Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Fluid Dynamics
Fluid Dynamics
Fluid Dynamics
Instructor: Alexander M. Balk
Department of Mathematics, University of Utah
155 South 1400 East, Room 233, Salt Lake City, UT 84112-0090
office: JWB 304; balk@math.utah.edu, (801)-581-7512
Forces
1.1
Introduction
What is a fluid? Fluids (unlike solids) can be easily deformed: Small forces (no matter
how small) can produce large deformations. A sphere-like blob of fluid can easily become
a spagetti-like blob
d
When the distance d between them is of the order 1 Angstrem= 108 cm, they experience a strong force of quantum origin. There are two possibilities: (1) chemical bond
solid, (2) no chemical bond fluid. The force can be schematically shown as follows
F>0: repulsion
F<0: attraction
Let us define d0 as the distance where the force F changes sign. In liquids the typical
distance between molecules is of the order d0 . In gases the typical intermolecular distance
d0 (e.g. 10d0 100d0 under normal conditions).
Melting density falls by several percent (water is exception). Amazing: Such a
small change in the intermolecular spacing leads to such dramatic change in the molecular
mobility.
Our goal in this Chapter is to write Newtons second law for fluid motion. For this we
will need to describe forces in fluids.
1.2
at point x at instant t
3
1.3
How to describe such a force? It is determined not only by the point x and instant
t, but also by the orientation of the surface, passing through that point (i.e. by the unit
normal vector n).
4
th
e
po
in
t
(n, x, t) = (n, x, t)
1.4
c
nnn
A1
A2
b
A3
a
The large face has area A and the unit normal n (pointing outside of the tetrahedron).
What are the forces acting on this tetrahedron element of fluid?
Let a, b, c be the unit vectors along the axis X1 , X2 , X3 respectively. The total surface
force is
(n)A + (a)A1 + (b)A2 + (c)A3
(the dependence of on x and t is not displayed here, because these variables have the
same value approximately in the case of x).
Newtons law for the tetrahedron:
mass acceleration = total body force + total surface force.
Let the linear dimensions of the tetrahedron be l, and let it approach zero, l 0:
the volume of the tetrahedron V l3 , and so are the mass and the body forces (provided
the density is finite). At the same time the area scales like l2 . Thus, the total surface
force equals zero.
By geometric considerations
A1 = a n A,
A2 = b n A,
A3 = c n A
.
Recall also that stress is odd.
Thus,
(n) = (a)a n + (b)b n + (c)c n
or in writing by components
i (n) = {i (a)aj + i (b)bj + i (c)cj } nj = ij nj .
ij is the i-component of the stress (short-range force per unit area) exerted on a
surface element which has a normal n pointing in the j-direction.
1.5
13 = 31 ,
6
23 = 32 .
These relations follow from the balance of the angular momentum (the angular momentum
argument).
Consider a small rectangular domain in the fluid
X2
x2
x3
x1
X1
X3
For simplicity, forget about the third dimension X3 . Next picture shows the outside unit
normal vectors
b
X2
-a
a
-b
What are the forces?
X1
X2
22(x1x3)
12(x1x3)
21(x2x3)
11(x2x3)
.O
11(x2x3)
21(x2x3)
12(x1x3)
22(x1x3)
X1
Q: Why is according to this figure the total surface force equal zero?
A: There are some volume forces and acceleration terms in the Newton law. However,
they are all of the order of V l3 (l is a typical linear size). At the same time, the
surface force is of the order A l2 .
The balance of the surface forces is, actually, not exact. However, the difference is again
of the order l3 , e.g. the sum of the tangential forces on the lower and upper faces is
12 (x1 + x1 , x2 , x3 ) 12 (x1 , x2 , x3 ) (x2 ) (x1 x3 ) l3 .
The balance of the angular momentum with respect to the center O:
[12 (x1 x3 )]x2 + [21 (x2 x3 )]x1 = O(l3 ) O(l)
So, as l 0, we find 12 = 21 . Similar, we can establish the other two symmetries.
1.6
Our goal is to derive equations which describe the motion of fluids. In particular, we wish
to derive the equation which expresses Newtons second law
mass acceleration = Force
This equation is useful if the Force can be expressed in terms of positions and velocities
of all the particles.
So, our goal now is to express the stress tensor in terms of the functions that determine
the state of the fluid (in particular u(x, t) and (x, t)).
1.7
11 0
0
= 0 22 0 .
0
0 33
X2
22(x1x3)
12(x1x3)
12(x1x3)
22(x1x3)
X1
and u 6= 0.
Q: What matrix is diagonal in any orthonormal basis?
A: All eigenvalues of such matrix should be equal. So, such matrix is a multiple of the
unit matrix:
ij = pij .
This formula includes sign in the r.h.s., because then p = p(x, t) is the usual pressure: For positive pressure p, the force exerted on the fluid element through its boundary
is opposite to the outside normal to this boundary.
1.8
We will assume that the stress tensor is a linear function of the velocity gradients (at
the same point and at the same instant):
ij = Bij + Aijkl
uk
xl
uk
xl
at the same
3. This relation holds with excellent accuracy for many fluids in particular, for water
and air.
Fluids satisfying this relation are called Newtonian
4. There are non-Newtonian fluids. Examples:
fluids with long molecules (polymers),
uk
xl ,
uk
xl
a b c
x2
u = x = 0 0 = +x1 .
x1 x2 x3
0
10
Calculations give
0 0
uk
= 0 0 ,
xl
0 0 0
and so,
1.9
Isotropic fluids
(x, t),
(x, t)
11
1.10
ul
uk
+
xl
xk
Q: How to describe the state of a deformed solid? What variables should we use?
X2
(x, t)
x
x+(x,t)
X1
A: We can use the deformation vector (x, t) which shows the shift at the instant t of a
point that was at x, when forces were absent.
Solids also subject to the long-range and short-range forces. The latter are also expressed by the stress tensor ij .
A: We can use the deformation vector (x, t) which shows the shift at the instant t of
a point that was at x, when forces were absent.
Q: How is the stress tensor can be expressed in terms of (x, t)?
12
A: Hooks law:
ij = Cijkl
k
xl
.
Q: How many numbers are in Cijkl ?
A: 34 = 81. But not all of them are independent.
Similar to the fluid case, Cijkl has the following symmetries:
Cijkl is symmetric w.r.t. the first pair of indices (the angular momentum argument).
Cijkl is symmetric w.r.t. the last pair of indices (the rotation argument).
There is one more symmetry, which was absent in the case of fluids.
Cijkl is symmetric w.r.t. the transposition of the first and the last pairs of indices
Cijkl = Cklij . This takes place if the system is conservative.
Q: How many independent numbers are in Cijkl ?
A: 15 + 6 = 21.
(k,l)
1
1
2
15
(i,j)
4
5
15
6
However, if the solid medium is isotropic,
Cijkl = ij kl + ik jl + il jk ,
there are only three coefficients.
Due to the symmetry of Cijkl w.r.t. the first pair of indices, we have = . Then
automatically, Cijkl possesses the other two symmetries.
Thus,
!
i
j
k
ij +
+
.
ij =
xk
xj
xi
The coefficients and are called Lam
e coefficients. They are analogous to the the
first and the second viscosities.
In solid mechanics, there are more reasons to consider a non-isotropic medium.
13
Due to the symmetry of Cijkl w.r.t. the last pair of indices, the stress tensor depends
on the symmetric combination of the deformation derivatives
j
i
+
xj
xi
1
ij =
2
1.11
Dynamic equation. 1
where
u = u(x, t).
u
+ O(t)2 .
t
(x, t)dV.
Force. The force is the total of the volume forces and surface forces.
X2
x2
.x
x3
x1
X1
X3
The body force
(x, t)Fi (x, t) (x1 x2 x3 ).
The force on the upper face
1
i2 (x1 , x2 + x2 , x3 )x1 x3 .
2
The force on the bottom face
1
i2 (x1 , x2 x2 , x3 )x1 x3 .
2
Their sum
i2
x2 (x1 x3 ).
x2
i1 i2 i3
+
+
x1
x2
x3
(1)
x1 + x1 , x2 + x2 , x3 + x3
2
2
2
15
(which runs the whole upper face when each of the parameters and changes from 1 to +1) the force
is equal to
(x1 +
i1
i2 1
i3
x1 , x2 + x2 , x3 + x3 ) =
(x1 )2 (x3 ) +
(x1 )(x2 )(x3 ) +
(x1 )(x3 )2 .
2
2
2
x1 2
x2 2
x3 2
It might seem strange that we neglect the first and the third terms, but leave the second one, although all
of them are of the same order. Similar expression we find for the bottom face. However in their sum the
terms with and cancel each other, and we find the expression, as if the force on the each of the upper
and the bottom faces were constant.
1.12
Dynamic equation. 2
See Section 3.2 (zero part) and Section 3.3 (third part).
Now we derive the Navier-Stokes equation more rigorously: We write Newtons second
law for an arbitrary material volume , enclosed by the material surface S.
Recall Newtons mechanics for a system of N particles:
N
X
mn an =
n=1
N
X
Fn
(n = 1, .., N )
n=1
The forces Fn acting on the particles in the system can be divided into the forces acting
between the particles (internal forces) and the forces acting on the particles from the
outside sources (outside forces). The sum of the internal forces equals zero according to
Newtons third law, and so the sum of all forces in the r.h.s. can be replaced by the sum
of the outside forces.
For the system of fluid particles within the material volume we have
N
X
n n
m a =
n=1
Dui
d
Dt
Fi d
fj nj dS =
fj
dV >=
xj
ij
d.
xj
Thus, we have an equation with three terms, each being an integral over the volume .
Since is arbitrary, we arrive at the equation (1).
Remarks.
The equation is essentially nonlinear, even for Newtonian fluids when the forces
depend linearly on the velocity field. The reason is the fluidity. The form of the
nonlinearity (see the l.h.s.) is called hydrodynamic nonlinearity.
We have 3 scalar equations, but 5 unknown functions. We need more equations.
16
The viscosities , are functions of position x and time t, because, for instance,
they depend on the temperature T (x, t). See p. 147.
The Navier-Stokes equation should be supplemented by the boundary conditions.
No-slip condition: The velocity u(x, t) of the fluid on the solid boundary should
be equal to the velocity of the boundary.
See Section 3.3 (fourth part).
1.13
Y
u0
u(y)
d
X
Z
Assume that the bottom plate is at rest, while the upper plate is moving with some velocity
u0 in the X direction, parallel to the plane. d is the distance between the planes
x = y ,
z
u(y)
u = v = 0 ,
w=0
F = 0.
v
v
+ v y
+ w v
= t + u x
z = 0.
Dt
w
w
w
w
t + u x + v y + w z
p
u
= y
0
u
y
p
0
0 .
p
2
p
+ yu2
0 = x
p
0 =
y
p
0 =
z
17
From the second and the third equations, the pressure p depends only on x; then from the
first equation,
2u
p
= 2 = G = const,
x
y
and therefore,
p = Gx + p0 ,
u=
G 2
y + C1 y + C2 .
2
2-D Coette flow. There is no pressure gradient, G = 0, and u = ud0 y (it grows
linearly from u = 0 to u = u0 ). The force that we need to apply to the upper plane (per
unit area) in order to move it with the speed u0
u0
force
= .
area
d
This formula can be used to determine the viscosity of particular fluids. In practice, people
use two coaxial cylinders (instead of the two parallel planes), one being at rest, the other
rotating with some non zero angular velocity.
18
This solution (with parabolic profile) exists for all possible pressure gradients G. However, when G is sufficiently large, this laminar flow becomes unstable. Absolutely different,
turbulent, flow is realized in practice for large G. Nobody was able to calculate theoretically the dependence Q vs. G. This example is referred by Richard Feynman as an
example of the Turbulence Problem.
19
Conservation laws
2.1
Conservation of mass
dV.
In the absence of sources and sinks of the fluid, this mass changes due to the net flux of
the fluid through the boundary. How much fluid mass enters through the boundary?
Thus,
d
dt
u ndA.
dV =
u ndA.
On the left, differentiate in t under the integral sign (remembering that the volume V is
fixed). On the right transform the surface integral to the volume integral using the Gauss
theorem.
Z
+ (u) dV.
t
Since the volume V is arbitrary,
+ (u) = 0
t
(2)
= Fi (x, t)
+
Dt
xi xj
20
ui
uj
+
xj
xi
!)
2.2
Conservation of momentum
udV
or
ui dV.
ui uj
dV
xj
ij
dV.
xj
All the terms of the momentum balance are expressed as integrals over the volume V . Since
the volume V is arbitrary, we have the differential form of the momentum conservation
ui ui uj
ij
+
= Fi +
.
t
xj
xj
(3)
This equation should be equivalent to the Navier-Stokes equation. It is, which we can
easily note differentiating the products
ui
"
"
ui
uj
ui
+
+ uj
+
t
xj
t
xj
= Fi +
ij
.
xj
The first bracket vanishes due to the mass-conservation equation. The rest is the NavierStokes equation (1).
The system of the Navier-Stokes equation and the mass-conservation equation has 4
equations and 5 unknowns u(x, t) = (u, v, w), (x, t), and p(x, t).
So, we need one more equation. This will be the energy conservation equation; it
expresses the thermodynamic balance of the fluid, so that the fluid dynamics includes
thermodynamics.
There is, however, an important case when the system of 4 equations contains only 4
unknowns. This is the case of a uniform fluid, when the density and the viscosity
are constants throughout the fluid. Then the NS equation becomes
1 p
Dui
= Fi (x, t)
+ 2 ui
Dt
xi
21
where
The coefficient is called the kinematic viscosity, while is often referred as the
dynamic viscosity.
Under normal conditions (15 degrees C; 1 atm.)
2
kg
, = 1.5 105 ms ,
for air: = 1.8 105 ms
2
kg
for water: = 1.1 103 ms
, = 1.1 106 ms .
It is interesting to note that when the coefficient is more relevant than , the water
is less viscous than the air.
For a uniform fluid, the system of the Navier-Stokes equation and the mass-conservation
equation
p
Du
=
Dt
u = 0.
+ 2 u + F(x, t),
2.3
22
Take the system of the Navier-Stokes equation and the mass-conservation equation
(compressibility is important).
Neglect viscousity.
Neglect body forces (in particular, the gravity).
Du
Dt
= p,
+ (u) = 0.
t
Exact solution: u 0, (x, t) 0 = const, p(x, t) p0 = const. This is an equilibrium (still air).
Now, let us linearize our equations around this exact solution: Take
= 0 + ,
p = p0 + p,
u= 0+u
,
u
t
=
p,
+ 0 u = 0.
t
We can easily exclude u
(x, t)
2
u
= 0
2
t
t
= 2 p.
Already Newton did this calculation. To calculate the speed of sound, he needed the
relation between the pressure and the density (then he would have 1 equation with 1
unknown). Some years before Newton, Boyle did such experiments
He found that
p
p0
=
= const
(Boyles law).
p0 /0 .
23
kg
,
m s2
0 = 1.2
kg
m3
c = 290m/s.
You can imagine how greatly Newton was disappointed when he compared his theoretical
value with the experimental value c = 340m/s.
What is wrong?
Only 100 years later, Laplace explained this disagreement.
In the Boyle experiment, the air is compressed slowly, so that its temperature equilibrates to the room temperature; so, the air is compressed at the constant temperature,
i.e. isothermally. In the sound wave the air is compressed adiabatically, i.e. without heat
transmission; the compression is so fast that the fluid elements have no time to exchange
heat.
2.4
mechanical
work W
Internal energy
heat Q
The internal energy is a function of the parameters of the system, and so, E depends
only on the initial and final states. On the contrary, Q and W depend on the way of
transition between the initial and final states.
In the infinitesimal form, the first law of thermodynamics
dE = Q + W.
Here dE means differential of a function of state E, Q and W mean small quantities of
work and heat (respectively), which depend on the way of transition.
Now, back to the sound speed. Our goal is to find dependence p vs. in the adiabatic
process.
24
M
RT
m
where R is the universal gas constant, m is the mass of one mole of the gas.
Q: What is a mole?
A: A mole of something is the Avogadro number NA ( 6 1023 ) of these things.
Examples.
A mole of hydrogen H2 is NA molecule of H2 .
A mole of sand grains is NA of grains of sand.
A mole of stars is NA of stars.
Q: How much does a mole of hydrogen H2 weigh?
A: 2 grams.
NA shows how many protons (or neutrons) we need to get 1 gram; or more precisely,
how many atoms of carbon C 12 we need to get 12 grams.
M
m is the number of moles in the gas element.
M
N
A is the number of molecules in the gas element of mass M .
m
The equation of the ideal gas
pV =
M
NA kB T
m
J
coincides with the previous form if R = NA kB (R 8.3 molK
).
From the equation of state, we can express the temperature T in terms of p and V ,
and then substitute it into the first law of thermodynamics:
dV
dp
=
p
V
p
=
p0
where
=1+
25
V
V0
R
.
mCv
( 0 ),
p =
p0
.
0
p0
.
0
For the air, = 7/5, and the sound speed is c = 340m/s, which agrees with experiments.
M
NA the number of molecules
m
1
kB T the energy per one degree of freedom
2
(n the number of degrees of freedom per one molecule).
Rn
,
m2
and = 1 +
2
.
n
The air at normal conditions consists of diatomic molecules N2 and O2 , and hence = 7/5.
Q: We said that in the sound wave the compression is so fast that the fluid elements
have no time to exchange heat.
We also said that the compression is slow enough that the pressure is in time to equilibrate
to a uniform thermodynamic pressure.
How can it be that the compression is fast in one respect and slow in another?
A: The pressure equilibrates much faster (with the sound speed) than temperature
(that equilibrates diffusively).
Consider
compression
Heat exchange: Fouriers law Tt = k2 T ; k = 2 105 ms for air at the normal conditions
(1 atm, 15 degrees C).
2
The characteristic time of heat exchange: h = k .
The characteristic time of pressure equilibration: p = c .
p h
26
k
1
c2
where is the frequency of the sound; people can hear in the range 20Hz < < 20KHz.
So,
2
2 105 ms 20000s1
k
p
= 2 <
105.5 ;
h
c
(340m/s)2
clearly, the heat exchange is irrelevant.
2.5
Y
g
X
Equilibrium: Any = (z).
Example: Water (of 1 m depth) on the ceiling.
If the fluid were incompressible... ... The atmosphere would stable if (z) were a
decreasing function.
Why?
If a fluid element is dispaced upward, it would find itself among lighter fluid, and it would
be forced back.
In the compressible case, the decrease of the density (z) is not enough, the density
should not be just decreasing function of z, but it should decrease sufficiently fast.
Indeed, when a fluid element at a level z, with density (z), is dispaced upward to
level z + dz, it would feel less pressure, and therefore it would expand, and its density
would decrease to = (z) . The atmosphere is stable if the displaced fluid element
is forced back, i.e. the new density exceeds the surrounding density (z + dz).
Q: What is the pressure p(z) for a given density (z)?
A:
dp
= g
dz
.
Indeed,
27
p(z+dz)
p(z)
dp
dz)A = 0
dz
upward
displacement
2 g
=
dz.
=
p
p
We should compare this density with the surrounding density + dz. Thus, the
condition for the stability of the atmosphere is
d
2 g
<
.
dz
p
28
The density of the atmospere should not just decrease with height, but decrease sufficiently
fast.
How does the temperature need to vary with height in order for the atmosphere to be
stable? We will answer this question assuming that the atmosphere consists of a perfect
gas
p
T
R
= + .
p = T
m
p
T
Using the hydrostatic balance, p = g, and the stability condition in terms the density
,
g
g
g
T
= > +
.
T
p
p
p
Applying again the equation of state for a perfect gas, we find
dT
m 1
> g
.
dz
R
J
, g = 9.8m/s2
mol K
T > 0.01
K
.
m
So, the temperature can decrease with height at most 10 degrees (K or C) per kilometer.
The lower atmosphere turns out to be close to being nutrally stable (because of turbulence),
and so this rate is usually observed.
2.6
Conservation of energy
In the system of the Navier-Stokes equation and the mass-conservation equation we have
4 equations and 5 unknown fields: (x, t), u(x, t), and p(x, t). So, we need one more
equation. This equation is the energy balance, which essentially expresses the first law of
thermodynamics: The energy (E) of a system is changed by a gain of heat Q and by the
performance of work W on the system
E = Q + W.
Let E be the internal energy per unit mass. Consider some volume V (fixed in the
laboratory frame) surrounded by a boundary A. The total energy in the volume V
Z
(E +
u2i
) dV
2
Fi ui dV.
29
[ui ij ]dV.
xj
qj nj dA =
T
k
nj dA =< Gauss theorem >=
xj
"
T
k
dV.
xj
xj
Here we have assumed that the heat flux is defined by a vector q proportional to
the temperature gradient (q = kT , the Fourier law). The coefficient k is the
thermal conductivity of the fluid.
All these quantities are expressed as integrals over the volume V . And since V is
arbitrary, we find the differential equation of the energy conservation
"
(4)
The system of the conservation equations (2), (3), (4) (respectively of mass, momentum, and energy) make the the Everest of Fluid Dynamics.
Now we have 5 equations with 7 unknown fields. We should supplement this system by
the equation of state, which enables us to express all thermodynamic quantities in terms
of any two of them. Note: The coefficients , , k can be functions of (x, t) (because, in
particular, they depend on the temperature T , which can vary in (x, t). However, we can
express them in terms of the two thermodynamic quantities. Thus, we supplement this
system by the relations of the equilibrium thermodynamics, expressing all thermodynamic
quantities in terms of two, say the density and the temperature
p = p(, T ),
E = E(, T ),
= (, T ),
= (, T ),
k = k(, T ).
Remarks.
1. Batchelor (Section 3.4) derives the energy equation for a material fluid element of
unit mass. Our energy equation can be readily reduced to his equation if we differentiate
the products in our energy equation and use the mass-conservation equation (2) and the
Navier-Stokes equation (1).
Indeed,
"
"
(E + u2i /2)
(E + u2i /2)
(uj )
+
+ uj
(E + u2i /2) +
=
t
xj
t
xj
"
[ui ij ] +
k
.
= Fi ui +
xj
xj
xj
The first bracket is zero, due to the mass-conservation equation. Differentiating the products again,
"
Dui
ij
ui
T
DE
+ ui
= Fi ui + ui
+ ij
+
k
.
Dt
Dt
xj
xj
xj
xj
The second term on the left and the first and second terms on the right represent the NS
equation, multiplied by ui , and so, they cancel. This is the reason for Batchelor (p. 152,
30
after formula (3.4.1)) to write that ui xijj contriburtes to the gain of the kinetic energy
ui
contributes to the internal energy E
u2i /2, while ij x
j
"
ui
DE
T
= ij
+
k
.
Dt
xj
xj
xj
2. Substitution of the stress tensor gives
DE
uk
uk
= p
+
Dt
xk
xk
2
uj
ui
+
xj
xi
"
ui
T
+
k
.
xj
xj
xj
ui
uj
+
xj
xi
!2
(recal, summation over the repeated indices i, j is implied). Thus, any viscous motion is
inevitably accompanied by unidirectional transfer of energy from the mechanical agencies
causing the motion to the internal energy (this is the dissipation); the viscosities and
need to be positive. See pp. 153-154.
3. When all the coefficients of molecular transport , , and k turn into zero, we have
p uk
DE
=
.
Dt
xk
By virtue of the mass conservation equation, the r.h.s. of this equation is
p D
D
= p
2
Dt
Dt
1
,
2.7
Bernoullis theorem
p
u2
+E+ +
2
(5)
2
2
2
x2
1
1
1
x1
The fluid between cross-sections 1 and 2 during small time from t to t has moved along
the streamtube to the volume between the cross-sections 1 and 2 . The change of its
energy (it can be calculated considering the end portions only, since the flow is steady)
(
u2
+ E + )at
2
x1
1 A1 |u1 |(t t)
+ (...)at
x2
2 A2 |u2 |(t t)
By virtue of the mass conservation, 1 A1 |u1 |(t t) = 2 A2 |u2 |(t t), and we
establish the constancy of the function (5) along the streamlines.
Remark. Batchelors derivation is a little more general, and then he considers how the
constant H varies from one streamline to another in steady isentropic flow (See Section
3.5, zero subsection).
In the next couple sections, we consider two applications of the Bernoulli theorem.
32
2.8
Efflux
Streamlines
h
u0
is constant along a streamline. Since the density is constant, and is known, Bernoullis
theorem provides a simple relation between the fluid speed |u| and pressure p.
In our situation,
p
p0 u20
p0
=
+
gh |u0 | = gh.
=1
Streamlines
h
u0
Bordas mouthpiece.
34
=1/2
h
u0
The region,
where the fluid velocity
is not negligible, and so,
near the wals, the pressure
is hydrostatic.
Each second, the fluid acquires momentum m|u0 |. Why? Due to the force from the vessel
= ghS. Thus, S|u0 |2 = ghS. Together with the Bernoullis expression for the speed
|u0 |, this gives = 1/2.
2.9
streamline
|u|, T
35
2.10
Kelvins therem
C=
u dl.
Suppose the curve is a material curve: It moves with the fluid. Then the circulation
becomes a function of time t, because (1) now depends on the instant t and (2) the
velocity at the points of changes (even in stationary flow).
Assume:
1. The density is a (single-valued) function of pressure p. This is trivially the case
for incompressible fluid. As well, this is realized in the homentropic flow (not just
isentropic flow), when the entropy s (per unit mass) is constant throughout the fluid:
s(, p) =const. Solving this equation, we can find as a function of p.
2. There is no viscosity.
3. The force is potential F = .
Then the circulation
C(t) =
(t)
u dl
(6)
remains constant.
Indeed, the curve (t) can be parametrized by some parameter s, x = X(s, t), say
0 s 1. Since the curve is moving with the fluid,
X
= u.
t
Since dl =
X
s ds,
X
ds
s
0
(Such an expression is often the definition of a curvilinear integral.) So,
C(t) =
C(t)
=
dt
u(X(s, t), t)
Du X
ds +
Dt s
u
ds.
s
2
u , and since the points correIn the second integral in the r.h.s. the integrand is 21 s
sponding s = 0 and s = 1 coincide, the integral vanishes. In the first integral on the right,
the integrand due to the NS equation equals
X
1
p +
,
s
and since is a function of p, the integrand is also a full derivative of some function (s)
with (0) = (1); integration of this function also vanishes. Thus, we prove the constancy
of the circulation (6).
Remarks.
36
1. The theorem holds even if the fluid domain is not simply connected, and the closed
curve cannot be spanned by a surface wholly lying in the fluid.
2. The proof requires that the viscosity is zero on the curve (not everywhere in the
fluid).
37
Airplane lift
Having reached the Everest of Fluid dynamics, we can decend into places of interest. Our
first goal is to obtain the lift force, that allows airplanes to fly. We will consider the
simplest possible situation that allows us to find realistic lift. In this Section, we will
simplify the fluid dynamics description assuming that the fluid flow is
1. Inviscid
2. Incompressible and of uniform density
3. Irrotational
4. 2D (two-dimensional)
3.1
Section 6.1.
Neglect viscosity and compressibility.
1
u
+ (u )u = F(x, t) p,
t
u = 0,
we assume that the fluid density is uniform throught the fluid (not only constant for
motion of a fluid element).
The order of spatial derivatives has dropped.
We are unable now to satisfy the no slip boundary condition.
Instead we require that only normal component of the velocity field is equal to the normal
component of the rigid surface (normal to the surface). If the rigid body is at rest,
un =0
at the surface.
We assume that near rigid boundaries there are some thin boundary layers where the fluid
velocities adjust to velocities of the solid bodies, so that the no slip boundary condition
is actually satisfied.
Our goal is to consider a solid body moving with constant velocity through the fluid
at rest. Using the Galilean Invariance, we consider the body at rest in a fluid stream,
uniform at infinity.
The conditions for Kelvins theorem are satisfied.
Upstream the vorticity = u is zero, and the circulation equals zero along any closed
curve. However, the topology in the 2D and 3D are different: In the 3D, the fluid domain
is singly connected, but in 2D, it is doubly connected.
Irrotational flow. (Section 6.2)
3D. By Kelvins theorem, the circulation should be zero along any curve anywhere in
the fluid (not only upstream). So the following integral is independent of the integration
path, and defines a single-valued potential
(x, t) =
x0
38
u(
x, t)d
x
Then
u =
where the potential should satisfy the Laplace equation
2 = 0.
A linear equation! The nonlinear momentum equation becomes only equation for the
calculation of pressure after the velocity field is found from the linear equation. This
is a cruciakl simplification that allows to employ powerful mathematical techniques. In
particular, the velocity field (but not the pressure field) has the superposition principle.
Use the iidentity
1
(u2 ) = (u )u + u [ u].
2
When u = , we can integrate the momentum equation (p.382)
u2 p
+
+ + (x) = const throughout the fluid
t
2
( is the potential of the force F). This fact is similar to the Bernoulli theorem. The
difference: (1) In the Bernoulli theorem the flow is required to be steady, (2) here the
const is the same throughout the entire fluid.
2D. By Kelvins theorem, the circulation should be zero along any curve that can
be continuously deformed from a curve upstream. The circulation can be non-zero for
curves enclosing the body. The circulation should remain constant on any such curve.
The circulation along any curve should be a multiple of some constant (vortex strength).
The potential function still exists (u = ), but the function (x, t) can be multivalued.
Examples.
1. The uniform flow
u = (U, 0, 0),
= U x.
= (1/2)(x2 y 2 ).
u=
cos ,
2r
39
v=
sin ,
2r
(r = x2 + y 2 , = arctan ).
2r
x
This is an example of multivalued potential.
The flow is irrotational everywhere, besides the origin.
The circulation along any curve enclosing the origin equals the number of times the
curve goes around the origin.
Stream function.
In 2D the incompressibility condition implies the existence of a function (x, y, t) such
that
, v= .
u=
y
x
The function (x, y, t) is called the stream function; it should satisfy equation
2 2
2
+
= 0.
t
x y
y x
The streamlines are the level lines of the stream function.
If the flow is steady, then the values of the stream function is constant along a streamline.
The stream function is constant along a rigid boundary at rest.
Complex potential. If the flow is irrotational and incompressible,
u=
=
,
x
y
v=
= .
y
x
(7)
w = U zei .
2. Point vortex
u=
cos ,
2r
v=
sin ;
2r
w=
i
log z.
2r
= + i.
40
3.2
Magnus effect
Imagine a circular cylinder moving orthogonal to its axis with the velocity (U, V, 0) in
some fluid. Will it have some lift force?
We will see that it is possible to find lift considering irrotational, incompressible, 2D
flow around a circle.
In the frame fixed at circles center, the fluid has velocity (U, V ) at infinity. The
circle might rotate around its center, but this rotation has no effect if the fluid is inviscid.
Our strategy:
1. Find the velocity field. For this we will construct the complex potential.
2. Using the integrated momentum equation find the pressure along the boundary of
the circle. Then calculate the total force on the circle, integrating the pressure over
the boundary.
First part: The velocity field.
The velocity field is the gradient of the potential (u = ), and the potential is found
from the Laplace equation with boundary conditions
2 = 0,
(x > 0
= 0.
x
Instead of solving this problem, we can replace it by the problem without boundary if add
the source f (x, y) (the mirrow image of the original sopurce in the boundary x = 0:
2 = f (x, y) + f (x, y)[(x, y) runs the entire plane].
Since now the source is an even function of x, the solution also is an even function of x,
and the boundary condition
x = 0 is satisfied automatically.
We can also consider images in the circular boundary x2 + y 2 = a2 :
z = x + iy
a2
z
and construct the solutions of the Poisson equation in a region with a circular boundary.
For instance, we can do it with the aid of a conformal transformation. The final result
that we need is stated in the following theorem.
41
The circle theorem (Milne-Thomson, 1940). (p. 422-423). Suppose that in the
absence of the circle |z| = a the complex potential is w = f (z), the function f (z) being
free from cingularities in the region |z| < a. Then the complex potential
"
w = f (z) + f
a2
z
!#
has the following two properties (1) it has the same singularities outside the circle (|z| > a)
as the original complex potential f (z), and (2) the boundary of the circle (|z| = a) is a
streamline (and therefore, the normal component of the velocity vanishes).
2
Indeed, the points az lies inside the circle, if z lies outside. Since f (z) has no singularities inside the circle, the new complex potential has the same singularities as the original
potential outside the circle.
On the boundary of the circle (z = aei ) the value of the complex potential
h
w = f (aei ) + f (aei )
is purely real, and the stream function equals zero.
Consider a circle held in a stream of the uniform velocity (U, V ) at infinity. In the
absence of the circle, the flow has complex potential f (z) = (U iV )z (one singularity is
at infinity). So for the flow with the circle, the complex potential is
w = (U iV )z + (U + iV )
a2
.
z
It is not the only irrotational flow (satisfying the boundary conditions at and on
the circle boundary); we can superimpose (the velocity is defined by a linear equation) a
vortex
a2
i
z
w(z) = (U iV )z + (U + iV )
log .
z
2
a
The corresponding stream pattern is shown figure 6.6.1 (see pp.424-425). The fluid velocity
is obtained by the differentiating the complex potential. For now (considering a circular
body), we can assume that the relative motion of the circle and the fluid is parallel to the
x-axis, i.e. V = 0,
a2
i
dw
= U + U 2
.
u iv =
dz
z
2z
The fluid velocity at the circle bondary is obtained putting z = aei :
u + iv = iei (2U sin +
)
2a
(we also made the conjugation u + iv = [u iv] ). So, the velocity is obtained from ei (a
real number) by 2 rotation (multiplication by i = e/2 ). There are two stagnation points
(when the velocity vector vanishes)
sin =
42
4aU
on the lower part of the circle. These stagnation points on the boundary really exist if the
absolute value of the r.h.s. does not exceed 1.
Second part: The pressure field and the force.
According to the integrated momentum equation, the boundary pressure
2
1
) .
p() = p0 |u + iv|2 = p0 f rac12(2U sin +
2
2a
Integrating it over the boundary, we find the total force on the circle from the fluid. The
y-component of the force (the lift) equals
Fy =
p() sin ad = U ;
the x-component of the force (parallel to the relative velocity) equals zero.
Signs of U and are discussed on p. 426. Pressure should be higher on the lower
part than on the top part of the circle. So, the velocity should be larger near the top and
smaller near the bottom. Therefore, the force is positive if the circle moves in the positive
direction (U > 0) with a counterclockwise circulation ( > 0).
Boundary layers
Waves
Instabilities
Turbulence
43