation and
luck. (p.4).
Many see intergenerational mobility as a way of measuring the equality
present in the economic opportunities of a society. It looks at how much of a persons
economic future is determined by ones childhood experiences and how much is
determined by an individuals talents and capabilities.
How is intergenerational determined? Inter-generational mobility is
determined by analysing where children from the least or most affluent families end
up in terms of incomes and earnings as adults. Their income as adults is then
compared to what their parents earned. Inter-generational mobility is generally
measured in terms of intergenerational elasticity. Intergenerational elasticity
denoted by coefficient which measures the strength of the statistical correlation or
association between parent and child economic standing.

If = 1.0
HIGH
INTERGENRATIONAL
ELASTICITY
and NO SOCIAL
WhatMOBILITY.
does this mean?

If = 0.0
LOW
INTERGENRATIONAL
ELASTICITY
and COMPLETE
SOCIAL MOBILITY.

HIGH intergenerational elasticity LOW social mobility in that society.

o In other words, the greater is the impact of parents and upbringing in
determining a persons socioeconomic standing compared to the
persons talents and capabilities.

LOW intergenerational elasticity HIGH social mobility in that society.

o In other words, the greater is the impact of a persons talents and
capabilities in determining his or her socioeconomic standing
compared to the role of parents and upbringing.

In reality, there is no society with an intergenerational elasticity coefficient of 1.0

or 0.0. Usually it is between 0 and 1. For example, in studies conducted, the elasticity
indicator for Britain is 0.271 compare to 0.162 for Australia (Leigh, 2007). What does it
mean? It means that individuals in Australia have greater social mobility than individuals
in Britain. In other words, a person has a greater chance of moving up the socioeconomic
ladder based on his or her talents and capabilities in Australia compared to Britain.

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Chapter 3: Education and Social Mobility

The level of intergenerational mobility in society is seen by many as a measure of

the extent of equality of economic and social opportunity. It captures the degree of
equality in life chances, i.e. the extent to which a persons family socioeconomic status
determines his or her later success or on the flip-side, the extent to which individuals can
make it by virtue of their own capabilities and motivation. It is an indication whether
mobility is merit- or non-merit-based, i.e. whether ability and hard work determine
social mobility, or does parents wealth, race, gender, and even luck!

Country

Elasticity Indicator

Norway
Sweden
Denmark
Canada
Finland

0.139
0.143
0.143
0.143
0.147

Australia

0.162

Germany
Britain
United States

0.171
0.271
0.289

Social
Mobility
High

Low

Table 3.2 Indicators of Intergenerational Elasticity

[source:
a) Blanden, J.; Gregg, P. & Machin, S, (2005). Intergenerational Mobility in Europe and
North America. A Report Supported by the Sutton Trust. Center for Economic Performance.
b) Andrew Leigh (2007) Intergenerational Mobility in Australia, The B.E. Journal of
Economic Analysis & Policy: Vol. 7: 2..]

Table 5.1 compares intergenerational mobility across the nine countries. Note that
the United States (0.271) and Britain (0.289) have the highest intergenerational
persistence (lowest mobility). Germany is around the middle of the estimates, while the
Nordic countries and Canada all appear to be rather more mobile. Among the Nordic
countries the levels of mobility are very similar with Norway having the greatest. Thus
the picture that emerges is that Northern Europe and Canada are particularly mobile and
that Britain and the US have the lowest intergenerational mobility across the European
and North American countries. The United States which is seen by many as the land of
opportunity where anyone can succeed despite their background clearly seems
misplaced. Low mobility in Britain is partly explained by the strong relationship between
parental income and educational attainment. For the United States, the low mobility is
related to race, with Hertz (2004) showing that mobility is substantially more restricted
for Afro-American families than white families.
Why do Nordic countries have high social mobility? Over the years, mobility in
the Nordic countries has increased. One possible reason for this equality in
opportunity is the implementation of policies of school reform which lessen the
financial strain of schooling on families, therefore making ones economic
background play less of a role in determining their educational attainments. This in
turn makes ones economic background play less of a role in their future economic
earnings.

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Chapter 3: Education and Social Mobility

LEARNING ACTIVITY

a) What is intergenerational mobility?

b) With reference to your country or society, do you think
social mobility is high or low? Explain.
c) What efforts has your government taken to increase
Social mobility?

HEAD-START ASSETS AND INTERGENERATIONL MOBILITY

Head-start assets refers to the assets that children can inherit from their
parents that give them a head-start in life when compared to individuals who do not
have these head-start assets (Shapiro, 2006). Previously parents provided their
children with basic necessities such as food and clothing but today, parents are
proving additional resources (also known as capital) such as financing their
education, providing good health and nutrition, transferring their life style (tastes,
values and beliefs) to their children. The following are examples of head-start assets
that may significantly enhance social mobility of the next generation:

Financial assets

Cultural assets

HEAD-START
ASSETS
Social assets

from PARENTS

Human assets

FINANCIAL ASSESTS OR CAPITAL

Wealthy parents pass their wealth to their children in the form of property,
cash, stocks & shares, land and so forth after death in the form of inheritances and
bequests (Kohl, 2004). These intergenerational transfers may strengthen childrens
social class. For example, between 12% and 26% of European individuals inherited
their parents home (Di & Yang, 2002) which may have an effect on childrens later

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Chapter 3: Education and Social Mobility

earnings directly or indirectly. Direct effects come when these gifts and bequests are
worth a fortune if sold. Indirect effects come when children acquire earnings from the
gifts and bequests and these in turn provides income for better food, health, education,
housing and neighbourhood conditions and capital for investment activities. For
example, in the United States children whose parents own homes are more likely to
attain higher education and this in turn leads to a permanent income. This is
particularly significant among low-income groups (Shlay, 2006).

Case Study: Inheritance and Social Mobility in the United States

A good example of a head-start asset would be an inheritance that a child
receives from his or her parents which gives them the amount of money required to
put a down payment on a home. This is a quick way of identifying families that
might potentially receive large enough financial assistance to transform
biographies, improve their class standing, and attain advantages for at least one
child (Shapiro, 2006. p.62).
When examining head-start assets along racial lines in the United States,
Shapiro (2006) found that whites are 2.4 times more likely than Afro-American to
have parents with substantial wealth resources that can be used to give them an
advantage in life. Data also reveal that among white families who received an
inheritance the amount received averages at $76,000, while the average inheritance
received by Afro-Americans was $31,000.
Even when Afro-Americans are lucky enough to receive some sort of a
head-start endowment they are receiving, on average, less than half of what the
average white person gets. A lower-income individual fortunate enough to receive
a substantial inheritance from their parents at some point in their life will also have
the opportunity to escape the debt trap that many low-income families experience
in the United States today.
Because people who live on low yearly income must resort to credit to
finance a great deal of their purchases they often fall short on payments and fall
into a perpetual cycle of constant debt that may last their entire lives. A substantial
inheritance would enable such an individual to clear their debt and allow them a
chance to possibly focus the investment of their earnings on cultivating the growth
of human capital in their children.
[source: Shapiro, Thomas M. The Hidden Cost of Being African American. New
York: Oxford University Press, 60-71. 2006]

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Chapter 3: Education and Social Mobility

SOCIAL ASSETS OR CAPITAL

While there are many definitions of social capital or assets; generally it refers
to anything that facilitates individual or group action through a network of
relationships, exchange and trust (Coleman, 1988). For example, an individual is
helpless socially, if he or she chooses to be alone. If he or she comes into contact with
a neighbour and continues to interact with other neighbours, he or she is accumulating
social capital which may immediately satisfy his or her social needs and potentially
improve the living conditions of the community. Whether society is better of depends
on how the individual or the group uses available social capital. In short, social capital
or asset refers to the interactions that involved shared norms, values and
understandings that enhance cooperation within or among groups of people (Cote &
Healy, 2001). Social capital can take place within the family, the neighbourhood, and
the school (Coleman & Hoffer, 1987) where peers and society can influence children
and adolescents. It includes values, visions, ideas, friendship, kinship, likes &
dislikes, conflict and so forth that affect the productivity of individuals and groups.
There are two kinds of social capital:
Family social capital: this involves the interactions between parents
and their children (time efforts, resources and energy that parents
invest in their children (Coleman, 1988).
Community social capital: refers to the social support networks, civic
engagement in local institutions, trust and safety, and degree of
religiosity. Community social capital will benefit children of those
communities where the adult members feel responsible for all children.
They display high level of expectations and values about education.
Children living in this type of community benefits as interactions occur
inside and outside of school; a childs friends and associates in school
are sons and daughters of friends and associates of the childs parents
(Coleman, 1990). Within the social capital, there is bonding which
connects people together such as among family members or among
members of the same ethnic group. Therefore, the quantity and quality
of the social capital transmitted to children is vital to their
development.
Social Capital and Educational Attainment
Parents social capital in a community plays a powerful role in child
development and it has been linked to various positive outcomes in education.
Communities with high social capital also enjoyed high education performance.
For example, in these communities, parents were more involved in their children'
education. When there is more parents' participation in their children' education
and school, teachers reported lower levels of students misbehaviour, such as
bringing weapons to school, engaging in physical violence, playing hooky, and
being generally apathetic about education.
[source: Putnam, Robert. (2000), Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of
American Community. Boston: Simon and Schuster.

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Chapter 3: Education and Social Mobility

CULTURAL ASSETS
One such advantage that an individual who receives these head-start assets can
enjoy is in the form of enhanced cultural capital. Cultural capital refers to an
understanding of what gives a person advantages or disadvantages in school, business,
and social situations (Shapiro, 2006. p: 66). Those individuals fortunate enough to
inherit a substantial amount of money and propel themselves into a class above the
one in which they are currently a member gain the associated higher levels of cultural
capital that go along with belonging to a higher social class. For instance, an
inheritance that allows a family to move from a neighbourhood with a poorer public
school to one with a more well-endowed school and reap the benefits in cultural
capital from the greater range of extracurricular activities that are offered.
The structured extracurricular activities that are absent in schools with low
funding and present in schools with high funding provide students with structure in
their lives and also the opportunity to interact with other adults and learn important
social skills that may benefit them later in life. Those children without access to such
programs lack the opportunity to develop certain forms of social and cultural capital
that would have otherwise helped them to advance their status in their future. Lowincome families who do not receive these head-start assets do not have the
opportunity to develop the cultural capital that is necessary to advance oneself to a
higher status later in life.
HUMAN CAPITAL
As mentioned earlier, one of the resources parents tend to transmit to their
children will be human capital. This comprises the parents knowledge, experience,
and talents (i.e. education and learning process, healthy life style) that will contribute
to the childs productivity, enabling the child to perform specific tasks (Becker,
1991). Parents acquire their human capital through schooling which is maintained
through training and further education. Parents who undergo these kinds of training
are then rewarded in the form of income and higher physical well-being. Thus, human
capital will include not only the formal but also informal collection of parental skills
that will have an effect of childrens outcome.
ETHNIC CAPITAL
In addition to parental inputs, the characteristics of the ethnic environment
where the children are raised is important. The ethnic environment acts as an external
factor that may enhance the human capital process. When the environment in which
the child is raised is strong, ethnic differences can persist across generations. For
example, friends and relatives from the same ethnic background who do not live in
the same neighbourhood may serve as a role model and leave an impact on the child,
thus contributing to the enhancement of ethnic capital. Similarly, children are more
likely to interact with peers from the same ethnic group, the impact of peers from the
same ethnic group will be more compared to that of other ethnic groups.

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Chapter 3: Education and Social Mobility
GOVERNMENT INTERVENTION AND INTERGENERATIONAL
MOBILITY
The standard model for examining intergenerational mobility says that if you
were to hold a child's genetic endowments at a constant level, investments in his or
her development of human capital increases his or her future income. This is an easy
concept to understand if you imagine two children of equal ability, one of whom is
given a high quality education from a young age and the other who does not receive
that same educational opportunity. Since genetic predisposition to succeed is held
constant there is evidence to suggest that child who receive a higher quality education
will have a greater chance to succeed as they mature.
Since many low-income parents lack the wealth to give their children these
opportunities, government spending has shown to make a difference. A study by
Mayer and Lopoo (2008) who used U.S. Census Data to compare the relationship
between government spending from state to state within the United States and
intergenerational mobility for the residents in those states. Their results show that in
states that have the highest government spending for programmes which have an
obvious uplifting effect on low-income families and their children, such as welfare
programmes or increased spending on education, the highest levels of
intergenerational mobility are found. As one would expect, the effects of increased
levels of government spending and assistance on the future income of children is far
greater in those children who come from low-income families as opposed to the
children who are raised in a high-income family.
This study on the relationship between government spending and
intergenerational mobility is not meant to suggest that blind increases in government
spending is the solution to increasing intergenerational mobility in the United States
and narrowing the economic inequality gap that exists. This study does reveal that
raising some forms of government spending that is especially beneficial to lowincome families can substitute for the absence of income that those families have.
Income that they might elect to invest in the future of their child and the development
of their human capital.

LEARNING ACTIVITY

a) What are head-start assets?

b) How do head-start assets impact intergenerational
mobility?
c) To what extent do you agree that head-start assets
impact intergenerational mobility? Use yourself as an
example to illustrate.

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Chapter 3: Education and Social Mobility
KEY TERMS

Ascribed status
Achieved status
Social mobility
Upward mobility
Downward mobility
Inter-form mobility
Intra-firm mobility
Within-job mobility
Intergenerational mobility

Intergenerational elasticity
Head-start assets
Ethnic capital
Human capital
Social assets
Cultural assets
Government intervention

SUMMARY

All societies have some form of social stratification where people are
grouped based on kinship ties, family prestige, ethnicity, gender, age,
religious groups, caste and so forth.

Society based on ascription assigns its people into groups or categories

from birth.

In a society based on achievement, individuals can strive through

entrepreneurial activities, industry and acquisition of knowledge, move
upwards to a high place in society or to another profession or vocation.

Formal education is closely linked to upward social mobility and has both
a functional value as well as a symbolic value.

Education was the key factor for women to be employed, especially when
higher education is being made more accessible to women.

Intergenerational mobility is a measure of the changes in social status

which occurs from the parents' to the children's generation.

Intergenerational elasticity denoted by coefficient which measures the

strength of the statistical correlation or association between parent and
child economic standing.

Head-start assets refers to the assets that children can inherit from their
parents that give them a head-start in life when compared to individuals
who do not have these head-start assets.

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Chapter 3: Education and Social Mobility

Higher government spending on programmes which have an obvious

uplifting effect on low-income families and their children, has a greater
effect on intergenerational mobility.

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