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Combustion Engineering Guide
Combustion Engineering Guide
OPEN
GUIDE
OPEN
TECH NOTES
CONTENTS
4
4
5
9
12
13
14
14
15
15
16
16
17
18
19
20
20
20
20
21
3. Gas
Physical Properties of Commercial Fuel Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Combustion Properties of Commercial Fuel Gases
Air/Gas Ratio, Flammability Limits, Ignition Temperature & Flame Velocity . . .
Heating Value, Heat Release & Flame Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Combustion Products & CO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Equivalent Propane/Air & Butane/Air Btu Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Propane/Air & Butane/Air Mixture Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
23
23
24
24
4. Oil
Fuel Oil Specifications Per ANSI/ASTM D 396-79 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typical Properities of Commercial Fuel Oils in the U.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fuel Oil Viscosity Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
API Vs. Oil Specific Gravity & Gross Heating Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Oil Piping Pressure Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Oil Temperature Drop in F Per 100 Foot of Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
26
26
27
27
29
30
30
31
31
31
22
6. Electrical Data
Electrical Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Electrical Wire Dimensions & Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
NEMA Size Starters for Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
NEMA Enclosures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Electric Motors Full Load Current, Amperes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
7. Process Heating
Heat Balances Determining the Heat Needs of Furnaces and Ovens . . . . 35
Thermal Properties of Various Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
Thermal Capacities of Metals & Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Industrial Heating Operations Temperature & Heat Requirements . . . . . . 41
Crucibles for Metal Melting Dimensions & Capacities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Radiant Tubes Sizing & Input Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Heat Losses, Heat Storage & Cold Face Temperatures Refractory Walls . 44
Air Heating & Fume Incineration Heat Requirements
Using Raw Gas Burners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Using Burners with Separate Combustion Air Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Fume Incineration Selection & Sizing Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Liquid Heating Burner Sizing Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Black Body Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Thermocouple Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Orton Standard Pyrometric Cone Temperature Equivalents . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
8. Combustion Data
Available Heat for Birmingham Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Available Heat for Various Fuel Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Flue Gas Analysis Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Theoretical Flame Tip Temperature vs. Excess Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Heat Transfer Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Thermal Head & Cold Air Infiltration into Furnaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Furnace Flue Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
9. Mechanical Data
Dimensional and Capacity Data Schedule 40 Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Dimensions of Malleable Iron Threaded Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Sheet Metal Gauges & Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Steel Wire Gauges & Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Circumferences & Areas of Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Drill Size Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Tap Drill Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Drilling Templates Pipe Flanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
10. Abbreviations & Symbols
Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Electrical Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
11. Conversion Factors
General Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Temperature Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Pressure Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Index . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
Tech Notes
Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
3
Sharp Edge
Cd = 0.60
Reentrant
0.72
Round Edge
0.97
Short Pipe
0.82
0.85
0.83
Converging
depends on angle. See
curve at right.
6
8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Angle of Convergence in Degrees
22
24
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
A1
h2
h1 = A2
( )
Dia.
In.
.0135
.0145
.0156
.016
.018
.020
.021
.0225
.024
.025
.026
.028
.0292
.030
.0312
.032
.033
.035
.036
.037
.038
.039
.040
.041
.042
Area
.000143
.000165
.00019
.00020
.00025
.00031
.00035
.00040
.00045
.00049
.00053
.00062
.00067
.00075
.00076
.00080
.00086
.00092
.00102
.00108
.00113
.00119
.00126
.00132
.00138
Natural
Gas
0.60 Sp. Gr.
.308
.355
.409
.431
.538
.668
.754
.861
.969
1.06
1.14
1.33
1.44
1.61
1.64
1.72
1.85
2.07
2.20
2.33
2.43
2.56
2.71
2.84
2.97
Air
1.0 Sp. Gr.
.239
.275
.317
.334
.417
.517
.584
.668
.751
.817
.884
1.03
1.12
1.25
1.27
1.33
1.43
1.60
1.70
1.80
1.88
1.98
2.10
2.20
2.30
5
Propane/
Air
1.29 Sp. Gr.
.210
.242
.279
.294
.367
.455
.514
.587
.661
.720
.778
.910
.984
1.10
1.12
1.17
1.26
1.41
1.50
1.59
1.66
1.75
1.85
1.94
2.03
Propane
1.5 Sp. Gr.
.195
.225
.259
.272
.340
.422
.477
.545
.613
.667
.722
.844
.912
1.02
1.04
1.09
1.17
1.31
1.39
1.47
1.54
1.62
1.72
1.8
1.88
Butane
2.0 Sp. Gr.
.169
.195
.224
.236
.295
.366
.413
.472
.531
.578
.625
.731
.790
.885
.896
.944
1.01
1.13
1.20
1.27
1.33
1.40
1.49
1.56
1.63
Dia.
In.
.043
.0465
.0469
.0520
.0550
.0595
.0625
.0635
.0670
.070
.073
.076
.0781
.0785
.081
.082
.086
.089
.0935
.0937
.096
.098
.0995
.1015
.104
.1065
.1093
.110
.111
.113
.116
.120
.125
.1285
.136
.1405
.1406
.144
.147
.1495
.152
.154
.1562
.157
.159
.161
.166
.1695
.1719
.175
.177
.180
.182
.185
.1875
Area
.00145
.00170
.00173
.00210
.0023
.0028
.0031
.0032
.0035
.0038
.0042
.0043
.0048
.0049
.0051
.0053
.0058
.0062
.00687
.0069
.0072
.0075
.0078
.0081
.0085
.0090
.0094
.0095
.0097
.0100
.0106
.0113
.0123
.0130
.0145
.0155
.0156
.0163
.0174
.0175
.0181
.0186
.0192
.0193
.0198
.0203
.0216
.0226
.0232
.0235
.0246
.0254
.0260
.0269
.0276
Natural
Gas
0.60 Sp. Gr.
3.12
3.66
3.73
4.52
4.95
6.03
6.68
6.89
7.54
8.18
9.04
9.26
10.3
10.5
11.
11.4
12.5
13.4
14.8
14.9
15.5
16.2
16.8
17.4
18.3
19.4
20.2
20.5
20.9
21.5
22.8
24.3
26.4
27.9
31.1
33.3
33.5
35.
37.3
37.5
38.8
39.9
41.2
41.4
42.5
43.6
46.3
48.5
49.8
50.4
52.8
54.5
55.8
57.7
59.2
Air
1.0 Sp. Gr.
2.42
2.84
2.89
3.50
3.84
4.67
5.17
5.34
5.84
6.34
7.01
7.17
8.01
8.17
8.51
8.84
9.67
10.3
11.4
11.5
12.
12.5
13.
13.5
14.2
15.
15.7
15.8
16.2
16.7
17.7
18.8
20.4
21.6
24.1
25.8
25.9
27.1
28.9
29.1
30.1
30.9
31.9
32.1
32.9
33.7
35.9
37.6
38.6
39.1
40.9
42.2
43.2
44.7
45.9
6
Propane/
Air
1.29 Sp. Gr.
2.13
2.5
2.54
3.08
3.38
4.11
4.55
4.7
5.14
5.58
6.17
6.31
7.05
7.2
7.49
7.78
8.52
9.11
10.
10.1
10.6
11.
11.5
11.9
12.5
13.2
13.8
14.
14.2
14.7
15.6
16.6
18.
19.
21.2
22.7
22.8
23.9
25.5
25.6
26.5
27.2
28.1
28.2
29.
29.7
31.6
33.1
33.9
34.4
36.
37.2
38.
39.4
40.4
Propane
1.5 Sp. Gr.
1.97
2.32
2.36
2.86
3.13
3.81
4.22
4.36
4.77
5.18
5.72
5.86
6.54
6.67
6.95
7.22
7.9
8.44
9.36
9.40
9.81
10.2
10.6
11.0
11.6
12.3
12.8
12.9
13.2
13.6
14.4
15.4
16.7
17.6
19.7
21.
21.2
22.1
23.6
23.7
24.6
25.2
26.1
26.2
26.9
27.5
29.3
30.7
31.5
31.9
33.4
34.5
35.3
36.5
37.5
Butane
2.0 Sp. Gr.
1.71
2.01
2.04
2.48
2.71
3.30
3.66
3.77
4.13
4.48
4.95
5.07
5.66
5.78
6.02
6.25
6.84
7.31
8.1
8.14
8.49
8.85
9.2
9.55
10.
10.6
11.1
11.2
11.4
11.8
12.5
13.3
14.5
15.3
17.
18.2
18.3
19.2
20.4
20.6
21.3
21.9
22.6
22.7
23.3
23.9
25.4
26.6
27.3
27.6
28.9
29.9
30.6
31.6
32.4
Dia.
In.
.189
.191
.1935
.196
.199
.201
.2031
.204
.2055
.209
.213
.2187
.221
.228
.234
.2343
.238
.242
.246
.250
.257
.261
.2656
.266
.272
.277
.281
.2812
.290
.295
.2968
.302
.3125
.316
.323
.3281
.332
.339
.3437
.348
.358
.3593
.368
.375
.377
.386
.3906
.397
.404
.4062
.413
.4219
.4375
.4531
.4687
Area
.02805
.02865
.0294
.0302
.0311
.0316
.0324
.0327
.0332
.0343
.0356
.0376
.0384
.0409
.0430
.0431
.0444
.0460
.0475
.0491
.0519
.0535
.0554
.0556
.0580
.0601
.0620
.0621
.0660
.0683
.0692
.0716
.0767
.0784
.0820
.0846
.0866
.0901
.0928
.0950
.1005
.1014
.1063
.1104
.1116
.1170
.1198
.1236
.1278
.1296
.1340
.1398
.1503
.1613
.1726
Natural
Gas
0.60 Sp. Gr.
60.2
61.5
63.1
64.8
66.7
67.8
69.5
70.2
71.2
73.6
76.4
80.7
82.4
87.8
92.3
92.5
95.3
98.7
102.
105.
111.
115.
119.
119.3
124.
129.
133.
133.2
142.
147.
148.
154.
165.
168.
176.
182.
186.
193.
199.
204.
216.
218.
228.
237.
239.
251.
257.
265.
274.
278.
288.
300.
322.
346.
370.
Air
1.0 Sp. Gr.
46.6
47.6
48.9
50.2
51.7
52.5
53.8
54.3
55.2
57.0
59.2
62.5
63.8
68.
71.5
71.6
73.8
76.5
78.9
81.6
86.3
88.9
92.1
92.4
96.4
99.9
103.
103.2
110.
113.
115.
119.
127.
130.
136.
141.
144.
150.
154.
158.
167.
169.
177.
184.
185.
194.
199.
205.
212.
215.
223.
232.
250.
268.
287.
7
Propane/
Air
1.29 Sp. Gr.
41.
41.9
43.
44.2
45.5
46.2
47.4
47.8
48.6
50.2
52.1
55.
56.2
59.8
62.9
63.1
65.
67.3
69.5
71.8
75.9
78.3
81.1
81.4
84.9
87.9
90.7
90.9
96.6
99.9
101.
105.
112.
115.
120.
124.
127.
132.
136.
139.
147.
148.
156.
162.
163.
171.
175.
181.
187.
190.
196.
205.
220.
236.
253.
Propane
1.5 Sp. Gr.
38.1
38.9
39.9
41.
42.2
42.9
44.
44.4
45.1
46.5
48.3
51.
52.1
55.5
58.4
58.5
60.3
62.4
64.5
66.6
70.4
72.6
75.2
75.4
78.7
81.6
84.1
84.3
89.6
92.7
93.9
97.2
104.
106.
111.
115.
118.
122.
126.
129.
136.
138.
144.
150.
151.
159.
163.
168.
173.
176.
182.
190.
204.
219.
234.
Butane
2.0 Sp. Gr.
33.
33.7
34.6
35.5
36.5
37.1
38.1
38.4
39.
40.3
41.8
44.2
45.1
48.1
50.5
50.7
52.2
54.1
55.8
57.7
61.
62.9
65.1
65.3
68.2
70.6
72.9
73.
77.6
80.3
81.3
84.1
90.1
92.1
96.4
99.4
102.
106.
109.
112.
118.
119.
125.
130.
131.
137.
141.
145.
150.
152.
157.
164.
177.
190.
203.
Dia.
In.
.4843
.50
.5156
.5312
.5468
.5625
.5781
.5937
.6093
.625
.6406
.6562
.6718
.6875
.7031
.7187
.7343
.750
.7656
.7813
.7969
.8125
.8281
.8438
.8594
.8750
.9062
.9375
.9688
1.0
1.063
1.125
1.188
1.250
1.313
1.375
1.5
1.563
1.625
1.688
1.75
1.813
1.875
1.938
2.0
2.125
2.250
2.375
2.50
2.625
2.75
2.875
Area
.1843
.1963
.2088
.2217
.2349
.2485
.2625
.2769
.2916
.3068
.3223
.3382
.3545
.3712
.3883
.4057
.4236
.44179
.46040
.47937
.49873
.51849
.53862
.55914
.5800
.60132
.64504
.69029
.73708
.7854
.88664
.99402
1.1075
1.2272
1.3530
1.4849
1.7671
1.9174
2.0739
2.2365
2.4053
2.5802
2.7612
2.9498
3.1416
3.5466
3.9761
4.4301
4.9087
5.4119
5.9396
6.4918
Natural
Gas
0.60 Sp. Gr.
395.
421.
448.
476.
504.
533.
563.
594.
626.
658.
691.
725.
760.
796.
833.
870.
909.
948.
988.
1029.
1070.
1112.
1156.
1200.
1244.
1290.
1384.
1481.
1581.
1685.
1902.
2133.
2376.
2633.
2903.
3186.
3791.
4114.
4450.
4799.
5161.
5536.
5924.
6329.
6741.
7610.
8531.
9505.
10532.
11612.
12744.
13929.
Air
1.0 Sp. Gr.
306.
326.
347.
368.
390.
413.
436.
460.
485.
510.
536.
562.
589.
617.
645.
674.
704.
734.
765.
796.
829.
862.
895.
929.
964.
999.
1072.
1147.
1225.
1305.
1474.
1652.
1841.
2040.
2249.
2468.
2937.
3187.
3447.
3717.
3998.
4288.
4589.
4903.
5221.
5894.
6608.
7363.
8158.
8995.
9872.
10789.
Propane/
Air
1.29 Sp. Gr.
270.
287.
306.
324.
344.
364.
384.
405.
427.
449.
472.
495.
519.
543.
568.
594.
620.
646.
674.
701.
730.
759.
788.
818.
849.
880.
944.
1010.
1079.
1149.
1297.
1455.
1621.
1796.
1980.
2173.
2586.
2806.
3035.
3273.
3520.
3776.
4040.
4316.
4597.
5190.
5818.
6483.
7183.
7919.
8691.
9499.
Propane
1.5 Sp. Gr.
250.
266.
283.
301.
319.
337.
356.
376.
396.
416.
437.
459.
481.
504.
527.
551.
575.
599.
625.
651.
677.
704.
731.
759.
787.
816.
875.
937.
1000.
1066.
1203.
1349.
1503.
1665.
1836.
2015.
2398.
2602.
2814.
3035.
3264.
3501.
3747.
4003.
4263.
4813.
5396.
6012.
6661.
7344.
8060.
8809.
Butane
2.0 Sp. Gr.
217.
231.
245.
261.
276.
292.
308.
325.
343.
361.
379.
397.
417.
436.
456.
477.
498.
519.
541.
563.
586.
609.
633.
657.
682.
707.
758.
811.
866.
923.
1042.
1168.
1302.
1442.
1590.
1745.
2077.
2253.
2437.
2628.
2827.
3032.
3245.
3467.
3692.
4168.
4673.
5206.
5769.
6360.
6980.
7629.
P + 14.7
24.7
Area
Sq. In.
.000143
.000165
.00019
.00020
.00025
.00031
.00035
.00040
.00045
.00049
.00053
.00062
.00067
.00075
.00076
.00080
.00086
.00096
.00102
.00108
.00113
.00119
.00126
Natural Gas
0.60 Sp. Gr.
4.9
5.6
6.6
7.0
9.2
10.8
11.9
13.6
15.6
17.0
18.5
21
23
26
27
28
30
34
35
37
40
41
44
Air
1.0 Sp. Gr.
3.8
4.3
5.1
5.4
7.1
8.4
9.2
10.5
12.1
13.2
14.3
16.4
18.1
20
21
22
23
26
27
29
31
32
34
9
Propane/Air
1.29 Sp. Gr.
3.3
3.8
4.5
4.8
6.3
7.4
8.1
9.2
10.7
11.6
12.6
14.4
15.9
17.6
18.5
19.4
20
23
24
26
27
28
30
Propane
1.5 Sp. Gr.
3.1
3.5
4.2
4.4
5.8
6.9
7.5
8.6
9.9
10.8
11.7
13.4
14.8
16.3
17.1
18.0
18.8
21
22
24
25
26
28
Butane
2.0 Sp. Gr.
2.7
3.0
3.6
3.8
5.0
5.9
6.53
7.4
8.6
9.3
10.1
11.6
12.8
14.1
14.8
15.6
16.3
18.4
19.1
20
22
23
24
Area
Sq. In.
.00132
.00138
.00145
.00170
.00173
.00210
.00230
.00280
.00310
.00320
.00350
.00380
.00420
.00430
.00480
.00490
.00510
.00530
.00580
.00620
.00690
.00720
.00750
.00780
.00810
.00850
.00900
.00940
.00950
.00970
.01000
.01060
.01130
.01230
.01300
.01450
.01550
.01560
.01630
.01740
.01750
.01810
.01860
.01920
.01930
.01980
.02030
.02160
.02260
.02320
.02350
.02460
.02540
.02600
.02690
.02760
.02805
Natural Gas
0.60 Sp. Gr.
45
48
52
59
61
75
84
98
108
112
124
136
147
160
169
172
182
187
205
219
243
244
266
275
285
300
315
332
336
342
354
374
400
440
458
514
550
553
572
599
621
642
660
678
684
702
728
766
800
822
830
871
904
920
951
976
993
Air
1.0 Sp. Gr.
35
37
40
46
47
58
65
76
84
87
96
105
114
124
131
133
141
145
159
170
188
189
206
213
221
232
244
257
260
265
274
290
310
341
355
398
426
428
443
464
481
497
511
525
530
544
564
593
620
637
643
675
700
713
737
756
769
10
Propane/Air
1.29 Sp. Gr.
31
33
35
41
41
51
57
67
74
77
85
92
100
109
115
117
124
128
140
150
166
166
181
188
195
204
215
226
229
233
241
255
273
300
313
350
375
377
390
409
423
437
450
462
467
479
497
522
546
561
566
594
616
628
649
666
677
Propane
1.5 Sp. Gr.
29
30
33
38
38
47
53
62
69
71
78
86
93
101
107
109
115
118
130
139
154
154
168
174
180
189
199
210
212
216
224
237
253
278
290
325
348
349
362
379
393
406
417
429
433
444
461
484
506
520
525
551
572
582
602
617
628
Butane
2.0 Sp. Gr.
25
26
28
33
33
41
46
54
59
62
68
74
81
88
93
94
100
103
112
120
133
134
146
151
156
164
173
182
184
187
194
205
219
241
251
281
301
303
313
328
340
351
361
371
375
385
399
419
438
450
455
477
495
503
521
534
544
Area
Sq. In.
.02865
.02940
.03020
.03110
.03160
.03240
.03270
.03320
.03430
.03560
.03760
.03840
.04090
.04300
.04310
.04440
.04600
.04750
.04910
.05190
.05350
.05540
.05560
.05800
.06010
.06200
.06210
.06600
.06830
.06920
.07160
.07670
.07840
.08200
.08460
.08660
.09010
.09280
.09500
.10050
.10140
.10630
.11040
.11160
.11700
.11980
.12360
.12780
.12960
.13400
.13980
.15030
.16130
.17260
.18430
.19630
Natural Gas
0.60 Sp. Gr.
1015
1041
1066
1100
1122
1148
1155
1172
1216
1263
1327
1361
1447
1523
1529
1571
1627
1686
1738
1836
1891
1960
1969
2054
2128
2192
2200
2337
2418
2448
2534
2714
2782
2893
2996
3065
3193
3283
3373
3553
3595
3775
3912
3959
4135
4237
4374
4537
4580
4751
4943
5307
5714
6121
6527
6977
Air
1.0 Sp. Gr.
786
806
826
852
869
889
895
908
942
978
1028
1054
1121
1180
1184
1217
1260
1306
1346
1422
1465
1518
1525
1591
1648
1698
1704
1810
1873
1896
1963
2102
2155
2241
2321
2374
2473
2543
2613
2752
2785
2924
3030
3067
3203
3282
3388
3514
3548
3680
3829
4111
4426
4741
5056
5204
11
Propane/Air
1.29 Sp. Gr.
692
710
727
750
765
783
788
799
829
861
905
928
987
1039
1042
1072
1109
1150
1185
1252
1290
1336
1343
1401
1451
1495
1500
1594
1649
1669
1728
1851
1897
1973
2044
2090
2177
2239
2301
2423
2452
2574
2668
2700
2820
2890
2983
3094
3124
3240
3371
3620
3897
4452
4448
4758
Propane
1.5 Sp. Gr.
642
658
674
696
710
726
731
741
769
799
839
861
915
963
967
994
1029
1066
1099
1161
1196
1239
1245
1299
1346
1386
1391
1478
1529
1548
1603
1716
1760
1830
1895
1938
2019
2076
2134
2247
2274
2387
2474
2504
2615
2680
2766
2869
2897
3005
3126
3357
3614
3871
4128
4412
Butane
2.0 Sp. Gr.
556
570
584
602
614
629
633
642
666
692
727
745
793
834
837
861
891
923
952
1006
1036
1073
1078
1125
1165
1201
1205
1280
1324
1341
1388
1486
1524
1585
1641
1679
1749
1798
1848
1946
1969
2068
2143
2169
2265
2321
2396
2485
2509
2602
2708
2907
3130
3352
3575
3821
1/2"
0.3
0.5
2.1
8.4
18.9
4"
0.4
0.7
1.1
1.6
2.2
2.8
3.6
4.4
6.9
9.9
13.5
17.6
3/4"
0.5
1.9
4.2
7.5
11.8
16.9
6"
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.8
1.2
1.6
2.1
3.3
4.7
6.4
8.3
10.5
13.0
18.7
1"
0.5
1.2
2.1
3.3
4.7
6.4
8.3
10.5
13.0
8"
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.7
1.0
1.4
1.9
2.4
2.9
4.2
5.7
7.4
9.4
11.6
18.2
1-1/4"
0.3
0.5
0.8
1.1
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.1
7.0
12.4
1-1/2
0.4
0.5
0.7
0.9
1.1
1.4
3.2
5.6
12.6
10"
0.3
0.5
0.6
0.8
0.9
1.3
1.8
2.4
3.0
3.7
5.8
8.4
11.4
14.9
18.8
12
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.7
0.9
1.2
1.4
2.2
3.2
4.4
5.7
7.2
9.0
10.8
12.9
15.1
17.5
12
2"
0.3
0.4
0.8
1.4
3.2
5.8
9.0
13.0
17.6
14"
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.7
0.8
1.3
1.9
2.5
3.3
4.2
5.2
6.2
7.4
8.7
10.1
13.2
16.7
20.6
2-1/2"
0.3
0.6
1.3
2.2
3.5
5.0
6.9
9.0
11.3
14.0
20.2
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.7
2.3
3.0
3.8
4.7
6.8
9.2
12.0
15.2
18.8
16"
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.6
0.9
1.3
1.6
2.1
2.6
3.1
3.7
4.4
5.0
6.6
8.3
10.3
12.5
14.8
17.4
20.2
18
0.3
0.5
0.6
0.8
1.1
1.3
1.6
1.9
2.2
2.5
3.3
4.2
5.2
6.3
7.5
8.8
10.2
13.3
16.8
20.8
3/8"
0.3
1.1
2.5
4.4
6.9
9.9
13.5
17.6
1/2"
0.3
0.7
1.2
1.9
2.8
3.8
5.0
11.2
19.8
3/4"
0.3
0.4
0.6
0.9
1.1
2.5
4.5
7.0
10.1
13.8
18.0
1"
0.3
0.7
1.2
1.9
2.8
3.8
4.9
6.3
7.7
17.4
1-1/4"
0.3
0.5
0.7
0.9
1.2
1.5
1.9
4.2
7.5
11.8
16.9
1-1/2"
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.7
0.8
1.9
3.3
5.2
7.5
13.2
20.7
2"
0.5
0.9
1.3
1.9
3.4
5.4
7.7
10.5
13.8
17.4
2-1/2"
0.3
0.5
0.8
1.3
2.1
3.0
4.1
5.4
6.8
8.4
12.1
16.4
3"
0.3
0.4
0.7
1.0
1.4
1.8
2.3
2.8
4.0
5.5
7.2
9.1
11.2
13.6
16.1
18.9
4"
0.3
0.4
0.6
0.7
1.0
1.4
1.8
2.2
2.8
3.3
4.0
4.7
5.4
6.2
8.5
11.0
14.0
17.3
20.9
6"
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
1.0
1.2
1.6
2.0
2.4
2.8
3.8
8"
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.8
Scfh
Nat. Gas
80,000
90,000
100,000
110,000
120,000
130,000
140,000
150,000
200,000
250,000
300,000
13
Inches w.c.
per 100 ft
of Schedule 40 pipe
6"
8"
5.0
1.1
6.3
1.4
7.8
1.7
9.4
2.1
11.2
2.4
13.2
2.9
15.3
3.3
17.6
3.8
6.8
10.6
15.3
1-1/4
1-1/2
2-1/2
2
5
10
20
50
2
5
10
20
50
2
5
10
20
50
2
5
10
20
50
2
5
10
20
50
2
5
10
20
50
2
5
10
20
50
2
5
10
20
50
340
590
930
1570
3380
710
1230
1950
3260
7040
1080
1860
2940
4930
10,640
2100
3630
5740
9610
20,720
3390
5850
9240
15,480
33,400
6060
10,450
16,510
27,650
59,640
12,480
21,520
34,000
56,960
122,850
37,250
64,240
101,520
170,060
366,770
480
840
1320
2210
4770
1010
1740
2760
4600
9910
1530
2630
4160
6960
15,000
2980
5120
8090
13,550
29,190
4810
8260
13,040
21,840
47,050
8590
14,760
23,290
38,990
84,010
17,690
30,400
47,980
80,320
173,070
52,800
90,760
143,260
239,810
516,680
590
1030
1610
2700
5820
1230
2130
3370
5620
12,090
1870
3220
5080
8490
18,290
3640
6270
9890
16,540
35,610
5880
10,100
15,940
26,660
57,400
10,500
18,050
28,480
47,620
102,500
21,620
37,180
58,650
98,090
211,140
64,560
111,010
175,120
292,840
630,360
680
1180
1850
3110
6690
1420
2450
3880
6470
13,910
2160
3710
5850
9780
21,040
4200
7230
11,400
19,050
40,960
6780
11,650
18,370
30,700
66,010
12,120
20,820
32,810
54,820
117,880
24,960
42,890
67,580
112,930
242,840
74,510
128,040
201,780
337,150
724,970
760
1320
2070
3470
7450
1590
2740
4330
7210
15,490
2410
4140
6530
10,900
23,430
4700
8070
12,720
21,230
45,610
7580
13,010
20,500
34,220
73,510
13,540
23,240
36,610
61,110
131,270
27,890
47,880
75,410
125,880
270,420
83,270
142,950
225,150
375,820
807,320
Pipe
Size
1/2"
3/4"
1"
1-1/4"
1-1/2"
2"
2-1/2"
3"
4"
6"
0.622
0.824
1.049
1.380
1.610
2.067
2.469
3.068
4.026
6.065
0.35
0.44
0.56
0.74
0.86
1.10
1.32
1.60
2.1
2.6
18.6
23.1
29.4
38.6
45.2
58
69
86
112
140
9.3
11.5
14.7
19.3
22.6
29
35
43
56
70
4.3
5.3
6.8
8.9
10.4
13.4
15.9
19.8
26.8
40.4
1.6
2.1
2.6
3.5
4.0
5.2
6.2
7.7
10.1
15.2
0.78
0.97
1.23
1.6
1.9
2.4
2.9
3.6
5.4
8.1
1.0
1.4
1.8
2.3
2.7
3.5
4.1
5.1
6.7
10.1
3.1
4.1
5.3
6.9
8.0
10.4
12.4
15.3
20.1
30.3
Equivalent lengths are for standard screwed fittings and for screwed, flanged, or welded valves relative to
schedule 40 steel pipe.
14
Pipe Size
Pv, "wc
Velocity
Nat.
Pro- Bu- Ft/Min
Gas Air pane tane x1000
3.0
5.0
4.0
2.0
3.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
2.0
1.5
1.0
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
5.0
4.0
3.0
1-1/2"
1/4"
10
9
8
7
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
3/8" 1/2"
3/4"
1"
1-1/4"
18"
2-1/2"
2"
3"
4"
6"
8"
1.5
1.0
2.5
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
10
9
8
7
0.5
0.4
0.3
2.5
1.5
0.15 0.2
0.1 0.15
Shaded Areas
Indicate Recommended
Velocity Pressure
Range
1.5
2
100
3 4
3 4
1000
6 8
3 4
10,000
2
100,000
3 4
Flow, cfh
15
To use the table below, read across from the pipe size of the
smallest branch in the manifold (Z in the sketch at left) and
down from the number of these branches. At the intersection,
find the recommended size pipe to feed these branches. For
example, if Z is 3/4", Y should be 114" and X should be 2" pipe.
X
Y
Z
Y
Z
Size of
Branch
Connection
1/4
3/8
1/4
3/8
3/8
3/4
1/2
3/4
3/4
1
1/2
3/4
1/2
3/4
3/4
1
1-1/4 1-1/4
3/4
1
1
1-1/4 1-1/4 1-1/2
1
2
1
1-1/4
1
1-1/4
2
1-1/4
2
2-1/2
2
3
1-1/2
2
1-1/2 2-1/2
2
3
3
4
3
4
4
6
2-1/2
3
2-1/2
3
4
4
4
6
6
6
4
6
4
6
6
8
8
10
8
10
8
10
12
14
14
18
1-1/4
2
2-1/2 2-1/2
3
4
1
1
1-1/4 1-1/4
1-1/2 2
2 2-1/2
3
4
3
4
4
6
4
6
6
6
6
8
6
8
6
8
6
8
8
12
10
14
10
16
10
18
12
18
16
20
18
24
20
24
20 or 24 24
30
30
For conditions other than 14.7 psia and 60F, use this formula:
Q = 1360Cv (P1-P2) P2,
GT
where
Q = SCFH
P1 = Inlet pressure, psia
P2 = Outlet pressure, psia
T = Absolute flowing temperature (F + 460)
G = Specific gravity of gas
1000
8
6
4
3
BUTANE 2.0 SP GR
Cv Flow Factor
PROPANE 1.5 SP GR
100
8
6
4
3
PROPANE - AIR
1.29 SP GR
AIR 1.0 SP GR
10
8
6
4
3
10
20
30 40 60 80 100
8 1000
8 10,000 2
16
.35D
.60D
.80D
.92D
13000
0
140
12000
120
1000
800
11000
600
10000
400
9000
300
8000
200
100
7000
40
6000
70
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0
.2
.4
.6
.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.2
3.4
3.6
17
3.8
4.0
RPM
"R"
Volume
"V"
If, for example, a blower has a wheel made up of eight segments, each with a volume V, and the wheel is rotating at R
rpm, the theoretical flow rating of the blower will be 8 x V x
R, because each fan wheel segment fills with air and empties
itself once each revolution.
The actual volume delivered is strictly a function of the carrying capacity of the wheel and its speed. Cfm, whether it is
standard (scfm) or actual (acfm) is the same. Consequently, if
the density of air is reduced by temperature, pressure, or both,
the blower will deliver a lower weight flow of air, even
though the measured volume hasnt changed.
Air density also affects the pressure developed by the blower
and its power consumption. Because air density is related to
temperature, pressure, and altitude (barometric pressure) see
pages 20 and 21 it is possible to relate blower performance to
these factors with a set of realtionships known as fan laws.
18
FAN LAWS
1. Effect of Blower Speed on Flow, Pressure and Power
Consumption
a. Flow vs. Speed: The flow rate (V) changes in direct
ratio to the speed (S)
V2 = S2
V1
S1
Example: A blower operating at 1750 rpm (S1) delivers 1000 cfm (V1). How many cfm (V2) will it deliver
if speed is increased to 3500 rpm (S2)?
V2 = V1 x S2 = 1000 x 3500 = 2000 cfm
S1
1750
b. Pressure vs. Speed: The pressure (P) changes as the
square of the speed ratio (S)
P2 = S2 2
P1
S1
Example: A blower operating at 1750 rpm (S1) develops
1 psig (P1) pressure. If speed is doubled to 3500
rpm (S2), what is the new pressure (P2)?
2
2
P2 = P1 x S2 = 1 x 3500
S1
1750
( )
( )
= 1 x (2)2 = 1 x 4 = 4 psig
c. Horsepower vs. Speed: The horsepower (HP) consumed changes as the cube of the speed ratio (S)
S 3
HP2
= 2
HP1
S1
Example: A blower operating at 1750 rpm (S1) requires
a 5 hp (HP1) motor. How many horsepower (HP2) will
be required to handle a speed increase to 3500 rpm (S2)?
S 3
3500 3
HP2 = HP1 2 = 5 x
S1
1750
( )
( )
( )
= 5 x (2)3 = 5 x 8 = 40 hp
Laws 1a, 1b and 1c are known as the 1-2-3 rule of centrifugal blowers. Volume increases in direct ratio, pressure as the
square, and horsepower as the cube, of the speed ratio.
Re-rating blowers for nonstandard conditions
As fan laws 2b, 2c, and 2d show, blower weight flow,
pressure, and horsepower all change in direct proportion to
air density or gravity. While these relationships are important to know, its usually more important to know how to
select a blower to compensate for nonstandard conditions.
The following example shows how it is done.
Example: A burner is rated a 1 million Btu/hr. at an air pressure of 20"w.c., including piping and control valve drops. If
the burner is to be installed at 6000 feet altitude, select a
blower that will permit the burners input rating to be maintained.
Solution: Use the rule-of-thumb of 100 Btu per standard
cubic foot of air to estimate blower flow requirements:
1,000,000 Btu/hr 100 Btu/scf air = 10,000 scfh air.
This is the blowers standard (sea level) rating.
At 6,000 feet, the specific gravity of air is 0.80 (see page 20).
To maintain a weight flow of air through the burner
equivalent to 10,000 scfh, the volume flow through the
burner has to be increased to offset the airs lower density.
( )
P2 = P1 x
( )
P2 x 27.7, where
B+P
V = suction or vacuum, " w.c.
P = Absolute atmospheric pressure, psia, at the location where
the blower is operated
B = Rated blower discharge pressure, psig (psig = " w.c. 27.7)
Example: A blower with a catalog pressure rating of 21" w.c.
is used as a suction fan on an installation at 1500 ft altitude.
How much suction will it develop?
P at 1500 ft = 13.9 psia (from table below)
B = 21 27.7 = .76 psig
2
V = 13.9 - (13.9)
x 27.7 = 20 "w.c.
.76 + 13.9
V= P
x "w.c.
scfh x osi
hp = scfh
381,360 x efficiency hp = 220,200 x efficiency
Gauge
Pressure,
PSIG
Absolute
Pressure,
PSIA
Density
Lb./Cu. Ft.
Specific
Gravity
Specific
Volume
Cu. Ft./Lb.
Altitude
Ft.
Barometric
"Hg
Pressure,
PSIA
Density
Lb./Cu. Ft.
0
1
2
14.7
15.7
16.7
0.07500
0.08010
0.08520
1.000
1.068
1.136
13.33
12.48
11.74
0
500
1000
29.92
29.38
28.86
14.7
14.4
14.2
.07500
.07365
.07234
1.00
.98
.96
13.33
13.58
13.82
3
4
5
17.7
18.7
19.7
0.09031
0.09541
0.10051
1.204
1.272
1.340
11.07
10.48
9.95
1500
2000
2500
28.33
27.82
27.31
13.9
13.7
13.4
.07101
.06974
.06846`
.95
.93
.91
14.08
14.34
14.61
10
15
20
24.7
29.7
34.7
0.12602
0.15153
0.17704
1.680
2.020
2.361
7.94
6.60
5.65
3000
3500
4000
26.81
26.32
25.84
13.2
12.9
12.7
.06720
.06598
.06477
.90
.88
.86
14.88
15.16
15.44
25
30
35
39.7
44.7
49.7
0.20255
0.22806
0.25357
2.701
3.041
3.381
4.94
4.38
3.94
4500
5000
5500
25.36
24.89
24.43
12.5
12.2
12.0
.06357
.06239
.06124
.85
.83
.82
15.73
16.03
16.33
40
45
50
54.7
59.7
64.7
0.27908
0.30459
0.33010
3.721
4.061
4.401
3.58
3.28
3.03
6000
6500
7000
23.98
23.53
23.09
11.8
11.6
11.3
.06011
.05898
.05788
.80
.79
.77
16.64
16.95
17.28
60
70
80
74.7
84.7
94.7
0.38112
0.43214
0.48316
5.082
5.762
6.442
2.62
2.31
2.07
7500
8000
8500
22.65
22.22
21.80
11.1
10.9
10.7
.05678
.05570
.05465
.76
.74
.73
17.61
17.95
18.30
90
100
125
104.7
114.7
139.7
0.53418
0.58520
0.71276
7.122
7.802
9.503
1.87
1.71
1.40
9000
9500
10000
21.38
20.98
20.58
10.5
10.3
10.1
.05359
.05259
.05159
.71
.70
.69
18.66
19.01
19.38
150
175
200
164.7
189.7
214.7
0.84031
0.96786
1.09541
11.204
12.905
14.605
1.19
1.03
0.91
15000
20000
16.88
13.75
8.29
6.76
.04231
.03447
.56
.46
23.63
29.01
250
300
400
264.7
314.7
414.7
1.35051
1.60561
2.11582
18.007
21.408
28.211
0.74
0.62
0.47
500
514.7
2.62602
35.014
0.38
Helpful conversions:
Altitude in meters x 3.28 = Altitutde in feet
Barometric pressure in "Hg 2.036 = Barometric pressure
in psia.
20
Specific
Specific Volume
Gravity Cu. Ft./Lb.
1
Density, lb/cu. ft.
Temp.
F
Absolute
Temp.
Ratio
Density
Lb./Cu. Ft.
Specific
Gravity
Specific
Volume
Cu. Ft./Lb.
Absolute
Temp.
Ratio
Density
Lb./Cu. Ft.
Specific
Gravity
Specific
Volume
Cu. Ft./Lb.
-60
-40
-30
.7547
.7925
.8113
.09938
.09464
.09244
1.325
1.262
1.233
10.06
10.57
10.82
520
530
540
1.849
1.868
1.887
.04056
.04015
.03975
.541
.535
.530
24.65
24.91
25.16
-20
-10
0
.8302
.8491
.8679
.09034
.08833
.08641
1.205
1.178
1.152
11.07
11.32
11.57
550
560
570
1.906
1.925
1.943
.03936
.03897
.03859
.525
.520
.515
25.41
25.66
25.91
20
40
60
.9057
1.019
.9811
.08281
.07361
.07644
1.104
.981
1.019
12.08
13.58
13.08
580
590
600
1.962
1.981
2.000
.03822
.03786
.03750
.510
.505
.500
26.16
26.42
26.67
70
80
90
1.000
.9434
1.038
.07500
.07361
.07227
1.000
1.060
.964
13.33
12.58
13.84
610
620
630
2.019
2.038
2.057
.03715
.03681
.03647
.495
.491
.486
26.92
27.17
27.42
100
110
120
1.057
1.075
1.094
.07098
.06974
.06853
.946
.930
.914
14.09
14.34
14.59
640
650
660
2.075
2.094
2.113
.03614
.03581
.03549
.482
.477
.473
27.67
27.92
28.18
130
140
150
1.113
1.132
1.151
.06737
.06624
.06516
.898
.883
.869
14.84
15.09
15.35
670
680
690
2.132
2.151
2.170
.03518
.03487
.03457
.469
.465
.461
28.43
28.68
28.93
160
170
180
1.170
1.189
1.208
.06411
.06310
.06211
.855
.841
.828
15.60
15.85
16.10
700
710
720
2.189
2.208
2.226
.03427
.03397
.03369
.457
.453
.449
29.18
29.43
29.69
190
200
210
1.226
1.245
1.264
.06115
.06023
.05933
.815
.803
.791
16.35
16.60
16.86
730
740
750
2.245
2.264
2.283
.03340
.03313
.03285
.445
.442
.438
29.94
30.19
30.44
220
230
240
1.283
1.302
1.321
.05846
.05761
.05679
.779
.768
.757
17.11
17.36
17.61
760
770
780
2.302
2.321
2.340
.03258
.03232
.03206
.434
.431
.427
30.69
30.94
31.19
250
260
270
1.340
1.358
1.377
.05599
.05521
.05445
.747
.736
.726
17.86
18.11
18.36
790
800
825
2.358
2.377
2.425
.03180
.03155
.03093
.424
.421
.412
31.45
31.70
32.33
280
290
300
1.396
1.415
1.434
.05372
.05300
.05230
.716
.707
.697
18.62
18.87
19.12
850
875
900
2.472
2.519
2.566
.03034
.02978
.02923
.405
.397
.390
32.96
33.58
34.21
310
320
330
1.453
1.472
1.491
.05162
.05096
.05032
.688
.679
.671
19.37
19.62
19.87
925
950
975
2.613
2.660
2.708
.02870
.02819
.02770
.383
.376
.369
34.84
35.47
36.10
340
350
360
1.509
1.528
1.547
.04969
.04907
.04848
.663
.654
.646
20.13
20.38
20.63
1000
1025
1050
2.755
2.802
2.849
.02723
.02677
.02623
.363
.357
.350
36.73
37.36
37.99
370
380
390
1.566
1.585
1.604
.04789
.04732
.04676
.639
.631
.623
20.88
21.13
21.38
1100
1150
1200
2.943
3.033
3.132
.02548
.02469
.02395
.340
.329
.319
39.25
40.50
41.76
400
410
420
1.623
1.642
1.660
.04622
.04569
.04517
.616
.609
.602
21.64
21.89
22.14
1250
1300
1350
3.226
3.321
3.415
.02325
.02259
.02196
.310
.301
.293
43.02
44.28
45.53
430
440
450
1.679
1.698
1.717
.04466
.04417
.04368
.595
.589
.582
22.39
22.64
22.89
1400
1500
1600
3.509
3.698
3.887
.02137
.02028
.01930
.285
.270
.257
46.79
49.31
51.81
460
470
480
1.736
1.755
1.774
.04321
.04274
.04229
.576
.570
.564
23.14
23.40
23.65
1700
1800
1900
4.075
4.264
4.453
.01840
.01759
.01684
.245
.235
.225
54.35
56.85
59.38
490
500
510
1.792
1.811
1.830
.04184
.04141
.04098
.558
.552
.546
23.90
24.15
24.40
2000
2100
2200
4.642
4.830
5.019
.01616
.01553
.01494
.215
.207
.199
61.88
64.39
66.93
Temp.
F
21
CHAPTER 3 GAS
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF COMMERCIAL FUEL GASES
Constituents % by Volume
No. Gas
CH4
C2H6
C3H8
Density,
Lb per
Cu Ft
Specific
Volume
Cu Ft/Lb
CO
H2
CO2
O2
N2
Specific
Gravity
(100% C2H2)
27.5
93
(100% C4H8)
11.5
60
0.91
1.02
1.95
1.94
.07
.078
.149
.148
14.4
12.8
6.71
6.74
40.5
46.5
3
2.2
25
0.5
0.8
2.9
8.1
0.97
0.63
0.44
0.80
.074
.048
.034
.062
13.5
20.8
29.7
16.3
C4H10
1
2
3
4
Acetylene
Blast Furnace Gas
Butane (natural gas)
Butylene (Butene)
5
6
7
8
Carbon Monoxide
Carburetted Water Gas
Coke Oven Gas
Digester (Sewage) Gas
10.2
32.1
67
9
10
11
12
Ethane
Hydrogen
Methane
Natural (Birmingham, AL)
100
90
100
100
1.05
0.07
0.55
0.60
.080
.0054
.042
.046
12.5
186.9
23.8
21.8
13
14
15
16
83.4
77.5
84.1
81.3
15.8
16.0
6.7
2.9
0.4
0.1
6.5
0.8
0.9
0.8
8.4
14.4
0.61
0.70
0.63
0.64
.047
.054
.048
.048
21.4
18.7
20.8
20.7
3.5
0.8
0.3
25
14.5
0.4
4.7
2.8
52.7
0.61
0.84
.046
.065
21.8
15.4
5.5
0.5
0.9
1
27.6
1.52
1.45
0.42
0.71
.116
.111
.032
.054
8.61
9.02
31.3
18.7
19
20
21
22
26
4.6
100
(6.1% C2H4, 2.8% C6H6)
34
(3.5% C2H4, 0.5% C6H6) 6.3
(8% H2O)
100
(100% C3H6)
22
(0.4% C2H4, 0.3% C6H6) 28.2
48
32.5
No. Gas
1
2
3
4
Acetylene
Blast Furnace Gas
Butane (natural gas)
Butylene (Butene)
5
6
7
8
Carbon Monoxide
Carburetted Water Gas
Coke Oven Gas
Digester (Sewage) Gas
Stoichiometric
Air/Gas Ratio
Cu Ft Air/ Lb Air/
Cu Ft Gas Lb Gas
Limits of
Flammability
% Gas in
Air/Gas Mixture
Lean
Rich
Minimum
Maximum
Ignition
Flame Velocity
Temperature
in Air,
in Air, F
Ft/Sec*
11.91
0.68
30.47
28.59
13.26
0.67
15.63
14.77
2.5
45
1.86
1.7
80
72
8.41
9
581
826
829
9.4
2.8
3.2
2.38
4.60
4.99
6.41
2.46
7.36
11.27
7.97
12
4.2
4.5
8
74
42.9
31.5
17
1128
2.0
2.8
16.0
2.2
9
10
11
12
Ethane
Hydrogen
Methane
Natural (Birmingham, AL)
16.68
2.38
9.53
9.41
15.98
33.79
17.23
15.68
3.15
4
5
7.03
12.8
74.2
15
15.77
882
1065
1170
13
14
15
16
10.58
10.05
9.13
8.41
17.31
14.26
14.59
13.45
4.6
4.9
5.4
6.1
14.7
15.6
16.3
15
1238
1.18
16.13
1.56
5
16.4
15
69.4
1300
0.98
19
20
21
22
15.73
14.77
9.84
2.86
9.50
11.1
37.4
61
898
856
2.7
3.3
23.82
21.44
4.13
2.01
2.37
2
5.3
8.9
*Uniform flame speed in a 1" diameter tube. Flame speeds increase in larger diameter tubes.
22
No. Gas
1
2
3
4
Acetylene
Blast Furnace Gas
Butane (natural gas)
Butylene (Butene)
5
6
7
8
Carbon Monoxide
Carburetted Water Gas
Coke Oven Gas
Digester (Sewage) Gas
Gross
Btu/lb
Net
Per Cu Ft Air
Per Lb Air
Theoretical
Flame
Temperature
F
1498
92
3225
3077
1447
92
2977
2876
21,569
1178
21,640
20,780
20,837
1178
19,976
19,420
125.8
135.3
105.8
107.6
1677
1804
1411
1435
4250
2650
3640
3810
323
550
574
690
323
508
514
621
4368
11,440
17,048
11,316
4368
10,566
15,266
10,184
135.7
119.6
115.0
107.6
1809
1595
1533
1407
3960
3725
3610
3550
9
10
11
12
Ethane
Hydrogen
Methane
Natural (Birmingham, AL)
1783
325
1011
1002
1630
275
910
904
22,198
61,084
23,811
21,844
20,295
51,628
21,433
19,707
106.9
136.6
106.1
106.5
1425
1821
1415
1420
3710
3960
3640
3565
13
14
15
16
1129
1073
974
941
1021
971
879
849
24,161
20,065
20,259
19,599
21,849
18,158
18,283
17,678
106.7
106.8
106.7
111.9
1423
1424
1423
1492
3562
3550
3535
3380
1035
167
902
156
22,500
2650
19,609
2476
105.6
128.5
1408
1713
3450
3200
19
20
21
22
2572
2322
500
261
2365
2181
443
239
21,500
20,990
14,550
4881
19,770
19,630
13,016
4469
108
108.8
116.3
129.9
1440
1451
1551
1732
3660
3830
3452
3510
H2O
N2
Total
CO2
H2O
N2
Total
Ultimate
CO2
%*
1 Acetylene
2 Blast Furnace Gas
2.00
0.39
1.00
0.02
9.41
1.14
12.41
1.54
3.38
.59
0.69
10.19
1.08
14.26
1.67
17.5
25.5
3.93
4.00
1.00
4.93
4.00
24.07
22.59
1.88
32.93
30.59
2.88
3.09
3.14
1.57
1.59
1.29
11.95
11.34
1.89
16.63
15.77
3.46
14.0
15.0
34.7
0.76
0.51
0.92
2.00
0.87
1.25
1.42
3.00
1.00
3.66
4.02
5.44
13.18
1.88
5.29
5.78
7.78
18.18
2.88
1.85
1.76
1.74
2.93
0.87
1.76
1.10
1.8
8.89
5.64
8.75
6.53
12.25
25.90
8.36
12.27
9.37
16.98
34.79
17.2
11.2
14.5
13.2|
0
11 Methane
12 Natural (Birmingham, AL)
1.00
1.00
2.00
2.02
7.53
7.48
10.53
10.50
2.75
2.54
2.25
2.11
13.23
12.03
18.23
16.68
11.7
11.8
13
14
15
16
1.15
1.16
0.98
0.89
2.22
2.10
1.95
1.73
8.37
7.94
7.30
6.74
11.73
11.20
10.23
9.36
2.86
2.51
2.39
2.17
2.27
1.87
1.95
1.73
13.18
10.88
11.25
10.45
18.31
15.26
15.59
14.35
12.1
12.7
11.9
11.7
2.19
0.17
7.94
1.59
11.78
2.11
2.67
0.61
2.29
0.13
12.84
1.82
17.80
2.56
11.7
17.6
19
20
21
22
4.17
3.00
1.00
0.47
18.82
16.94
3.28
1.86
25.99
22.94
4.76
2.74
3.00
3.14
1.76
0.89
1.70
1.29
1.50
0.42
12.03
11.34
7.63
2.55
16.73
15.77
10.89
3.86
13.7
15.0
12.8
18.0
No. Gas
6
7
8
9
10
3.00
3.00
0.48
0.41
23
B.t.u.
Content
Kind of Gas
BUTANE/AIR MIXTURE
Specific
Gravity
Equivalent
PropaneAir
Mixture
B.t.u.
Specific
Gravity
.65
.46
.42
.56
.60
.65
690
855
1000
1100
1400
1560
1.14
1.17
1.20
1.23
1.28
1.32
B.t.u.
Content
Kind of Gas
Specific
Gravity
Equivalent
ButaneAir
Mixture
B.t.u.
Specific
Gravity
.65
.46
.42
.56
.60
.65
708
870
1058
1380
1550
1680
1.20
1.25
1.31
1.41
1.46
1.50
NOTE: The B.t.u. content and specific gravity figures are representative figures and will vary according to area. Therefore, these tables should be used as a guide only.
MIXTURE SPECIFICATIONS
PROPANE/AIR MIXTURES
B.t.u. per
Cubic Foot
of MIxture
Percentage
of Propane
by Volume
Percentage
of Air by
Volume
Percentage
of Oxygen by
Volume (Orsat)
3200
3150
3100
3050
3000
2950
2900
2850
2800
2750
BUTANE/AIR MIXTURES
Specific
Gravity of
the MIxture
Percentage
of Butane
by Volume
Percentage
of Air by
Volume
Percentage
of Oxygen by
Volume (Orsat)
Specific
Gravity of
the Mixture
100.00
98.44
96.88
95.32
93.75
0.00
1.56
3.12
4.68
6.25
0.000
0.328
0.656
0.984
1.312
1.950
1.935
1.920
1.905
1.891
92.20
90.62
89.08
87.51
85.95
7.80
9.38
10.92
12.49
14.05
1.643
1.967
2.297
2.625
2.953
1.875
1.861
1.846
1.831
1.817
2700
2650
2600
2550
2500
100.00
98.04
0.00
1.96
0.000
0.409
1.523
1.513
84.38
82.82
81.25
79.70
78.18
15.62
17.18
18.75
20.30
21.82
3.280
3.612
3.935
4.268
4.590
1.802
1.786
1.771
1.755
1.744
2450
2400
2350
2300
2250
96.08
94.12
92.16
90.19
88.24
3.92
5.88
7.84
9.81
11.76
0.819
1.288
1.639
2.050
2.458
1.502
1.492
1.482
1.472
1.461
76.58
75.00
73.44
71.86
70.30
23.42
25.00
26.56
28.14
29.70
4.921
5.249
5.576
5.899
6.238
1.728
1.712
1.698
1.683
1.668
2200
2150
2100
2050
2000
86.27
84.31
82.35
80.39
78.43
13.73
15.69
17.65
19.61
21.56
2.869
3.279
3.688
4.098
4.506
1.451
1.441
1.431
1.420
1.410
68.79
67.20
65.63
64.09
62.52
31.21
32.80
34.37
35.91
37.48
6.561
6.889
7.219
7.548
7.869
1.653
1.638
1.623
1.608
1.593
1950
1900
1850
1800
1750
76.47
74.51
72.55
70.58
68.62
23.53
25.49
27.45
29.42
31.38
4.918
5.317
5.737
6.149
6.558
1.400
1.390
1.379
1.369
1.359
60.96
59.38
57.87
56.25
54.69
39.04
40.62
42.13
43.75
45.31
8.200
8.542
8.868
9.162
9.500
1.579
1.564
1.550
1.535
1.520
1700
1650
1600
1550
1500
66.67
64.70
62.74
60.78
58.82
33.33
35.30
37.26
39.22
41.18
6.964
7.378
7.787
8.197
8.606
1349
1.338
1.328
1.318
1.308
53.17
51.60
50.00
48.50
46.92
46.83
48.40
50.00
51.50
53.08
9.850
10.180
10.488
10.817
11.130
1.505
1.490
1.475
1.461
1.446
1450
1400
1350
1300
1250
56.86
54.90
52.94
50.98
49.02
43.14
45.10
47.06
49.02
50.98
9.016
9.246
9.835
10.245
10.654
1.297
1.287
1.277
1.267
1.256
45.35
43.75
42.22
40.60
39.09
54.65
56.25
57.78
59.40
60.91
11.490
11.810
12.130
12.481
12.795
1.431
1.416
1.401
1.386
1.371
1200
1150
1100
1050
1000
47.06
45.09
43.13
41.17
39.21
52.94
54.91
56.87
58.83
60.79
11.064
11.476
11.886
12.295
12.705
1246
1.236
1.226
1.215
1.205
37.50
35.92
34.38
32.80
31.25
62.50
64.08
65.62
67.21
68.75
13.137
13.462
13.787
14.100
14.412
1.356
1.340
1.326
1.312
1.296
950
900
850
800
750
37.25
35.29
33.33
31.37
29.41
62.75
64.71
66.67
68.63
70.59
13.115
13.524
13.934
14.344
14.753
1.195
1.185
1.174
1.164
1.154
29.75
28.20
26.55
25.00
23.50
70.25
71.80
73.45
75.00
76.50
14.775
15.100
15.425
15.712
16.081
1.282
1.266
1.252
1.237
1.223
700
650
600
550
500
27.45
25.49
23.53
21.56
19.61
72.55
74.51
76.47
78.44
80.39
15.163
15.573
15.982
16.394
16.892
1.114
1.133
1.123
1.113
1.103
21.88
20.38
18.75
17.25
15.63
78.12
79.62
81.25
82.75
84.37
16.400
16.750
17.081
17.412
17.712
1.206
1.194
1.178
1.163
1.148
450
400
350
300
250
17.65
15.69
13.73
11.76
9.80
82.35
84.31
86.27
88.24
90.20
17.211
17.621
18.031
18.442
18.852
1.092
1.082
1.072
1.062
1.051
14.13
12.50
11.00
9.38
7.75
85.87
87.50
89.00
90.62
92.25
18.081
18.375
18.687
19.031
19.313
1.135
1.120
1.105
1.089
1.074
200
150
100
7.84
5.88
3.92
92.16
94.12
96.08
19.261
19.670
20.081
1.041
1.031
1.021
6.25
4.75
3.13
93.75
95.25
96.87
19.687
20.000
20.342
1.059
1.045
1.029
24
CHAPTER 4 OIL
FUEL OIL SPECIFICATIONS PER ANSI/ASTM D 396-79A
Grade of
Fuel Oil
Carbon
Residue
Water on
Flash Pour and 10%
Point, Point, Sedi- Bot- Ash,
C
C ment, toms, weight
(F) (F) vol % %
%
Min Max Max Max Max
No. 1
38
A distillate oil (100)
intended for
vaporizing pottype burners and
other burners
requiring this
grade of fuel
-18C
(0)
0.05
0.15
No. 2
-6C
0.05
0.35
38
Distillation
Temperatures,
C(F)
10%
Point 90% Point
Max Min Max
215
(420)
288
(550)
282C
338
(32.6) (37.9)
At 40C
(104F)
Min Max
1.4
2.2
1.3
2.1
2.0C
3.6
1.9C
3.4
0.50
0.10
No. 5 (Light) 55
Preheating may(130)
be required
depending on
climate and
equipment
1.00
0.10
No. 5 (Heavy) 55
Preheating may(130)
be required
for burning and,
in cold climates,
may be required
for handling
1.00
0.10
2.00E
(540) (640)
No. 4
55
-6C
Preheating not(130) (20)
usually required
for handling
or burning
No. 6
60
Preheating (140)
required for
burning and
handling
Saybolt Viscosity, sD
(45)
(125)
(>125) (300)
(40)
5.8
26.4F
>26.4 65F
5.5
24.0F
>24.0
58F
(42)
(81)
>92 638F
>65
194F
>58
168F
A
It is the intent of these classifications that failure to meet any requirement of a given grade does not automatically place an oil in the next lower
grade unless in fact it meets all requirements of the lower grade.
B
In countries outside the United States other sulfur limits may apply.
C
Lower or higher pour points may be specified whenever required by conditions of storage or use. When pour point less than -18C (0F) is
specified, the minimum viscosity for grade No. 2 shall be 1.7 cSt (31.5 SUS) and the minimum 90% point shall be waived.
D
Viscosity values in parentheses are for information only and not necessarily limiting.
E
The amount of water by distillation plus the sediment by extraction shall not exceed 2.00%. The amount of sediment by extraction shall not
exceed 0.50%. A deduction in quanity shall be made for all water and sediment in excess of 1.0%.
F
Where low sulfur fuel oil is required, fuel oil failing in the viscosity range of a lower numbered grade down to and including No. 4 may be supplied by agreement between purchaser and supplier. The viscosity range of the initial shipment shall be identified and advance notice shall be
required when changing from one viscosity range to another. This notice shall be in sufficient time to permit the user to make the necessary
adjustments.
G
Where low sulfur fuel oil is required. Grade 6 fuel oil will be classified as low pour + 15C (60F) max or high pour (no max). Low pour fuel oil
should be used unless all tanks and lines are heated.
25
Flash Point, F
Pour Point, F
Water, Vol. %
Carbon Residue,
Wt. %
Ash, Wt. %
1
2
4*
5 (Light)*
5 (Heavy)*
6
106 to 174
120 to 250
150 to 276
154 to 250
136 to 300+
140 to 250
-85 to -10
-60 to +35
-40 to +80
-15 to +55
-17 to +90
0 to +110
0.050 max.
0.060 max.
0.3 max.
0.08 to 0.6
0.4 max.
0.300 max.
0.200 max.
0.820 max.
0.19 to 7.6
2.10 to 13.6
1.55 to 9.6
1.02 to 15.80
0.07 max.
0.001 to 0.08
0.001 to 0.16
0.001 to 0.630
Grade of
Fuel Oil
Viscosity,
SSU @ 100F
Specific Gravity
60/60F
Gravity, API
Sulfur, Wt %
Gross Heating
Value, Btu/gallon
1
2
4*
5 (Light)*
5 (Heavy)*
6
37 max.
42 max.
35 to 160
80 to 700
240 to 1300
240 to 6100
0.79 to 0.85
0.80 to 0.92
0.85 to 0.99
0.89 to 1.01
0.91 to 1.02
0.92 to 1.09
47.9 to 34.8
45.3 to 21.9
34.6 to 12.1
28.2 to 8.5
23.4 to 7.5
22.0 to -1.5
0 to 0.47
0.04 to 0.5
0.18 to 1.81
0.58 to 3.48
0.6 to 2.54
0.17 to 3.52
131,100 to 138,700
132,600 to 147,400
140,400 to 151,700
142,700 to 156,400
144,800 to 153,600
146,700 to 162,000
The above data are summarized from Heating Oils, 1984, published by the American Petroleum Institute and U.S.
Dept. of Energy. The ranges in the tables represent the extreme maximums and minimums for the oil samples
included in the survey.
*1975-1976 data. No data available for these grades in 1983-1984.
FUEL OIL VISCOSITY CONVERSIONS
10,000
8
6
4
3
SR
1000
8
6
10
0
F
14
0
F
SS
12
2
4
3
SS
100
8
6
4
3
2
10
8
6
4
3
2
1
3 4
6 8 10
3 4
6 8 100
3 4
6 8 1000 2
26
-155
1.0
-150
-145
0.9
-140
0.8
-135
-160
- 130
0.7
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
API
To determine specific gravity of an oil, find API at the bottom of the graph, read up to the curve, and left to the specific
gravity.
To find gross heating value of an oil, find API at the bottom of the graph, read up to the curve, and right to the heating
value.
10
Pressure Drop, psi per
100 feet of equivalent
pipe length
1/2"
1"
5
1-1/4"
27
3/4"
10
Oil Flow, gpm
15
20
10
3/4"
1/2"
1"
1-1/4"
5
1-1/2"
0
10
Oil Flow, gpm
15
20
Pressure Drop
Correction Factors
for Other Viscosities
1-1/4"
1-1/2"
Viscosity,
SSU
200
300
400
Correction
Factor
0.2
0.3
0.4
500
600
700
0.5
0.6
0.7
2"
800
900
1200
0.8
0.9
1.2
2-1/2"
1500
2000
2500
1.5
2.0
2.5
15
10
10
Oil Flow, gpm
15
20
2-1/2"
Pressure Drop
Correction Factors
for Other Viscosities
15
3"
10
4"
10
Oil Flow, gpm
15
20
28
Viscosity,
SSU
2000
3000
4000
Correction
Factor
0.2
0.3
0.4
5000
6000
7000
0.5
0.6
0.7
8000
9000
12000
0.8
0.9
1.2
15000
1.5
1/4
3/8
1/2
3/4
10.92
5.46
2.73
1.82
1.365
1.09
.546
.364
.273
.182
.136
.091
.068
.055
.027
.018
12.18
6.09
3.04
2.03
1.52
1.218
.609
.405
.304
.203
.152
.101
.076
.061
.030
.020
13.68
6.84
3.42
2.28
1.71
1.368
.684
.455
.342
.228
.171
.114
.086
.068
.034
.023
15.48
7.74
3.87
2.58
1.933
1.548
.774
.515
.387
.258
.193
.129
.097
.077
.039
.026
17.64
8.82
4.41
2.94
2.205
1.764
.882
.588
.441
.294
.220
.147
.110
.088
.044
.029
20.6
10.3
5.15
3.43
2.58
2.06
1.03
.686
.515
.343
.258
.172
.129
.103
.052
.034
1-1/2
22.50
11.25
5.63
3.75
2.82
2.25
1.125
.750
.563
.375
.282
.187
.141
.113
.056
.038
26.30
13.15
6.57
4.38
3.28
2.63
1.315
.876
.657
.438
.328
.219
.164
.132
.066
.044
OIL TEMPERATURE
CORRECTION FACTORS
Oil
Temperature, F
130
140
150
160
170
180
Oil
Factor Temperature, F Factor
0.44
190
0.81
0.5
200
0.88
0.56
210
0.94
0.63
230
1.06
0.69
240
1.13
0.75
250
1.19
29
2-1/2
30.00 34.8
15.00 17.4
7.50
8.70
5.00
5.75
3.75
4.35
3.00
3.48
1.50
1.74
1.00
1.16
.750
.870
.500
.575
.375
.435
.250
.290
.188
.218
.150
.174
.075
.087
.050
.058
Quality In a mixture of steam and water, the weight percentage which is present as steam; in other words, the percent
of complete vaporization which has taken place. The quality of
saturated steam is 100%.
Saturated Steam Steam which is at the same temperature as
the water from which it was evaporated.
Wet Steam Steam which contains liquid water. Its quality is
less than 100%.
40
.121
50
.178
60
.256
70
.363
80
.507
90
.698
100
.949
110
1.28
120
1.69
130
2.22
140
2.89
_
150
3.72
160
4.74
170
5.99
180
7.51
190
9.34
200
11.53
212
14.696
0
220
17.19
2.49
240
24.97
10.27
260
35.43
20.73
280
49.20
34.50
300
67.01
52.31
320
89.64
74.94
340
117.99 103.29
360
153.01 138.31
380
195.73 181.03
400
247.26 232.56
500
680.86 666.16
600
1543.2 1528.5
700
3094.3 3079.6
705.47*
3208.2 3193.5
Vg,
hfg,
hg,
Specific
hf,
Volume of Heat Content Latent Heat, Heat Content
Vapor
of Liquid, of Vaporization,
of Vapor
cu ft/lb
Btu/lb
Btu/lb
Btu/lb
3304.7
-0.018
1075.5
1075.5
2445.8
8.03
1071.0
1079.0
1704.8
18.05
1065.3
1083.4
1207.6
28.06
1059.7
1087.7
868.4
38.05
1054.0
1092.1
633.3
48.04
1048.4
1096.4
468.1
58.02
1042.7
1100.8
350.4
68.00
1037.1
1105.1
265.4
77.98
1031.4
1109.3
203.3
87.97
1025.6
1113.6
157.3
97.96
1019.8
1117.8
123.0
107.95
1014.0
1122.0
97.07
117.95
1008.2
1126.1
77.29
127.96
1002.2
1130.2
62.06
137.97
996.2
1134.2
50.22
148.00
990.2
1138.2
40.96
158.04
984.1
1142.1
33.64
168.09
977.9
1146.0
26.80
180.17
970.3
1150.5
23.15
188.23
965.2
1153.4
16.32
208.45
952.1
1160.6
11.76
228.76
938.6
1167.4
8.64
294.17
924.6
1173.8
6.47
269.7
910.0
1179.7
4.91
290.4
894.8
1185.2
3.79
311.3
878.8
1190.1
2.96
332.3
862.1
1194.4
2.34
353.6
844.5
1198.0
1.86
375.1
825.9
1201.0
0.67
487.9
714.3
1202.2
0.27
617.1
550.6
1167.7
0.075
822.4
172.7
995.2
0.051
906.0
0
906.0
*Critical Temperature
30
45
40
35
70
75
80
85
90
% Boiler Efficiency
10
8
3/4"
1"
1-1/4"1-1/2"
2" 2-1/2"
3"
4"
6
4
6"
50
1
.8
8"
.6
.4
.3
.2
.1
.08
.06
.04
.03
.02
.01
3 4
6 8 10
20 30 40
60 80 100
200 300
500
1000
Pressure drops are for 60F water flowing in horizontal Schedule 40 steel pipe.
31
W = 87
Pd D5
(1 + 3.6 ) L
D
32
Motor Formulas
Amperes = Volts/Ohms
Ohms = Volts/Amperes
Volts = Amperes x Ohms
Watts
Amperes
Kilowatts
kVA
Horsepower
*Expressed as a decimal
ELECTRICAL WIRE
DIMENSIONS & RATINGS
All data for solid copper wire
A.W.G.
Resistance,
Maximum Allowable
Wire Diameter, Ohms per 1000 Ft Current Capacity per
Gauge
Inches
@ 77F
NFPA 70-1984*, Amps
0
.3249
.100
125-170
1
.2893
.126
110-150
2
.2576
.159
95-130
3
.2294
.201
85-110
4
.2043
.253
70-95
6
.1620
.403
55-75
8
.1285
.641
40-55
10
.1019
1.02
30-40
12
.0808
1.62
20-30
14
.0641
2.58
15-25
16
.0508
4.09
18
18
.0403
6.51
14
*Maximum current capacity permitted by National Electrical Code,
NFPA 70-1984, varies with type of insulation, ambient temperature, voltage carried, and other factors. Consult NFPA 70-1984 for
specific information.
33
460/3/60
Horsepower 115/1/60 230/1/60 230/3/60 380/3/60 575/3/60
Up to 1/3
1/2 to 1
1-1/2
2
3
5
7-1/2
10
15
20-25
30
40-50
60-75
100
125-150
200
00
0
1
1
2
3
3
00
00
1
1
2
2
2
3
00
00
00
0
0
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
5
5
6
6
00
00
00
0
0
0
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
5
5
6
00
00
00
00
0
0
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
NEMA ENCLOSURES
NEMA 1. General Purpose Indoor
Sheet metal enclosures intended for indoor use. Primary purpose is to prevent accidental personnel contact with enclosed
equipment, although they will also provide some protection
against falling dirt.
NEMA 2. Drip Proof Indoor
Indoor enclosure that protects contents against falling noncorrosive liquids and dirt. Must be equipped with a drain.
NEMA 3. Dust Tight, Raintight & Sleet-Resistant (IceResistant),
NEMA 3R. Rainproof & Sleet-Resistant (Ice-Resistant).
NEMA 3S. Dust Tight, Raintight & Sleet-Proof (Ice-Proof)
Outdoor enclosures for protection against windblown dust, rain
and sleet. All have provision for locking.
NEMA 4. Water Tight & Dust Tight Indoor & Outdoor
Protect contents against splashing, seeping, falling, or hosedirected water and severe external condensation. Commonly used
in food-processing plants where equipment hosedown is required.
NEMA 6. Submersible, Watertight, Dust Tight and Sleet (Ice)ResistantIndoor & Outdoor
Capable of being submerged up to 30 minutes in up to 6 feet of
water without harm to the contents.
NEMA 7. Hazardous Locations Indoor Air Break
Equipment
Enclosures for use in atmospheres containing explosive gases
and vapors as defined in Class 1, Division I, Groups A, B, C or D
of the National Electrical Code. Enclosure must contain an internal explosion without causing an external hazard. Construction
details vary with the nature of the explosive gas or vapor.
NEMA 8. Hazardous Locations Indoor Oil-Immersed
Equipment
Enclosures for oil-immersed circuit breakers in Class I,
Division I, Group A, B, C or D hazardous atmospheres.
NEMA 9. Hazardous Locations Indoor Air-Break
Equipment
Used in Class II, Division I, Group E, F, or G hazardous locations as defined by the National Electrical Code. Enclosures are
designed to exclude combustible or explosive dusts.
NEMA 10. Mine Atmospheres
For use in mines containing methane or natural gas.
NEMA 11. Corrosion-Resistant and Drip Proof Indoor
Indoor enclosures that protect contents from dripping, seepage
and external condensation of corrosive liquids, as well as corrosive
fumes.
NEMA 12. Industrial Use Dust Tight & Drip Tight Indoor
Protect enclosed equipment from lint, fibers, flyings, dust, dirt
and light splashing, seepage, dripping and external condensation
of noncorrosive liquids.
NEMA 13. Oil Tight & Dust Tight Indoor
Protect enclosed equipment from lint, dust and seepage, external condensation and spraying of water, oil, or coolant. They have
oil-resistant gaskets and must have provision for oiltight conduit
entry.
For more complete details on application and construction specifications for NEMA Enclosures, refer to NEMA Standards
Publication No. ICS 6.
34
ELECTRIC MOTORS
FULL LOAD CURRENT, AMPERES
Horse
Power
Single
Phase
AC Motors
115V 230V
Three-Phase AC Motors
Induction Type
Squirrel Cage &
Wound-Rotor
115V 230V 460V 575V
1/6
1/4
1/3
4.4
5.8
7.2
2.2
2.9
3.6
1/2
3/4
1
9.8
13.8
16
4.9
6.9
8
4
5.6
7.2
2
2.8
3.6
1
1.4
1.8
.8
1.1
1.4
2.6
3.4
4.8
2.1
2.7
3.9
1-1/2
2
3
20
24
34
10
12
17
10.4
13.6
5.2
6.8
9.6
5
7-1/2
10
56
80
100
28
40
50
15.2
22
28
7.6 6.1
11
9
14
11
15
20
25
42
54
68
21
27
34
17
22
27
30
40
50
80
104
130
40
52
65
32
41
52
60
75
100
154
192
248
77
96
124
62
77
99
125
150
200
312
360
480
156
180
240
125
144
192
Wall
Loss
Radiation
Loss
Gross
Input
(Purchased
Fuel)
Available
Heat
Net Output
(Heat To Load)
Stored
Heat
Conveyor
Loss
The terms used in heat balance calculations, and their definitions, are:
Gross heat input the total amount of heat used by the furnace. It equals the amount of fuel burned multiplied by its
heating value.
Available heat heat that is available to the furnace and its
workload. It equals gross input minus flue gas losses.
Flue gas losses heat contained in flue gases as they are
exhausted from the furnace.
Stored heat heat absorbed by the insulation and structural
components of the furnace or oven to raise them to operating
temperature. This stored heat becomes a loss each time the furnace is cooled down, because it has to be replaced on the next
startup. Heat storage can usually be ignored on continuous furnaces, because cooldowns and restarts don't occur often.
Wall losses heat conducted out through the walls, roof and
floor of the furnace due to the temperature difference between
35
Maximum Load
Conditions
(Full Production Rate)
__________Btu/hr
+ __________Btu/hr
+ __________Btu/hr
+ __________Btu/hr
= __________Btu/hr
Minimum Load
Conditions
(Empty and Idling)
____0____Btu/hr
+ _________Btu/hr
+ _________Btu/hr
+ ____0____Btu/hr
= _________Btu/hr
__________
_________
= __________Btu/hr
= _________Btu/hr
Supporting Calculations:
Heat to Load
Heat to load = lb per hour x specific heat x temperature rise.
Specific heats for many materials are listed on pages 37-39.
For most common metals and alloys, use the graphs on page 40.
Simply multiply lb/hr production rate by the heat content
picked from the graph.
Enter the heat to load under Maximum Load Conditions.
Heat to load is usually zero under Minimum Load Conditions
because no material is being processed through the oven or
furnace.
Gross Input:
Gross Input = Available heat (Btu/hr) Available heat
(decimal).
Figure this for both maximum and minimum load conditions.
Gross input, maximum conditions, is the maximum heating
input required of the combustion system you select.
Furnace Turndown:
Divide maximum load gross input by minimum load gross
input. The result is the furnace or oven turndown. Your
combustion system must provide at least this much turndown or the furnace will overshoot setpoint on idle.
Wall Losses:
Wall loss = Wall Area (inside) x heat loss, Btu/sq ft/hr.
Typical heat loss data are tabulated on page 44 .
If the roof and floor of the furnace are insulated with different
materials than the walls, calculate their losses separately.
Add all the losses together and enter them in both the
Maximum Load and Minimum Load columns above.
Caution: If the furnace is to be idled at a temperature lower
than its normal operating temperature, wall losses will be correspondingly lower. Calculate them on the basis of the actual
idling temperature.
Radiation Losses:
Radiation Losses = Opening Area x Black Body Radiation
Rate x Shape Factor. See page 49 for radiation rates. Assume
a Shape Factor of 1.
Conveyor Losses:
Treat the conveyor as you would a furnace load.
Conveyor Loss = Lb/hr of conveyor heated x specific heat x
(Temperature leaving furnace temperature entering furnace)
At minimum load, conveyor losses are usually zero because
no material is being processed through the furnace.
Available Heat:
Available heat = Heat to load + wall losses + radiation losses
+ conveyor losses.
Calculate available heat for both maximum and minimum
load conditions.
36
Density
Lb/Cu Ft
@60F
Solid
Specific
Heat
Btu/Lb-F
Acetone
Acetic Acid
Air
Alcohol-Ethyl
-Methyl
Alumina
Aluminum
Ammonia 32
Andalusite
Aniline
Antimony
Asbestos
Asphalt-Trinidad
-Gilsonite
Arsenic
Babbit 75 Pb 15 Sb 10 Sn
84 Sn 8 Sb 8 Cu
Bakelite
Beef Tallow
Beeswax
Benzene-Benzol
Beryllium
Bismuth
Borax 105.5
Brass 67 Cu 33 Zn
85 Cu 15 Zn
90 Cu 10 Zn
Brick-Fireclay
-Red
-Silica
Bronze 90 Cu 10 Al
90 Cu 10 Sn
80 Cu 10 Zn 10 Sn
Cadmium
Calcium
Calcium Carbonate
Calcium Chloride
Camphor
Carbon, Amorphous
Carbon, Disulfide
Carbon, Graphite
Castor Oil
Celotex
Celluloid
Cellulose
Cement
Charcoal
Chlorine
Chloroform
Chromite
Chromium
Clay, Dry
Coal (Anthracite)
Coal (Bituminous)
Coal Tar
Coal Tar Oil
Cobalt
Coke
Concrete
Copper
Cork
Corundum
Cotton
Cottonseed Oil
Cream
Cuprice Oxide
65.8
.0765
49.26
49.6
243.5
166.7
45.6
199.8
2.25
422
124-174
97
67.5
357.6
57-61
60
55
113.8
615
0.238
528
137-150
118
144-162
534
540
96.6
175
157
62.4
129
79.2
138.3
59.6
95
18-38
0.190
95.5
281
437
112-162
76.7
555
558
250
58
374-406
0.540
0.232
0.197
0.248
0.502
0.168
0.741
0.054
0.195
0.55
0.55
0.082
0.039
0.071
0.30
0.50
0.82
0.299
0.50
0.033
1366
0.105
0.104
0.104
0.240
0.230
0.260
0.126
0.107
0.095
0.038
0.170
0.210
0.16
0.440
0.241
0.184
0.40
0.36
0.320
0.20
0.165
0.19
0.22
0.12
0.224
0.31
0.30
0.413
0.145
0.2-0.38
0.27
0.104
0.48
0.304
0.32
0.227
Melting
Point,
F
-138
62.6
-173.2
-142.6
3722
1214
-83.0
3290
17.6
1166
190
300
Sublimes
462
464
80-100
144
41.8
2345
518
1688
1877
1952
1922
1850
1832
610
1564
Dec. 1517
1422
353
6300
-166
6300
-151
-85
3956
2822
3160
196
2723
1982
3722
32
1944
T = Transformation Point
Latent
Heat of
Fusion,
Btu/Lb
Liquid
Specific
Heat,
Btu/Lb-F
Boiling
Point,
F
33.5
44
44.8
29.5
169.1
195
37.8
70.0
26.2
34.1
76.2
55.6
621.9
18.5
71.0
84.4
86.6
98.6
84.2
79.9
19.5
97.7
19.4
41.3
57.1
90.8
0.530
0.462
0.237
0.648
0.601
0.252
1.099
0.514
0.054
0.55
0.55
0.038
0.063
0.423
0.425
0.035
0.123
0.116
0.115
0.125
0.106
0.109
0.074
0.61
0.24
0.149
0.34
0.111
0.474
0.78
128-134
244.4
-311.0
172.4
150.8
3272
-37.3
363
2624
176.3
5036
2606
1412
2709
>2912
408
8721
115
8721
-30.3
142.1
4500
325
390-910
5252
4703
6332
Subl. = Sublimes
37
Dec = Decomposes
Latent
Heat of
Vaporization,
Btu/Lb
225.5
152.8
91.7
369.0
480.6
543.2
198
169.4
409
150.8
121
105.3
136
Density
Lb/Cu Ft
@60F
Solid
Specific
Heat
Btu/Lb-F
Melting
Point,
F
Latent
Heat of
Fusion,
Btu/Lb
Liquid
Specific
Heat,
Btu/Lb-F
Cyanite
225
0.227
3290
Diasporite
215
0.260
3722
0.070
450
30.3
0.062
80 Pb 10 Sn 10 Sb
0.038
600
17.4
0.037
92 Al 8 Cu
0.236
1150
163.1
0.241
Diphenyl
103
0.385
159
47
0.481
Dolomite
181
0.222
Dowtherm
58.8
0.53
180
Earth
0.44
Ebonite
0.35
Ether
45.9
-180.4
0.529
Fats
0.46
Fosterite
200
0.22
3470
Fuel Oil
0.45
Gasoline
42
0.514
German Silver
0.109
1850
86.2
0.123
Glass, Crown
0.16
Glass, Flint
0.13
Glass, Pyrex
0.20
Glass Wool
1.5
0.16
Glycerine
78.7
0.047
68
85.5
0.576
Gold
1205
0.032
1945
28.5
0.034
Granite
Graphite
0.30-0.38
Subl. 6606
Gypsum
145
0.259
2480
Hydrochloric Acid
75
-12
Hydrogen
.0053
-434
27
Hydrogen Sulfide
-117
Iron
491
0.1162
2795
117
Kerosene
0.470
Lead
711
0.032
621
9.9
0.032
Lead Oxide
575-593
0.049
1749
Leather
0.36
Lucite
0.35
Light Oil
0.5
Linseed Oil
58
-5
0.441
Lipowitz Metal
0.041
140
17.2
0.041
Magnesite
187
0.200
Dec. 662
Magnesium
108.6
0.272
1204
83.7
0.266
Magnesium Oxide
223
0.23-0.30 5072
Manganese
500
0.171
2246
65.9
0.192
T = 1958
T = 43.5
Marble
0.21
Mercury
885
0.033
-38
5.1
0.033
Mica
0.21
Milk
63.4
0.847
Molasses
87.4
0.60
Molybdenum
636
0.065
4748
Monel
550
0.129
2415
117.4
0.139
Mallite
188.8
3290
0.175
Naptha
41.2
0.493
Napthalene
71.8
0.325
176
64.1
0.427
Neats Foot Oil
32
0.457
Nickel
556
0.134
2646
131.4
0.124
Nichrome
517
0.111
Nitric Acid
96.1
-43.6
0.445
Nitrogen
.0741
-346
11.1
Nylon
0.55
Boiling
Point,
F
492
500
94.3
176
554
5371
-423
-79
5430
3171
600
675
8672
306
424.4
186.8
-320
Latent
Heat of
Vaporization,
Btu/Lb
136.5
123
159.1
128-146
29
194
108
145-150
117
184
135.7
207.2
85.6
_
Density
Lb/Cu Ft
@60F
Olive Oil
Oxygen
Paraffin
Petroleum
Phosphorus
Pitch, Coal Tar
Plaster of Paris
Platinum
Porcelain
Potassium Nitrate
Quartz
Resin-Phenolic
-Copals
Rhodium
Rockwool
Roses Metal
Rosin
Rubber
Salt-Rock
Sand
Sandstone
Sawdust
Shellac
Silica
Silicon
Silicon Carbide
Sillimanite
Silk
Silver
Snow
Sodium Carbonate
Sodium Nitrate
Sodium Oxide
Sodium Sulfate
Solder - 50 Pb 50 Sn
- 63 Pb 37 Sn
Steel - 0.3% C
57.4
.0847
54-57
48-55
114
62-81
0.265
1335
150
129.2
165.5
80-100
68.6
773
6
68
62-125
135
162
75
180
155
199
202
84
656
151.5
140.5
142
168
580
491
Stone
Sugar - Cane
Sulfur
Sulfuric Acid
Talc
Tar-Coal
Tin
Titanium
Toluene
Tungsten
Turpentine
Type Metal-Linotype
Type Metal-Stereotype
Uranium
Vanadium
Varnish
Water
Wood
Woods Metal
Wool
Xylene
Zinc
Zinc Oxide
Zircon
Zirconia
Zirconium
Solid
Specific
Heat
Btu/Lb-F
Melting
Point,
F
Latent
Heat of
Fusion,
Btu/Lb
Liquid
Specific
Heat,
Btu/Lb-F
Boiling
Point,
F
Latent
Heat of
Vaporization,
Btu/Lb
40
0.471
572
0.336
-361
5.98
0.394
-297
91.6
0.622
126
63
0.712
750
0.511
0.189
111
9.05
536
234
0.45
86-300
1.14
0.036
3224
49
0.032
7933
0.26
0.19
646
88
Dec. 752
0.23
0.3-0.4
0.39
300-680
0.058
3571
0.198
0.043
230
18.3
0.041
0.5
170-212
0.48
248
0.22
1495
2575
0.20
0.22
0.5
0.40
170-180
3182
0.1910
4046
0.176
2600
4149
0.23
4082
Subl. 3032
0.175
3290
0.33
0.063
1761
46.8
0.070
3634
0.5
32
0.306
1566
Dec.
0.231
597
116.8
1716
0.231
Subl. 2327
0.21
0.051
450
23
0.046
0.044
468
14.8
0.041
0.129 (70-1330)*
*Phase change between 1330 & 1500 requires
0.166 (1500-2500)
additional 80 Btu/lb.
168
0.20
102
0.30
320
_
119-130
0.19
235
16.9
0.234
840
652
115.9
0.239
50.0
0.370
0.21
71-81
0.35
460
0.069
450
25.9
0.0545
4118
281
0.14
3272
53.7
0.40
230.5
150.3
1204
0.034
6098
10652
53.7
0.411
318.8
133.3
0.036
486
21.5
0.036
670
0.036
500
26.2
0.036
370
0.028
2071
372
0.115
3110
5432
600
62.37
0.480
32
144
1.00
212
970.4
19-56
0.33
0.041
158
17.2
0.042
81
0.325
54.3
-18
0.411
288
147
443
0.107
786
47.9
0.146
1706
341
0.125
>3272
293
0.132
4622
349
0.103
4919
399
0.067
3100
9122
150
100
Babbit
75 Pb/15Sb/10Sn
Pure Zinc
50
Solder
50 Pb/50Sn
Lead
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
Temperature, F
600
Pure Aluminum
500
400
0.3% Carbon
Steel
Pure
Copper
Titanium Alloy
Ti-6AI-4V
300
100
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
Temperature, F
40
1800
2000
2200
2400
2600
2800
Asphalt
Babbit
Brass
Bread
Bronze
Brick, common
fireclay
Cake
Candy
Cast Iron (Gray)
Cement
China
Coffee
Cookies
Copper
Operation
Age
Anneal
Homogenize
Hot Work (Extrude,
Roll, Forge)
Melt
Solution Heat Treat
Stabilize
Stress Relieve
Melt
Melt
Anneal
Hot Work (Extrude,
Roll, Forge)
Melt
Recrystallize
Stress Relieve
Bake
Anneal
Hot Work (Extrude,
Roll, Forge)
Melt
Stress Relieve
Burn
Burn
Bake
Cook
Anneal
Austenitize (Harden)
Melt
Normalize
Stress Relieve
Temper (Draw)
Anneal
Austenitize (Harden)
Normalize
Stress Relieve
Temper (Draw)
Anneal (Malleablize)
Austenitize (Harden)
Temper (Draw)
Calcine
Fire
Glaze
Roast
Bake
Anneal
Hot Work (Extrude,
Roll, Forge)
Melt
Approximate
Temperature, F
Heat Content of
Material, Btu/lb*
190-470
645-775
850-1150
30-100
130-190
175-300
500-950
1175-1500
820-1025
435-655
650-775
350-450
600-1000
800-1450
100-240
370-550
170-280
80-160
130-190
160-220
60-75
70-150
1150-1650
1930-2370
550-700
475
300-500
800-1650
100-150
230-290
40-70
30-40
70-170
1200-1750
1600-2350
375-550
1900-2000
2100-2200
300-350
225-300
1300-1750
1450-1700
2800-2900
1600-1700
700-1250
300-1020
1300-1650
1550-1700
1600-1725
950-1250
800-1300
1650-1750
1550-1600
1100-1300
2800-3000
1900-2650
1500-1900
600-800
375-450
500-1200
100-160
220-320
30-50
800-950
900-1050
290-420
330-410
720-750
380-410
110-280
35-175
290-390
360-410
380-415
160-275
120-290
290-420
360-380
190-290
450-600
350-450
50-120
1300-1750
1970-2100
130-180
290-310
Enamel
(Paint)
Bake
250-450
(Porcelain)
Fire
1700-1800
*Heat contained in material only. Does not include furnace or oven losses or available
heat correction.
41
Material
Approximate
Temperature, F
Operation
Frit
Glass
Heat Content of
Material, Btu/lb*
Smelt
2000-2400
400-550
Melt
2200-2900
400-650
Anneal
1000-1200
Gold
Melt
2000-2370
125-145
Lacquer
Dry
150-200
Lead
Melt
620-700
18-32
Lime
Calcine
2000-2200
Magnesium
Age
265-625
70-140
Homogenize
200-800
30-190
Hot Work (Extrude,
Roll, Forge)
550-850
110-200
Melt
1150-1550
375-490
Solution Heat Treat
665-1050
150-350
Stress Relieve
300-800
50-200
Meat
Smoke
100-150
Pie
Bake
500
Potato Chips
Fry
350-400
Sand
Dry
350-500
60-90
Sand Cores
Bake
400-450
70-80
Silver
Melt
1800-1900
155-165
Solder
Melt
400-500
40-45
Steel
Anneal
1150-1650
150-270
(Carbon & Alloy)
Austenitize
1320-1650
180-270
Carbonitride
1300-1650
180-270
Carburize
1600-1800
260-300
Cyanide
1400-1600
210-260
Hot Work (Forge,
Roll)
2200-2400
360-400
Nitride
925-1050
110-140
Normalize
1500-1700
240-280
Stress Relieve
450-1350
50-210
Steel (Stainless)
Anneal
1150-2050
150-340
Austenitize (Harden)
1700-1950
280-320
Hot Work (Forge,
Roll)
1600-2350
260-390
Stress Relieve
400-2050
30-340
Temper (Draw)
300-1200
25-160
Tin
Melt
500-650
70-80
Titanium
Age
900-1000
120-140
Anneal
1100-1600
150-250
Hot Work (Roll,
Forge)
1300-1900
180-310
Solution Heat Treat
1550-1750
240-280
Stress Relieve
1000-1200
140-170
Varnish
Cook
500-750
Zinc
Galvanize
850-900
130-140
Melt
800-900
130-150
Hot Work (Extrusion,
Rolling)
200-575
10-55
*Heat contained in material only. Does not include furnace or oven losses or available
heat correction.
42
B
A
Dimensions, inches
Approximate Capacity, lb
A,
B,
C,
Size
Top
Bilge Bottom
D,
Red
Number
OD
OD
OD
Height Aluminum Brass
20
71116
838
618
101516
20
65
25
8316
878
612
101516
25
81
30
858
9516
61316
1112
30
97
35
9
934
718
12
35
113
40
938
1018
7716
1212
40
129
45
978
101116
71316
13316
45
146
50
1014
1118
818
1334
50
162
60
101316
111116
8916
14716
60
194
70
1114
12316
81516
15116
70
226
80
111116
121116
914
1558
80
259
90
1218
1318
9916
16316
90
291
100
1212
1312
978
161116
100
323
125
13
14116
10516
1738
125
404
3
7
7
150
13 4
14 8
10 8
1838
150
485
175
1438
15916
1138
1914
175
566
200
15
1614
1178
20
200
657
225
1512
161316
12516
2034
225
728
250
16
17516
121116
2138
250
808
275
16716
171316
13
22
275
889
300
1678
1814
1338
2212
300
970
400
18316
191116
14716
24516
400
1293
Copper Magnesium
67
13
84
16
100
20
117
23
134
26
151
29
167
33
201
39
234
46
268
52
301
59
335
65
418
81
502
98
586
114
669
130
753
147
837
163
921
179
1004
195
1339
261
4
414
412
434
151
160
170
179
8
8
8
8
158
168
178
188
12
12
12
12
237
252
267
281
5
514
512
534
188
198
207
217
10
10
10
10
247
259
271
284
15
15
15
15
370
389
407
426
6
614
612
634
226
236
245
254
12
12
12
12
355
370
385
400
18
18
18
18
533
555
577
600
8
814
812
302
311
320
16
16
16
632
651
671
24
24
24
947
977
1007
Straight Tube
Tube
Sq. In.
180 Short Radius Elbow 180 Long Radius Elbow
OD,
Per Foot
Inches of Length
C
sq. in.
C
sq. in.
L to C
L, in.
L to C
L, in.
3
113
6
89
9
133
123
6
96
9
144
314
132
6
104
9
155
312
141
6
111
9
167
334
43
70
Tube free to radiate on 3 sides
60
50
40
30
Tube enclosed
on 3 sides
1500
1600
1700
1800
Furnace Temperature, F
1900
HL
HS
TC
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200
HL
550
705
862
1030 1200 1375 1570
HS 12,500 15,400 18,400 21,500 24,700 27,950 31,200
TC
282
320
355
387
418
447
477
9" Hard Firebrick +
HL
130
168
228
251
296
341
390
412" 2300 Insulating F.B.
HS 22,380 27,700 33,060 38,450 43,930 49,350 55,800
TC
147
162
188
195
211
227
242
9" Hard Firebrick +
HL
111
128
155
185
209
244
282
412" 2000 Insulating F.B. +
HS 23,750 29,650 35,640 41,940 48,420 54,890 61,410
2" Block Insulation
TC
138
144
156
169
179
193
205
HL
185
237
300
365
440
521
TC
170
190
211
230
253
274
HL
95
124
159
189
225
266
TC
132
146
160
172
187
200
HL
142
178
218
264
312
362
416
9" 2800 Insulating F.B.
HS
3170 3970 4790 5630 6480 7360 8230
TC
151
166
183
200
217
234
250
9" 2800 Insulating F.B. +
HL
115
140
167
197
232
272
307
412" 2000 Insulating F.B. +
HS 14,860 17,340 19,910 22,508 24,908 28,360 31,531
TC
142
149
161
164
183
202
215
9" 2800 Insulating F.B. +
HL
71
91
112
134
154
184
204
412" 2000 Insulating F.B. +
HS 10,670 14,836 19,220 23,771 27,491 31,654 35,078
2" Block Insulation
TC
119
127
136
147
156
168
177
9" 2800 Insulating F.B. +
HL
114
142
172
201
232
264
298
3" Block Insulation
HS
7730 9765 11,760 13,810 15,880 17,973 20,084
TC
139
150
163
175
188
200
212
HL
575
730
897
1075 1300 1525 1775
412" Dense Castable
HS
5270 9520 11,310 13,060 14,820 16,120 18,300
TC
282
319
356
393
430
467
504
HL
315
410
500
627
694
844
947
9" Dense Castable
HS 13,120 16,240 19,960 23,673 26,355 29,212 32,019
TC
218
248
280
305
321
352
377
HL
390
490
610
730
860
1000 1155
9" Plastic
HS 17,825 21,735 25,640 29,610 33,345 37,125 41,040
TC
232
261
290
319
348
378
407
8" Ceramic Fiber
HL
27
45
64
86
114
146
178
Stacked Strips, 8 #/cu ft
HS
850
1018 1190 1358 1528 1692 1823
Density
TC
95
105
115
126
138
152
165
10" Ceramic Fiber
HL
16
35
54
76
94
120
142
Stacked Strips, 8 #/cu ft
HS
1054 1262 1473 1683 1895 2098 2262
Density
TC
92
101
110
119
129
140
151
12" Ceramic Fiber
HL
13
27
43
60
79
98
118
Stacked Strips, 8 #/cu ft
HS
1265 1517 1775 2033 2276 2518 2714
Density
TC
91
97
104
112
121
130
140
9" Hard Firebrick + 3"
HL
177
240
309
383
463
642
721
Ceramic Fiber Veneer,
HS
1920 3680 5430 7178 9219 11,200 12,503
8 #/cu ft Density
TC
170
191
214
235
259
305
320
9" 2800 Insulating F.B. +
HL
102
125
151
183
227
274
325
3" Ceramic Fiber Veneer,
HS
1150 2012 2910 3795 4576 5402 6272
8 #/cu ft Density
TC
134
143
153
167
183
200
217
9" Dense Castable +
HL
170
221
273
329
381
487
559
3" Ceramic Fiber Veneer,
HS
1910 3603 5340 7083 8899 10,576 12,136
8 #/cu ft Density
TC
164
183
202
222
240
270
289
HL = Heat Loss, Btu/hr sq ft HS = Heat Storage, Btu/sq ft TC = Cold Face Temperature, F
Note:These values are typical for the materials listed and are sufficiently accurate for estimating
purposes. Values for specific brands of refractories may differ.
9" Hard Firebrick
44
2400
1768
34,500
505
447
61,920
260
325
68,120
218
474
9160
267
347
34,664
228
230
38,252
187
333
22,209
224
2030
20,030
541
1134
35,861
406
1332
44,415
436
216
2039
180
172
2528
163
143
3034
151
800
14,891
341
408
7450
242
635
14,149
307
2000
T
2=
T1
15
T2
00
tre
am
14
Ou
00
tle
F
tT
13
em
00
pe
F
12
rat
00
ure
F
11
00
F
10
00
90 F
0
80 F
0
F
70
0
60 F
0
F
1500
1000
500
F
S
200
400
600
1000
800
T1
T2
3000
T
2 =
15
00
2500
St
re
a
14
2000
00
12
1500
1000
500
0
0
Ou
13
00
00
F
11
00
F
10
00
F
90
0F
80
0
70 F
0F
60
0F
200
400
600
tle
tT
em
pe
ra
t
ur
e
800
1000
{
{
{
46
360
110
470
110
23
12
42
84
130
140
150
160
480
660
860
1100
135
160
180
210
615
820
1040
1310
135
160
180
210
27
31
34
38
14
16
18
21
10
12
13
15
49
56
63
70
98
112
126
140
170
180
190
200
1380
1740
2160
2680
235
260
290
320
1615
2000
2450
3000
235
260
290
320
42
46
50
53
23
25
27
29
16
17
19
20
77
84
91
98
154
168
182
196
210
220
250
275
3240
4000
360
420
510
600
3590
4420
360
380
510
600
57
62
70
81
31
33
40
45
22
23
25
29
105
112
133
151
210
224
266
301
300
325
350
400
705
850
990
1335
705
850
990
1335
92
103
114
138
51
57
63
75
33
36
40
49
168
186
203
238
336
371
406
476
47
f
.7
.8
.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.2
Opening
High
Ft.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
.3
.4
.5
.6
.7
.8
.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
Wide
Ft.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
f
.8
.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.2
Liquid
High
Ft.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
.5
.6
.7
.8
.9
1.0
1.1
1.3
1.5
1.7
1.9
2.1
2.3
2.5
Press.
PSIG
5
7.5
10
12.5
15
17.5
20
22.5
30
32.5
35
37.5
40
50
100
.4
.5
.6
.7
.8
.9
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.6
3.5
Temp.
F
140
145
150
155
160
165
170
175
180
185
190
f
.4
.5
.6
.7
.8
.9
1.0
1.3
1.6
1.9
2.2
1/4"
5
10
15
11.5
23.0
35.0
3.3
4.7
5.8
5.2
7.3
9.1
7.4
10.4
12.9
10.2
14.3
17.7
13.3
18.7
23.2
20.8
29.3
36.2
30.0
42.3
52.3
20
25
30
46.5
57.5
68.5
6.7
7.4
8.1
10.5
11.7
12.9
14.8
16.6
18.2
20.7
22.7
24.8
26.7
29.7
32.4
41.8
46.8
50.7
60.5
67.0
73.0
35
40
45
81.0
92.5
104.0
8.8
9.4
10.0
13.8
14.8
15.7
19.7
21.3
22.4
27.0
28.8
30.6
35.2
37.7
39.9
55.1
58.9
65.1
79.5
85.0
90.0
50
55
60
115.0
126.5
138.0
10.5
11.0
11.0
16.5
17.3
18.1
23.5
24.7
25.8
32.1
33.7
35.2
42.0
44.1
46.1
65.7 94.6
68.9 99.5
72.1 104.0
65
70
75
150.0
162.0
172.0
12.0
12.4
12.9
18.8
19.6
20.2
26.9
27.9
28.9
36.7
38.1
39.4
48.0
49.7
51.5
75.0 108.2
77.9 112.0
80.6 116.0
80
85
90
184.5
195.0
205.0
13.3
13.7
14.0
20.9
21.5
22.0
29.9
30.7
31.4
40.7
41.8
42.9
53.3
54.7
56.2
83.1 119.9
85.5 123.5
87.7 126.7
95
100
214.5
224.0
14.4
14.6
22.6
23.1
32.1
32.8
43.9
44.8
57.5
58.7
89.8 129.5
91.7 132.0
48
250
r) T
em
pe
ra
t ure
200
eiv
er
(C
old
e
150
100
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
0F
0F
00
15
320
0F
60
300
F
000
280
50
18
0
20 0F
00
F
22
00
F
24
00
F
260
0F
Re
c
300
3000
3500
THERMOCOUPLE DATA
ANSI Calibration Code
1600-3100
32-1600
400-1400
700-2300
Positive Element
Negative Element
Pt-30%Rh*
Pt-6%Rh*
Chromel**
Constantan
Iron
Constantan
Chromel**
Alumel**
Pt-13%Rh* Pt-10%Rh*
Copper
Pt*
Pt*
Constantan
Color Coding
Positive Element
Negative Element
Outer Insulation on
Duplex Wire
Plugs & Jacks
Gray
Red
Gray
Gray
Purple
White
Yellow
Red
Red
Red
Purple or
Black or
Yellow or
Brown/Purple Brown/Black Brown/Yellow
Purple
Black
Yellow
Black
Red
Black
Red
Green
Green
Green
Green
Blue
Red
Blue or
Brown/Blue
Blue
Large Regular
108F/hr 270F/hr
SelfSupporting Regular
108F/hr 270F/hr
Cone Type
Heating Rate
Cone number
022
021
020
019
018
1074
1105
1148
1240
1306
1092
1132
1173
1265
1337
1087
1112
1159
1243
1314
1094
1143
1180
1267
1341
1157
1195
1227
1314
1391
022
021
020
019
018
017
016
015
014
013
1348
1407
1449
1485
1539
1386
1443
1485
1528
1578
1353
1411
1452
1488
1542
1391
1445
1488
1531
1582
1445
1517*
1549*
1616
1638
017
016
015
014
013
012
011
010
09
08
1571
1603
1629*
1679*
1733*
1587
1623
1641*
1693*
1751*
1623
1683
1733
1656
1720
1773
1575
1607
1632
1683
1737
1591
1627
1645
1697
1755
1627
1686
1735
1659
1724
1774
1652
1684
1686*
1751*
1801*
012
011
010
09
08
07
06
05 1/2
05
04
1783*
1816*
1852
1888*
1922*
1803*
1830*
1873
1915*
1940*
1778
1816
1852
1890
1940
1816
1843
1886
1929
1967
1787
1819
1855
1891
1926
1807
1834
1877
1918
1944
1780
1816
1854
1899
1942
1818
1845
1888
1931
1969
1846*
1873*
1908
1944*
2008*
07
06
05 1/2
05
04
03
02
01
1
2
1987*
2014*
2043*
2077*
2088*
2014*
2048*
2079*
2109*
2124*
1989
2007
2016
2050
2052
2088
2079
2111
Not Manufactured
1990
2017
2046
2080
2091
2017
2052
2082
2113
2127
1990
2010
2021
2052
2053
2089
2082
2115
Not Manufactured
2068*
2098*
2152*
2154*
2154*
03
02
01
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
2106*
2134*
2151*
2194*
2219*
2134*
2167*
2185*
2232*
2264*
2104
2109
2142
2165
2199
2228
2138
2169
2199
2232
2273
2109
2185*
2208*
2230*
2291*
2307*
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
2257*
2300*
2345*
2361*
2383*
2305*
2336*
2381*
2399*
2419*
2273
2300
2345
2361
2383
2314
2336
2381
2399
2419
2372*
2403*
2426*
2437*
2471*
8
9
10
11
12
13
13 1/2
14
14 1/2
15
2410*
2455*
Not Manufactured
2530*
2491*
Not Manufactured
2595*
2608*
2428
2466
2489
2527
2583
2458
2493
2523
2568
2602
2460
2460*
Not Manufactured
2548
2548*
Not Manufactured
2606
2606*
13
13 1/2
14
14 1/2
15
15 1/2
16
17
18
19
Not Manufactured
2651*
2683*
2691*
2705*
2732*
2743*
2768*
2782*
2617
2655
2694
2736
2772
2633
2687
2709
2746
2786
Not Manufactured
2716
2716*
2754
2754*
2772
2772*
2806
2806*
15 1/2
16
17
18
19
2811
2851
2890
2824
2860
2898
20
21
23
26
27
2808*
2847*
2887*
2892*
2937*
2820*
2856*
2894*
2921*
2961*
28
29
30
31
31 1/2
2937*
2955*
2977*
3022*
ND
32
32 1/2
33
34
35
2136
2140
2847
2439*
2847*
2883*
2921*
2950*
2984*
20
21
23
26
27
2971*
2993*
3009*
3054*
ND
2995*
3018*
3029*
3061*
3090*
28
29
30
31
31 1/2
3103*
3124*
3150*
3195*
3243*
3123*
3146*
3166*
3198*
3243*
3123*
3135*
3169*
3205*
3245*
32
32 1/2
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
3268*
ND
ND
ND
ND
3265*
ND
ND
ND
ND
3279*
3308
3362
3389
3425
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
ND
ND
ND
ND
3578
3659
41
42
The temperature equivalent tables are designed to be a guide for the selection of cones to use during firing. The temperature listed may only have a relative value to
the user. However, the values do provide a good starting point and once the proper cones are determined for a particular firing condition, excellent firing control can
be maintained. NOTES: ND = Not determined *Temperature equivalents as determined by the National Bureau of Standards by H.P. Beerman (See Journal of the
American Ceramic Society Volume 39, 1956) Large cones at 2 inch mounting height, Small & PCE cones at 15/16 inch.
1. The temperature equivalents in this table apply only to Orton Standard Pyrometric Cones, heated at the rate indicated in air atmosphere.
2. The rates of heating shown at the head of each column of temperature equivalents were maintained during the last several hundred degrees of temperature rise.
3. The temperature equivalents are not necessarily those at which cones will deform under firing conditions different from those under which the calibration determination were made.
4. For reproducible results, care should be taken to insure that the cones are set in a plaque with the bending face at the correct angle of 8 from the vertical with the
cone tips at a uniform height above the plaque.
1986 The Edward Orton Jr. Ceramic Foundation. Reprinted with permission.
50
90
80
70
1400
1200 F
1000 F
800 F
F
400
F
60
50
0% X
40
15
30
20
25
0%
20
0%
XS
0%
50%
100
XS
%X
AIR
SA
25%
XS
AIR
S AIR
XS A
IR
10%
XS A
IR
IR
XS
30
AIR
0%
AI
35
R
XS
0
10
%
AI
XS
R
AI
R
0
1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
2400
2200
2000
1600
1400
1200
NATURAL GAS 1232 BTU
1000
800
400
200
0
200 600 1000 1400 1800 2200 2600 3000 3400 3800
1800
12
% O2 - SATURATED SAMPLE
10
6
% CO2 - PROPANE
4
% CO2 - NATURAL GAS
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
% Excess Air
gas sample. For analyzers which add water to produce a saturated sample, use the O2 saturated sample curve.
% CO2 curves are based on typical propane and fuel oil
anlyses. If the fuel composition differs, actual CO2 curves
may vary slightly from those shown.
3200
3000
Conduction
Q = kA (t1-t2)
L
Convection
Q = fA (t1-t2)
Radiation
4-T 4)
Q = AK (T1 2
1 + 1-1
P1
P2
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
200
400
52
.20
Furnace
Height Above
Hearth
.15
16'
14'
12'
.10
10'
8'
6'
.05
4'
0
0
500
20
10
8
6
5
4
2500F
1500F
500F
Average
Flue Gas
Temp.
1
1
4
5
6
8
10
Stack Height, Ft, Above Furnace Hearth
These curves predict the flue area required per 1000 scfh of
flue gases, based on the average temperature of those gases
and the height of the furnace stack. Flue openings are assumed
to be simple orifices with a discharge coefficient of 0.6, and
all pressure drop across those orifices is provided by the thermal head of the flue gases.
This method is conservative it will produce generously
sized flues.
20
30
40
50
Actual
Inside
Actual
Outside
Wall
Thickness,
Inches
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
3/4
1
1-1/4
1-1/2
2
2-1/2
3
3-1/2
4
5
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
0.269
0.364
0.493
0.622
0.824
1.049
1.380
1.610
2.067
2.469
3.068
3.548
4.026
5.047
6.065
7.981
10.020
11.938
13.126
15.000
16.876
18.814
0.405
0.540
0.675
0.840
1.050
1.315
1.660
1.900
2.375
2.875
3.500
4.000
4.500
5.563
6.625
8.625
10.750
12.750
14.000
16.000
18.000
20.000
0.068
0.088
0.091
0.109
0.113
0.133
0.140
0.145
0.154
0.203
0.216
0.226
0.237
0.258
0.280
0.322
0.365
0.406
0.437
0.500
0.562
0.593
Circumference,
Inches
Nominal
Dia. In.
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
3/4
1
1-1/4
1-1/2
2
2-1/2
3
3-1/2
4
5
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
Outside
1.27
1.69
2.12
2.65
3.29
4.13
5.21
5.96
7.46
9.03
10.96
12.56
14.13
17.47
20.81
27.09
33.77
40.05
47.12
53.41
56.55
62.83
Inside
0.84
1.14
1.55
1.95
2.58
3.29
4.33
5.06
6.49
7.75
9.63
11.14
12.64
15.84
19.05
26.07
31.47
37.70
44.76
51.52
53.00
59.09
Cross-Sectional Area
Sq. in.
Outside
Inside
Metal
0.129
0.229
0.358
0.554
0.866
1.358
2.164
2.835
4.431
6.492
9.621
12.568
15.903
24.308
34.474
58.426
90.79
127.67
153.94
201.06
254.47
314.16
0.057
0.104
0.191
0.304
0.533
0.864
1.495
2.036
3.356
4.788
7.393
9.888
12.730
20.004
28.890
50.030
78.85
113.09
135.33
176.71
223.68
278.01
0.072
0.125
0.167
0.250
0.333
0.494
0.669
0.799
1.075
1.704
2.228
2.680
3.173
4.304
5.584
8.396
11.90
15.77
18.61
24.35
30.79
36.15
0.25
0.43
0.57
0.86
1.14
1.68
2.28
2.72
3.66
5.80
7.58
9.11
10.80
14.70
19.00
28.60
40.50
53.60
63.30
82.80
105.00
123.00
Inside
0.070
0.095
0.129
0.167
0.215
0.274
0.361
0.422
0.540
0.654
0.803
0.928
1.052
1.319
1.585
2.090
2.622
3.140
3.722
4.310
4.420
4.920
54
Contents of Pipe
Per Lineal Foot
Cu. Ft.
0.0004
0.0007
0.0013
0.0021
0.0037
0.0062
0.0104
0.0141
0.0233
0.0332
0.0514
0.0682
0.0884
0.1390
0.2010
0.3480
0.5470
0.7850
1.0690
1.3920
1.5530
1.9250
Gal.
0.003
0.005
0.010
0.016
0.028
0.045
0.077
0.106
0.174
0.248
0.383
0.513
0.660
1.040
1.500
2.600
4.100
5.870
7.030
9.180
11.120
14.400
0.028
0.045
0.083
0.132
0.232
0.375
0.649
0.882
1.454
2.073
3.201
4.287
5.516
8.674
12.52
21.68
34.16
48.50
58.64
76.58
96.93
120.46
0.278
0.475
0.653
0.992
1.372
2.055
2.929
3.602
5.114
7.873
10.781
13.397
16.316
23.374
31.52
50.28
74.66
102.10
121.94
159.38
201.93
243.46
1 Cu. Ft.
2533.775
1383.789
754.360
473.906
270.034
166.618
96.275
70.733
42.913
30.077
19.479
14.565
11.312
7.198
4.984
2.878
1.826
1.273
1.067
0.814
0.644
0.517
1 LB.
1 Gal. of Water
338.74 35.714
185.00 22.222
100.85 12.048
63.36
7.576
36.10
4.310
22.28
2.667
12.87
1.541
9.46
1.134
5.74
0.688
4.02
0.482
2.60
0.312
1.95
0.233
1.51
0.181
0.96
0.115
0.67
0.080
0.38
0.046
0.24
0.029
0.17
0.021
0.14
0.017
0.11
0.013
0.09
0.010
0.07
0.008
A
A
90 Elbow
90 Street Elbow
Cross
Tee
Street Tee
(150 lb only)
M1
M2
M3
Coupling
Reducer
Return Bend
E
F
45 Elbow
45 Street Elbow
45 Y-Bend
(150 lb only)
Cap
Thread
Engagement
M1
M2
M3
Close
Med.
Open
Pattern Pattern Pattern
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
3/4
1
1-1/4
1-1/2
2
2-1/2
3
3-1/2
4
5
6
0.25
0.32
0.36
0.43
0.50
0.58
0.67
0.70
0.75
0.92
0.98
1.03
1.08
1.18
1.28
0.69
0.81
0.95
1.12
1.31
1.50
1.75
1.94
2.25
2.70
3.08
3.42
3.79
4.50
5.13
0.73
0.80
0.88
0.98
1.12
1.29
1.43
1.68
1.95
2.17
2.39
2.61
3.05
3.46
1.00
1.19
1.44
1.63
1.89
2.14
2.45
2.69
3.26
3.86
4.51
5.69
6.86
8.03
0.73
0.80
0.88
0.98
1.12
1.29
1.43
1.68
1.95
2.17
2.61
0.94
1.03
1.15
1.29
1.47
1.71
1.88
2.22
2.57
3.00
3.70
1.93
2.32
2.77
3.28
3.94
4.38
5.17
6.25
7.26
8.98
1.43
1.71
2.05
2.43
2.92
3.28
3.93
4.73
5.55
6.97
0.53
0.63
0.74
0.87
0.97
1.16
1.28
1.33
1.45
1.70
1.80
1.90
2.08
2.32
2.55
0.96
1.06
1.16
1.34
1.52
1.67
1.93
2.15
2.53
2.88
3.18
3.69
1.00
1.13
1.25
1.44
1.69
2.06
2.31
2.81
3.25
3.69
4.38
Size
Thread
Engagement
M1
M2
M3
1/4
3/8
1/2
3/4
1
1-1/4
1-1/2
2
2-1/2
3
0.43
0.47
0.57
0.64
0.75
0.84
0.87
1.00
1.17
1.23
0.94
1.06
1.25
1.44
1.63
1.94
2.13
2.50
2.94
3.38
0.81
0.88
1.00
1.13
1.31
1.50
1.69
2.00
2.25
2.50
1.44
1.63
2.00
2.19
2.56
2.88
3.13
3.69
4.50
5.13
1.00
1.13
1.31
1.50
1.69
2.00
1.38
1.56
1.81
2.13
2.31
2.69
0.78
0.83
0.98
1.08
1.26
1.38
1.43
1.68
2.06
2.17
1.37
1.62
1.87
2.12
2.37
2.87
2.87
3.62
4.12
4.12
1.44
1.69
1.75
2.00
2.38
2.69
3.19
3.69
4.06
1.75
2.25
3.00
4.00
2.50
2.50
3.50
6.00
3.00
3.00
6.00
8.00
1.00
1.25
1.50
1.75
2.19
2.62
1.25
1.50
1.87
2.25
2.50
3.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
4.50
5.00
6.00
55
Carbon Steel
Thickness,
in.
lb. per sq. ft.
.1793
.1644
.1495
.1345
.1196
.1096
.0897
.0747
.0673
.0598
.0538
.0478
.0418
.0359
.0329
.0299
.0269
.0239
.0209
.0179
.0164
.0149
.0135
.0120
Galvanized Steel
Thickness,
in.
lb per sq. ft
7.500
6.875
6.250
5.625
5.000
4.375
3.750
3.125
2.812
2.500
2.250
2.000
1.750
1.500
1.375
1.250
1.125
1.000
.875
.750
.688
.625
.563
.500
.1681
.1532
.1382
.1233
.1084
.0934
.0785
.0710
.0635
.0575
.0516
.0456
.0396
.0366
.0336
.0306
.0276
.0247
.0217
.0202
.0187
.0172
.0157
7.031
6.406
5.781
5.156
4.531
3.906
3.281
2.969
2.656
2.406
2.156
1.906
1.656
1.531
1.406
1.281
1.156
1.031
.906
.844
.781
.719
.656
.165
.1563
.135
.120
.1054
.090
.0751
.0703
.0595
.0563
.048
.042
.0355
.0344
.0293
.0281
.0235
.0219
.0178
.0172
.0151
6.930
6.563
5.670
5.040
4.427
3.780
3.154
2.953
2.499
2.363
2.016
1.764
1.491
1.444
1.231
1.181
.987
.919
.748
.722
.634
Gauge
No.
AWG1
Diameter, inches
Steel
Wire
Gauge2
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
.3249
.2893
.2576
.2294
.2043
.1819
.1620
.1443
.1285
.1144
.1019
.0907
.0808
.0720
.0641
.3065
.2830
.2625
.2437
.2253
.2070
.1920
.1770
.1620
.1483
.1350
.1205
.1055
.0915
.0800
BWG3
.340
.300
.284
.259
.238
.220
.203
.180
.165
.148
.134
.120
.109
.095
.083
56
Gauge
No.
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Diameter, inches
Steel
Wire
AWG1
Gauge2
BWG3
.0571
.0508
.0453
.0403
.0359
.0320
.0285
.0253
.0226
.0201
.0179
.0159
.0142
.0126
.0113
.0100
.0720
.0625
.0540
.0475
.0410
.0348
.0317
.0286
.0258
.0230
.0204
.0181
.0173
.0162
.0150
.0140
.072
.065
.058
.049
.042
.035
.032
.028
.025
.022
.020
.018
.016
.014
.013
.012
Circum.
1/64
1/32
3/64
1/16
3/32
1/8
5/32
3/16
7/32
1/4
9/32
5/16
11/32
3/8
13/32
7/16
15/32
1/2
17/32
9/16
19/32
5/8
21/32
11/16
23/32
3/4
25/32
13/16
27/32
7/8
29/32
15/16
31/32
1
1/16
1/8
3/16
1/4
5/16
3/8
7/16
1/2
9/16
5/8
11/16
3/4
13/16
7/8
15/16
2
1/16
1/8
3/16
1/4
5/16
3/8
7/16
1/2
9/16
5/8
11/16
3/4
13/16
7/8
15/16
.04909
.09818
.14726
.19635
.29452
.39270
.49087
.58905
.68722
.78540
.88357
.98175
1.0799
1.1781
1.2763
1.3744
1.4726
1.5708
1.6690
1.7671
1.8653
1.9635
2.0617
2.1598
2.2580
2.3562
2.4544
2.5525
2.6507
2.7489
2.8471
2.9452
3.0434
3.1416
3.3379
3.5343
3.7306
3.9270
4.1233
4.3197
4.5160
4.7124
4.9087
5.1051
5.3014
5.4978
5.6941
5.8905
6.0868
6.2832
6.4795
6.6759
6.8722
7.0686
7.2649
7.4613
7.6576
7.8540
8.0503
8.2467
8.4430
8.6394
8.8357
9.0321
9.2284
Area
.00019
.00077
.00173
.00307
.00690
.01227
.01917
.02761
.03758
.04909
.06213
.07670
.09281
.11045
.12962
.15033
.17257
.19635
.22166
.24850
.27688
.30680
.33824
.37122
.40574
.44179
.47937
.51849
.55914
.60132
.64504
.69029
.73708
.7854
.8866
.9940
1.1075
1.2272
1.3530
1.4849
1.6230
1.7671
1.9175
2.0739
2.2365
2.4053
2.5802
2.7612
2.9483
3.1416
3.3410
3.5466
3.7583
3.9761
4.2000
4.4301
4.6664
4.9087
5.1572
5.4119
5.6727
5.9396
6.2126
6.4918
6.7771
Dia.
Circum.
Area
Dia.
Circum.
Area
3
1/16
1/8
3/16
1/4
5/16
3/8
7/16
1/2
9/16
5/8
11/16
3/4
13/16
7/8
15/16
4
1/16
1/8
3/16
1/4
5/16
3/8
7/16
1/2
9/16
5/8
11/16
3/4
13/16
7/8
15/16
5
1/16
1/8
3/16
1/4
5/16
3/8
7/16
1/2
9/16
5/8
11/16
3/4
13/16
7/8
15/16
6
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
7
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
9.4248
9.6211
9.8175
10.014
10.210
10.407
10.603
10.799
10.996
11.192
11.388
11.585
11.781
11.977
12.174
12.370
12.566
12.763
12.959
13.155
13.352
13.548
13.744
13.941
14.137
14.334
14.530
14.726
14.923
15.119
15.315
15.512
15.708
15.904
16.101
16.297
16.493
16.690
16.886
17.082
17.279
17.475
17.671
17.868
18.064
18.261
18.457
18.653
18.850
19.242
19.635
20.028
20.420
20.813
21.206
21.598
21.991
22.384
22.776
23.169
23.562
23.955
24.347
24.740
7.0686
7.3662
7.6699
7.9798
8.2958
8.6179
8.9462
9.2806
9.6211
9.9678
10.321
10.680
11.045
11.416
11.793
12.177
12.566
12.962
13.364
13.772
14.186
14.607
15.033
15.466
15.904
16.349
16.800
17.257
17.721
18.190
18.665
19.147
19.635
20.129
20.629
21.135
21.648
22.166
22.691
23.221
23.758
24.301
24.850
25.406
25.967
26.535
27.109
27.688
28.274
29.465
30.680
31.919
33.183
34.472
35.785
37.122
38.485
39.871
41.282
42.718
44.179
45.664
47.173
48.707
8
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
9
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
10
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
11
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
12
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
13
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
14
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
15
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
25.133
25.525
25.918
26.311
26.704
27.096
27.489
27.882
28.274
28.667
29.060
29.452
29.845
30.238
30.631
31.023
31.416
31.809
32.201
32.594
32.987
33.379
33.772
34.165
34.558
34.950
35.343
35.736
36.128
36.521
36.914
37.306
37.699
38.092
38.485
38.877
39.270
39.663
40.055
40.448
40.841
41.233
41.626
42.019
42.412
42.804
43.197
43.590
43.982
44.374
44.768
45.160
45.553
45.946
46.338
46.731
47.124
47.517
47.909
48.302
48.695
49.087
49.480
49.873
50.265
51.849
53.456
55.088
56.745
58.426
60.132
61.862
63.617
65.397
67.201
69.029
70.882
72.760
74.662
76.589
78.540
80.516
82.516
84.541
86.590
88.664
90.763
92.886
95.033
97.205
99.402
101.62
103.87
106.14
108.43
110.75
113.10
115.47
117.86
120.28
122.72
125.19
127.68
130.19
132.73
135.30
137.89
140.50
143.14
145.80
148.49
151.20
153.94
156.70
159.48
162.30
165.13
167.99
170.87
173.78
176.71
179.67
182.65
185.66
188.69
191.75
194.83
197.93
57
Circum.
Area
Dia.
Circum.
Area
Dia.
Circum.
Area
16
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
17
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
18
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
19
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
20
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
21
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
22
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
23
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
50.265
50.658
51.051
51.444
51.836
52.229
52.622
53.014
53.407
53.800
54.192
54.585
54.978
55.371
55.763
56.156
56.549
56.941
57.334
57.727
58.119
58.512
58.905
59.298
59.690
60.083
60.476
60.868
61.261
61.654
62.046
62.439
62.832
63.225
63.617
64.010
64.403
64.795
65.188
65.581
65.973
66.366
66.759
67.152
67.544
67.937
68.330
68.722
69.115
69.508
69.900
70.293
70.686
71.079
71.471
71.864
72.257
72.649
73.042
73.435
73.827
74.220
74.613
75.006
201.06
204.22
207.39
210.60
213.82
217.08
220.35
223.65
226.98
230.33
233.71
237.10
240.53
243.98
247.45
250.95
254.47
258.02
261.59
265.18
268.80
272.45
276.12
279.81
283.53
287.27
291.04
294.83
298.65
302.49
306.35
310.24
314.16
318.10
322.06
326.05
330.06
334.10
338.16
342.25
346.36
350.50
354.66
358.84
363.05
367.28
371.54
375.83
380.13
384.46
388.82
393.20
397.61
402.04
406.49
410.97
415.48
420.00
424.56
429.13
433.74
438.36
443.01
447.69
24
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
25
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
26
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
27
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
28
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
29
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
30
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
75.398
75.791
76.184
76.576
76.969
77.362
77.754
78.147
78.540
78.933
79.325
79.718
80.111
80.503
80.896
81.289
81.681
82.074
82.467
82.860
83.252
83.645
84.038
84.430
84.823
85.216
85.608
86.001
86.394
86.786
87.179
85.572
87.965
88.357
88.750
89.143
89.535
89.928
90.321
90.713
91.106
91.499
91.892
92.284
92.677
93.070
93.462
93.855
94.248
94.640
95.033
95.426
95.819
96.211
96.604
96.997
97.389
100.531
103.673
106.814
109.956
113.097
116.239
119.381
452.39
457.11
461.86
466.64
471.44
476.26
481.11
485.98
490.87
495.79
500.74
505.71
510.71
515.72
520.77
525.84
530.93
536.05
541.19
546.35
551.55
556.76
562.00
567.27
572.56
577.87
583.21
588.57
593.96
599.37
604.81
610.27
615.75
621.26
626.80
632.36
637.94
643.55
649.18
654.84
660.52
666.23
671.96
677.71
683.49
689.30
695.13
700.98
706.86
712.76
718.69
724.64
730.62
736.62
742.64
748.69
754.77
804.25
855.30
907.92
962.11
1017.9
1075.2
1134.1
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
122.522
125.664
128.805
131.947
135.088
138.230
141.372
144.513
147.655
150.796
153.939
157.080
160.221
163.363
166.504
169.646
172.788
175.929
179.071
182.212
185.354
188.496
191.637
194.779
197.920
201.062
204.204
207.345
210.487
213.628
216.770
219.911
223.053
226.195
229.336
232.478
235.619
238.761
241.903
245.044
248.186
251.327
254.469
257.611
260.752
263.894
267.035
270.177
273.319
276.460
279.602
282.743
285.885
289.027
292.168
295.310
298.451
301.593
304.734
307.876
311.018
314.159
1194.6
1256.6
1320.3
1385.4
1452.2
1520.5
1590.4
1661.9
1734.9
1809.6
1885.7
1963.5
2042.8
2123.7
2206.2
2290.2
2375.8
2463.0
2551.8
2642.1
2734.0
2827.4
2922.5
3019.1
3117.2
3217.0
3318.3
3421.2
3525.7
3631.7
3739.3
3848.5
3959.2
4071.5
4185.4
4300.8
4417.9
4536.6
4656.6
4778.4
4901.7
5026.5
5153.0
5281.0
5410.6
5541.8
5674.5
5808.8
5944.7
6082.1
6221.1
6361.7
6503.9
6647.6
6792.9
6939.8
7088.2
7238.2
7389.8
7543.0
7697.7
7854.0
58
1/64
1/32
3/64
1/16
5/64
3/32
7/64
80
79
78
77
76
75
74
73
72
71
70
69
68
67
66
65
64
63
62
61
60
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
50
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
Dia.
In.
Area
Sq. In.
Twist
Drill Size
Dia.
In.
.0135
.0145
.0156
.016
.018
.020
.021
.0225
.024
.025
.026
.028
.0292
.030
.0312
.032
.033
.035
.036
.037
.038
.039
.040
.041
.042
.043
.0465
.0469
.0520
.0550
.0595
.0625
.0635
.0670
.070
.073
.076
.0781
.0785
.081
.082
.086
.089
.0935
.0937
.096
.098
.0995
.1015
.104
.1065
.1093
.110
.111
.113
.000143
.000165
.00019
.00020
.00025
.00031
.00035
.00040
.00045
.00049
.00053
.00062
.00067
.00075
.00076
.00080
.00086
.00096
.00102
.00108
.00113
.00119
.00126
.00132
.00138
.00145
.00170
.00173
.00210
.0023
.0028
.0031
.0032
.0035
.0038
.0042
.0043
.0048
.0049
.0051
.0053
.0058
.0062
.0069
.0069
.0072
.0075
.0078
.0081
.0085
.0090
.0094
.0095
.0097
.0100
1/8
9/64
5/32
11/64
3/16
13/64
7/32
15/64
1/4
17/64
9/32
.116
.120
.125
.1285
.136
.1405
.1406
.144
.147
.1495
.152
.154
.1562
.157
.159
.161
.166
.1695
.1719
.175
.177
.180
.182
.185
.1875
.189
.191
.1935
.196
.199
.201
.2031
.204
.2055
.209
.213
.2187
.221
.228
.234
.2343
.238
.242
.246
.250
.257
.261
.2656
.266
.272
.277
.281
.2812
.290
.295
32
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
59
Area
Sq. In.
.0106
.0113
.0123
.0130
.0145
.0155
.0156
.0163
.0174
.0175
.0181
.0186
.0192
.0193
.0198
.0203
.0216
.0226
.0232
.0235
.0246
.0254
.0260
.0269
.0276
.02805
.02865
.0294
.0302
.0311
.0316
.0324
.0327
.0332
.0343
.0356
.0376
.0384
.0409
.0430
.0431
.0444
.0460
.0475
.0491
.0519
.0535
.0554
.0556
.0580
.0601
.0620
.0621
.0660
.0683
Twist
Drill Size
19/64
5/16
21/64
11/32
23/64
3/8
25/64
13/32
7/16
29/64
15/32
31/64
1/2
33/64
17/32
35/64
9/16
37/64
19/32
39/64
5/8
41/64
21/32
43/64
11/16
45/64
23/32
47/64
3/4
49/64
25/32
51/64
13/16
53/64
27/32
55/64
7/8
O
P
Q
R
S
T
V
W
X
Y
Dia.
In.
Area
Sq. In.
.2968
.302
.3125
.316
.323
.3281
.332
.339
.3437
.348
.358
.3593
.368
.375
.377
.386
.3906
.397
.404
.4062
.413
.4375
.4531
.4687
.4843
.5000
.5156
.5312
.5468
.5625
.5781
.5937
.6093
.625
.6406
.6562
.6718
.6875
.7031
.7187
.7343
.750
.7656
.7812
.7968
.8125
.8281
.8337
.8593
.875
.0692
.0716
.0767
.0784
.0820
.0846
.0866
.0901
.0928
.0950
.1005
.1014
.1063
.1104
.1116
.1170
.1198
.1236
.1278
.1296
.1340
.1503
.1613
.1726
.1843
.1963
.2088
.2217
.2349
.2485
.2625
.2769
.2916
.3068
.3223
.3382
.3545
.3712
.3883
.4057
.4236
.4418
.4604
.4794
.4987
.5185
.5386
.5591
.5800
.6013
36
34
30
29
3/8-16 NC
3/8-24 NF
7/16-14 NC
7/16-20 NF
5/16
Q
U
W
10-24 NC
10-32 NF
12-24 NC
12-28 NF
25
21
17
15
1/2-13 NC
1/2-20 NF
9/16-12 NC
9/16-18 NF
.425
29/64
31/64
.508
1/4-20 NC
1/4-28 NF
5/16-18 NC
5/16-24 NF
7
3
F
I
5/8-11 NC
5/8-18 NF
3/4-10 NC
3/4-16 NF
17/32
.571
21/32
11/16
7/8-9 NC
7/8-14 NF
1-8 NC
49/64
.805
7/8
27
18
18
14
11/32
7/16
9/16
45/64
2
2-1/2
3
4
11-1/2
8
8
8
2-7/32
2-5/8
3-1/4
4-1/4
3/4
1
1-1/4
1-1/2
14
11-1/2
11-1/2
11-1/2
29/32
1-9/64
1-31/64
1-47/64
5
6
8
8
8
8
5-5/16
6-3/8
8-3/8
N
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
8
8
8
12
12
12
16
16
20
20
Bolt
Diameter
1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2
5/8
5/8
5/8
5/8
3/4
3/4
7/8
7/8
1
1
1-1/8
1-1/8
1-1/4
B - Bolt Circle
Diameter
60
Nominal
Pipe
Size
1/2
3/4
1
1-1/4
1-1/2
2
2-1/2
3
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
24
B
2.38
2.75
3.12
3.50
3.88
4.75
5.50
6.00
7.50
9.50
11.75
14.25
17.00
18.75
21.25
22.75
25.00
29.50
C
.62
.62
.62
.62
.62
.75
.75
.75
.75
.88
.88
1.00
1.00
1.12
1.12
1.25
1.25
1.38
61
ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS
Shown below are graphic symbols commonly used in JICtype ladder diagrams for combustion control systems. For
a complete list of symbols, refer to JIC Electrical Standard
EMP-1.
Description
Coils
Relays (CR)
Timers (TR)
Motor Starters (M)
Contactors (CON)
Symbol
CR
M
TR
CON
Coils
Solenoids
SOL
Symbol
Contacts
Relays (CR)
Motor Starters (M)
Contactors (CON)
N.O.
Connected
GRD
Description
N.C.
CR
M
CON
Pilot Light
Push to Test
(Letter denotes
color)
OL
IOL
Pushbutton
Single
Circuit, N.O.
Single
Circuit, N.C.
H1
Control Circuit
Transformer
H3
H2
X1
CH
PL
LT
R
LT
R
PB
PB
PB
H4
Chassis or
Frame (not
necessarily
grounded)
Symbol
Pilot Light
(Letter denotes
color)
CR
M
CON
Contacts
Thermal Overload
Overload Relay
(OL)
Instataneous
Overload (IOL)
Conductors
Not Connected
Connections
Ground
Description
X2
FU
Fuses All
Types
Double
Circuit
Double
Circuit,
Mushroom
Head
PB
PB
Plug and
Receptacle
Horn or Siren
(Alarm)
PB
Maintained
Contact
AH
RECP
Contacts
Time Delay
After Coil
Energized
N.O.
TR
Meters
Volt
VM
Amp
AM
TR
CI
Circuit
Interruptor
MTR
Motors
3 Phase
N.C.
Circuit
Breaker
MTR
Time Delay
After Coil
De-energized
N.O.
TR
D.C .
POT
TR
Potentiometer
N.C.
62
DISC
Switches
Disconnect
CB
Symbol
Switch, Limit
N.O.
LS
Description
Switch, Selector
2 Position
Symbol
2
LS
N.C.
LS
Held Open
Switch, Vacuum
or Pressure
N.O.
PS
N.C.
3 Position
SS
2
NP
PS
Thermal Overload
Element
Overload (OL)
Instantaneous
Overload (IOL)
LS
Neutral
Position,
Symbol
SS
1
LS
Held Closed
Description
OL
IOL
LS
Neutral
Position,
Actuated
NP
Switch,
Temperature
N.O.
Switch, Liquid
Level
N.O.
FS
N.C.
FS
TAS
N.C.
TAS
Switch,
Toggle
TGS
63
Thermocouple
T/C
BY
MULTIPLY
TO OBTAIN
64
BY
TO OBTAIN
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq.cm.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq.mils
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. inches
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cubic ft.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cubic in.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .cubic meters
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cubic yards
. . . . . . . . .gallons (U.S. liquid)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters
. . . . . . . . . . .pints (U.S. liquid)
. . . . . . . . . .quarts (U.S. liquid)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. cms.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. inches
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. meters
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. yards
. . . . . . . . .gallons (U.S. liquid)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters
. . . . . . . . . . .pints (U.S. liquid)
. . . . . . . . . .quarts (U.S. liquid)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. cms./sec.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .gallons/sec.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters/sec.
. . . . . . . . . .pounds water/min.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. cms.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. ft.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. meters
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. yards
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .gallons
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters
. . . . . . . . . . .pints (U.S. liquid)
. . . . . . . . . .quarts (U.S. liquid)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. cms.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. ft.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. inches
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. yards
. . . . . . . . .gallons (U.S. liquid)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters
. . . . . . . . . . .pints (U.S. liuqid)
. . . . . . . . . .quarts (U.S. liquid)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. cms.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. ft.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. inches
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. meters
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grams
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .meters
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .quadrants
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .radians
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .seconds
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .radians/sec.
. . . . . . . . . . . . .rvolutions/min.
. . . . . . . . . . . .revolutions/sec.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .grams
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .meters
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .atmospheres
. . . . . .in. of mercury (at 0C.)
. . . . . . . . .in. of water (at 4C)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .bars
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .centimeters
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilometers
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .meters
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .miles (stat.)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .millimeters
BY
MULTIPLY
TO OBTAIN
BY
TO OBTAIN
65
BY
TO OBTAIN
MULTIPLY
BY
TO OBTAIN
BY
MULTIPLY
TO OBTAIN
67
BY
TO OBTAIN
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .atmospheres
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet of water
. . . . . . . . . .inches of mercury
. . . . . . . . . . . .inches of water
. . . . . . . . . . . . .kgs./sq. meter
. . . . . . . . . . . .ounces/sq. inch
. . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/sq. inch
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .atmospheres
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .feet of water
. . . . . . . . . .inches of mercury
. . . . . . . . . . . .inches of water
. . . . . . . . . . . . .kgs./sq. meter
. . . . . . . . . . . .ounces/sq. inch
. . . . . . . . . . . .pounds/sq. foot
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .degrees
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .minutes
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .radians
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .seconds
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. cms.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. ft.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. inches
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. meters
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cu. yards
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .gallons
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .liters
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .degrees
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .minutes
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .quadrants
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .seconds
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .rpm
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .rad./sec.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .degrees
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .minutes
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .circular mils
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. feet
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. inches
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. meters
. . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. millimeters
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. yards
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. cms.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. inches
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. meters
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. miles
. . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. millimeters
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. yards
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. cms.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. ft.
. . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. millimeters
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. mils
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. yards
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. ft.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. meters
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. miles
BY
TO OBTAIN
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. cms.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. ft.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. inches
. . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. millimeters
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. yards
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. ft.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. kms.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. meters
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. yards
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .circular mils
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. cms.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. ft.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .sq. inches
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .btu
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilograms
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .tons (short)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilograms
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .kilograms
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ounces
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .ounces (troy)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .pounds (troy)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .tons (long)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .tons (metric)
MULTIPLY
BY
TO OBTAIN
TEMPERATURE CONVERSIONS
Fahrenheit = 9/5C + 32
Celsius = 5/9 (F32)
Rankine = F absolute = F + 459.69
Kelvin = C absolute = C + 273.16
Fahrenheit to Celsius
F
C
F
C
0
-17.78 950 510.0
20
-6.67 1000 537.8
40
4.44
1100 593.3
60
15.56 1200 648.9
80
26.67 1300 704.4
100
37.78 1400 760.0
120
48.89 1500 815.6
140
60.00 1600 871.1
160
71.11 1700 926.7
180
82.22 1800 982.2
200
93.33 1900 1038
250
121.1 2000 1093
300
148.9 2100 1149
350
176.7 2200 1204
400
204.4 2300 1260
450
232.2 2400 1316
500
260.0 2500 1371
550
287.8 2600 1427
600
315.6 2700 1482
650
343.3 2800 1538
700
371.1 2900 1593
750
398.9 3000 1649
800
426.7 3200 1760
850
454.4 3400 1871
900
482.2 3600 1982
68
Celsius to Fahrenheit
C
F
C
F
0
32
850 1562
10
50
900 1652
20
68
950 1742
30
86
1000 1832
40
104 1050 1922
50
122 1100 2012
60
140 1150 2102
70
158 1200 2192
80
176 1250 2282
90
194 1300 2372
100
212 1350 2462
150
302 1400 2552
200
392 1450 2642
250
482 1500 2732
300
572 1550 2822
350
662 1600 2912
400
752 1650 3002
450
842 1700 3092
500
932 1750 3182
550
1022 1800 3272
600
1112 1850 3362
650
1202 1900 3452
700
1292 1950 3542
750
1382 2000 3632
800
1472 2050 3722
PRESSURE CONVERSIONS
inches
water
("w.c.)
.04
.1
.17
.2
.35
.39
.40
.5
.787
.80
.87
1
1.73
2
2.01
2.77
3
3.46
4
4.02
5
5.2
5.54
6
6.93
7
8
8.03
8.66
9
10
10.39
11
12
12.05
12.12
13
13.6
13.86
14
15
15.59
16
16.06
17
17.32
18
19
19.05
20
ounces/
sq in
(osi)
.023
.058
.1
.115
.2
.227
.23
.29
.45
.46
.5
.58
1
1.15
1.16
1.6
1.73
2
2.31
2.32
2.89
3
3.2
3.46
4
4.04
4.62
4.64
5
5.2
5.77
6
6.35
6.93
6.96
7
7.51
7.85
8
8.08
8.66
9
9.24
9.28
9.82
10
10.39
10.97
11
11.55
lb/sq in
(psi)
.001
.004
.006
.007
.013
.014
.015
.018
.028
.029
.031
.036
.063
.072
.073
.1
.108
.125
.144
.145
.181
.188
.2
.216
.25
.253
.289
.29
.313
.325
.361
.375
.397
.433
.435
.438
.469
.491
.5
.505
.541
.563
.578
.58
.614
.625
.649
.686
.688
.722
inches
mercury
("Hg)
.003
.007
.013
.015
.026
.029
.029
.037
.058
.059
.064
.074
.127
.147
.148
.204
.221
.254
.294
.296
.368
.382
.407
.441
.51
.515
.588
.591
.637
.662
.735
.764
.809
.882
.887
.891
.956
1
1.02
1.03
1.10
1.15
1.18
1.18
1.25
1.27
1.32
1.4
1.40
1.47
millibars
(mbar)
.1
.25
.42
.5
.87
.97
1
1.24
1.96
2
2.16
2.49
4.30
4.98
5
6.89
7.46
8.61
9.95
10
12.5
12.9
13.8
14.9
17.2
17.4
19.9
20
21.5
22.4
24.9
25.9
27.4
29.9
30
30.2
32.4
33.8
34.5
34.9
37.4
38.8
39.8
40
42.3
43.1
44.8
47.3
47.4
49.8
69
ounces/
sq in
(osi)
11.6
12
12.12
12.7
13
13.28
13.86
13.92
14
14.43
15
15.01
15.59
15.7
16
16.17
16.24
16.74
17
17.32
17.9
18
18.48
18.56
19
19.05
19.63
20
20.21
20.79
20.88
21
21.36
21.94
22
22.52
22.73
23
23.09
23.20
23.56
23.67
24
24.25
24.83
25
25.4
26
26.56
27
lb/sq in
(psi)
.725
.75
.758
.794
.813
.83
.866
.87
.875
.902
.938
.938
.974
.982
1
1.01
1.02
1.05
1.06
1.08
1.12
1.13
1.16
1.16
1.19
1.19
1.23
1.25
1.26
1.3
1.31
1.31
1.34
1.37
1.38
1.41
1.42
1.44
1.44
1.45
1.47
1.48
1.5
1.52
1.55
1.56
1.59
1.63
1.66
1.69
inches
mercury
("Hg)
1.48
1.53
1.54
1.62
1.66
1.69
1.76
1.77
1.78
1.84
1.91
1.91
1.99
2
2.04
2.06
2.07
2.13
2.16
2.21
2.28
2.29
2.35
2.36
2.42
2.43
2.5
2.55
2.57
2.65
2.66
2.67
2.72
2.79
2.80
2.87
2.89
2.93
2.94
2.96
3
3.01
3.06
3.09
3.16
3.18
3.24
3.31
3.38
3.44
millibars
(mbar)
50
51.7
52.3
54.8
56.0
57.3
59.7
60
60.3
62.3
64.6
64.7
67.2
67.7
68.9
69.7
70
72.2
73.3
74.7
77.2
77.6
79.7
80
81.9
82.2
84.7
86.2
87.2
89.6
90
90.5
92.1
94.6
94.8
97.1
98.0
99.1
99.6
100
101.5
102.0
103.4
104.5
107
107.7
109.5
112
114.5
116.3
70
PRESSURE CONVERSIONS
inches
water
("w.c.)
47
48
48.5
49
50
50.23
51
51.96
52
53
53.69
54
54.4
55.4
68
78.7
80.32
81.6
83.14
95.2
108.8
110.8
120.5
138.6
160.6
166.3
194
196.9
200.8
221.7
241
249.4
277.1
281.1
321.3
361.4
393.7
401.6
415.7
554
693
831
970
1108
1386
1663
1940
2217
2494
2771
ounces/
sq in
(osi)
27.14
27.71
28
28.29
28.87
29
29.45
30
30.02
30.6
31
31.18
31.41
32
39.26
45.46
46.4
47.11
48
55
62.8
64
69.6
80
92.8
96
112
113.7
116
128
139
144
160
162
186
209
227
232
240
320
400
480
560
640
800
960
1120
1280
1440
1600
lb/sq in
(psi)
1.7
1.73
1.75
1.77
1.80
1.81
1.84
1.88
1.88
1.91
1.94
1.95
1.96
2
2.45
2.84
2.9
2.94
3
3.44
3.93
4
4.35
5
5.8
6
7
7.1
7.25
8
8.7
9
10
10.15
11.6
13.05
14.21
14.5
15
20
25
30
35
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
inches
mercury
("Hg)
3.46
3.53
3.57
3.60
3.68
3.69
3.75
3.82
3.82
3.9
3.95
3.97
4
4.07
5
5.79
5.91
6
6.11
7
8
8.15
8.87
10.2
11.8
12.2
14.3
14.5
14.8
16.3
17.7
18.3
20.4
20.7
23.6
26.6
28.9
29.6
30.6
40.7
51
61.1
71.3
81.5
101.9
122.3
142.6
163.0
183.4
203.8
millibars
(mbar)
116.9
119.4
120.7
121.9
124.4
125
126.9
129.3
129.4
131.9
133.6
134.4
135.4
137.8
169.2
195.8
200
203
207
237
271
276
300
345
400
414
483
490
500
552
600
621
689
700
800
900
980
1000
1034
1378
1724
2068
2414
2757
3449
4138
4827
5516
6206
6895
71
kilograms/
sq cm
(kg/cm2)
.119
.122
.123
.124
.127
.128
.13
.132
.132
.135
.136
.137
.138
.141
.173
.2
.204
.207
.211
.242
.276
.282
.306
.352
.408
.422
.493
.5
.510
.563
.612
.634
.703
.714
.816
.918
1
1.02
1.06
1.41
1.76
2.11
2.46
2.81
3.52
4.22
4.93
5.63
6.33
7.04
millimeters kilowater
pascals
(mm H2O) (kPa)
1194
11.7
1219
12
1232
12.1
1245
12.2
1270
12.5
1276
12.5
1295
12.7
1320
12.9
1321
12.9
1346
13.2
1364
13.4
1372
13.4
1382
13.5
1408
13.8
1727
16.9
2000
19.6
2040
20
2072
20.3
2112
20.7
2418
23.7
2763
27.1
2816
27.6
3060
30
3517
34.5
4080
40
4223
41.4
4927
48.3
5000
49.0
5100
50
5631
55.2
6120
60
6335
62.1
7033
68.9
7140
70
8160
80
9180
90
10,000
98.0
10,200
100
10,559
103.4
14,072
137.8
17,602
172.4
21,107
206.8
24,638
241.3
28,143
275.8
35,204
344.7
42,240
413.7
49,276
482.6
56,312
551.6
63,348
620.5
70,383
689.5
INDEX
Abbreviations
Air
effect of altitude
effect of pressure
effect of temp.
infiltration
pipe
sizing
pressure losses
Air Heating
heat requirements
Alloys
thermal capacities
Area
of circles
Available Heat
definition
charts
Black Body Radiation
Blowers
as suction device
fan laws
horsepower
ratings
Boilers
Btu/hr. & H.P.
conversion factors
sizing steam pipe
Butane
butane/air mixtures
properties
Cv
Circles
areas
circumferences
Circumference
of circles
Coefficients of Discharge
Cones, Pyrometric
Conversions
boilers
h.p. & Btu/hr.
general
oil viscosity
pressure
temperature, F & C
Crucibles
capacities & dimensions
Drills
sizes
tap drill sizes
Duct Velocity
Efficiency, Thermal
Electrical
formulas
motor current
motor starters
NEMA enclosures
ohms law
symbols
wire specs
Equivalent Length
pipe
valves
Fan Laws
Fans
see blowers
61
20
20
21
53
16
12
45
40
57, 58
35-36
51
49
20
19
20
18, 19
31
30
32
24
22, 23
16
57, 58
57, 58
57, 58
4
50
30
31
64 thru 68
26
69
69
43
59
60
17
36
33
34
33
34
33
62, 63
33
14
14
19
72
52
16
17
4
52
53
45
46
53
53
53
36
24
51
23
22
22
23
22
22
23
23
22
24
16
22-24,37
22
22
22
35-36
35-36
35-36
44
48
47
35-36
41
44
47
52
41-42
47
40
34
33
33
22-23
35-36
48
33
25
27
27, 28
29
27
26
26
Orifices
capacities
high pressure
low pressure
coefficients of discharge
flow formulas
Pipe
capacities
dimensions
fittings
dimensions
equivalent length
flange templates
pressure losses
air
natural gas
oil
sizing
air, gas & mixture
air, quick method
branch
steam
water
Pressure, Conversions
Propane
propane/air mixtures
properties
see also Gases
Pyrometric Cones
Radiant Tubes
Radiation, Black Body
Refractory
Sheet Metal
gauges
weights
Spray Washers
heat loss factors
heat requirements
nozzle capacities
Steam
pipe sizing
properties
terminology
Symbols
electrical
Temperature
F & C
flame tip
refractory face
required, various processes
Thermal
capacities, metals & alloys
efficiency
head, furnaces
properties, materials
Turndown
furnace
Valves
Cv and flow
equivalent pipe length
Velocity, Duct
Washers, spray
heat requirements
Wire
gauges
specifications
weights
9-11
5-8
4
4
54
54
55
14
60
12
13, 14
27, 28
15
15
16
32
31
69-71
24
22, 23
50
43
49
44
56
56
48
48
48
32
30
30
62, 63
68
52
44
41
40
36
53
37
36
16
14
17
48
56
33
56
Tech Notes
Table Of Contents
Incineration
I-1
Heating Values of Flammable Liquids (Page 108)
Part L-
Liquid
L-1
L-2
L-3
Heating
Immersion Tube Sizing (Page 110)
Submerged Combustion (Page 112)
Immersion Tubes-What Will The Stack Temperature Be? (Page 116)
Part O- Ovens
O-1
Determining % O2 in a Recirculating System (Page 117)
73
Tech Notes
Section I
Sheet 656
Series TVT two-valve mixing tees lack a tapered discharge sleeve, so they are not as
efficient as LP Proportional Mixers. Their performance will also be strongly affected
by downstream piping, so use them only where gas pressure available at the mixer
connection exceeds mixture pressure by:
3" w.c. for natural or LP gas (except 166-24-TVT, which requires 7" w.c.)
6" w.c. for coke oven gas
8" w.c. for digester gas
For coke oven or digester gas, do not use the 84-16, 124-24 or 166-24; their gas inlets
are too small. Also, do not use any of these mixers with producer gas. Producer gas
flows far exceed the capacity of the gas orifices and inlet connections.
1.
CFH air flow through the mixer (if customer specifies Btu/hr, divide by 100 to
Selection Procedure:
2.
3.
1.
Refer to Table I, page 75. Select a mixer whose maximum air capacity is higher
than the required air flow.
2.
To size the air jet, subtract the mixture pressure from the air pressure. This
gives you the air pressure drop available across the mixer. Then refer to the
graph. Locate the desired air flow on the horizontal axis and the air pressure
drop on the vertical axis. Locate the point where they intersect and then move
right to the next diagonal line. That line represents the optimum jet size.
3.
Cross-check the air jet size against Table I to be sure it is within the range of
sizes available for the mixer. If it isnt, select the next larger size of mixer to
avoid taking a higher pressure drop.
74
Air Jet
Part No.
Range of
Jet Sizes
1/32nds of
an inch
900
2000
2000
021702550255-
10 - 16
12 - 25
12 - 25
84-16-TVT
86-24-TVT
124-24-TVT
3500
3500
8000
022502250695-
18 - 36
18 - 36
32 - 56
Natural, LP
Natural, LP, Coke Oven, Digester
Natural, LP
126-24-TVT
166-24-TVT
168-30-TVT
8000
15,000
15,000
069509940994-
32 - 56
36 - 80
36 - 80
Mixer
Catalog
No.
Maximum
Air Flow,
scfh
44-17-TVT
64-16-TVT
66-24-TVT
10
11
12
13
23
22
14 15 16 17 18 19 20
24
25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 42
46 50 54
26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
44
48 52 56
30
58
25
60
20
62
64
66
15
68
70
72
74
10
9
76
78
80
8
7
6
200
300
400
500
600
800
Maximum
For 44-17 TVT
1000
1500
2000
Maximum
For 64-16
& 66-24 TVT
3000
Max. For
84-16 &
86-24 TVT
75
4000
5000 6000
Maximum For
124-24 &
126-24 TVT
8000 10,000
Max. For
166-24 &
168-30 TVT
15,000
Tech Notes
Section I
Sheet 810/812
Sizing Pilots, Blast Tips & Pilot Mixers With Flow Charts
Selection Factors
Air
PA - PM = Mixture
YY
ZZ
Mixture Pressure
P
M
P
A
Desired Tip
1. From the tip capacity chart on page 77, find the required
mixture pressure. Do not exceed 8" w.c. mixture pressure,
unless youve chosen a Cumapart (CP) tip or blast tip.
XX
Desired Btu/hr.
2. Subtract the mixture pressure (P ) found in Step 1 from the air presM
sure (PA) which is available at the mixer. The difference is the mixer
pressure drop.
3. Figure the total air flow through the mixer by the following equation:
Btu/hr. per tip x number of tips
cfh air =
100
C(
123
4
4. Next, refer to the mixer air capacity charts (page 78 for Series 121 mixers and page 79 for Series 131). To use the charts properly, follow the
directions below:
AB
Pressure Drop
Air Flow
5. Do not use the Series 121 mixers above 300 scfh air or the Series 131
mixers above 600 scfh airotherwise pipe velocities are too high.
76
1
2
3
4
5
6
10
77
20
5R
A
4E
P
4R
A
3E
P
8
AF
I
AF
I
5R
4F
3F
4R
3R
2-NAFI
2F
3R
6-KAF
3C
P
5- K
1F
3 -K
4 -K
2C
20 P
- ST
1C
P
2 -K
1 -K
1
100
50
12
1-4
6(
14
52
0-1
)
12
1-4
2(
14
12
52
1-4
0-2
0(
)
14
52
0-1
7)
12
1-3
6(
14
52
0-3
)
12
1-3
0(
14
52
0-1
6)
121-25 (14520-5)
121-22 (14520-6)
40
121-18 (14520-7)
30
121-17 (14520-15)
121-12 (14520-8)
20
121-10 (14520-14)
121-8 (14520-13)
121-6 (14520-12)
121-4 (14520-11)
P Across
P
AcrossMixer,
Mixer,"w.c.
"w.c.
121-7/32 (14520-9)
121-1 (14520-10)
10
6
5
4
1
10
15
20
30
40
50
60
80
100
78
150
200
300
4-8
25
)
1 -1
3 /6
4(
10
4 -3
25
25
10
13
1 -6
(1 0
4(
40
13
)
4 -2
25
(1 0
1 /6
1 -1
13
13
50
1 -5
(1 0
1 -4
13
25
4 -1
4-1
4)
131-7 (10254-4)
131-15/64 (10254-9)
131-8 (10254-5)
30
131-17/64 (10254-10)
131-9 (10254-6)
20
131-19/64 (10254-11)
P Across
P
AcrossMixer,
Mixer,"w.c.
"w.c.
131-10 (10254-7)
131-21/64 (10254-15)
10
6
5
4
1
20
30
40
50
60
80
100
150
200
79
300
400
500 600
Tech Notes
Section 2
Sheet A-1
% OxygenDry Sample
% OxygenSaturated Sample
Figure 1:
Flue Gas Constituents
vs. % Excess Air
15
10
400
600
800
1000
1200
% Excess Air
80
1400
1600
1800
2000
Tech Notes
Section 2
Sheet A-2
Figure 1:
Theoretical Flame
Temperature vs. Preheat
Both preheated air and oxygen enrichment increase the theoretical temperature of burner flames. The following graphs show their effect on the
theoretical flame temperature of natural gas, which, with 60F combustion air and 21% oxygen, would be about 3500 - 3550 F.
Theoretical Flame Temp., F
General Remarks:
4500
4000
3500
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
5200
Figure 2:
Theoretical Flame
Temperature vs. O2 in Air
Flame Temperature, F
4800
4400
4000
3600
20
40
60
% Oxygen In Air
81
80
100
Tech Notes
Section 2
Sheet A-3
The graph below shows available heat as a function of flue gas temperature
and percent oxygen in the combustion air stream. These curves were calculated for natural gas with combustion air at 60F.
100
Figure 1:
Available Heat vs.
Oxygen Enrichment
% Available Heat
80
60
100% O 2
40
35% O 2
20
25% O 2
20.9% O 2
0
2000
2200
2400
2600
82
2800
3000
Tech Notes
Section 2
Sheet A-4
90
80
70
% Available Heat
Figure 1:
Available Heat vs. Flue
Gas Exit Temperature, F
100
350%
400%
60
% Excess Air
500%
50
600%
40
800%
30
1000%
0%
0%
10
50
0%
30
10
15
0%
1200%
0%
20
25
20
0
10 %
%
25
%
200
600
1000
1400
1800
83
2200
2600
3000
Tech Notes
Section 2
Sheet C-1
Control System
System
Cost*
Required
Gas
Pressure**
Hi-Low
On-ratio,
characterized valve
On-ratio, electronic
Excess air,
fuel-only control
Excess air,
biased proportionator
Excess air,
throttled impulse
*
**
***
L to M
Modulating
If backpressure
fluctuates, does system
maintain constant:
Firing Rate?
Fuel-Air
Ratio?
On multiple burner
zones, if one is
shut off, do the
others hold their
ratio?
No
***
No
No
***
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
***
No
No
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
H
L to M
84
Tech Notes
Section 2
Sheet C-2
Air and gas passages in the burner are the fixed resistances in the system.
Control valves in the air and gas lines are the variable resistance. The two
valves are connected by linkages to a common drive motor so that, in theory,
they open and close in proportion, maintaining a fixed air-gas ratio over
the systems turndown range.
FUEL
Advantages
Valve operation can be readily understoodconfidence builder for persons unfamiliar with control systems.
Working parts are visiblelittle chance that a hidden defect is present.
Can be used with low gas supply pressures. If a large enough gas valve is
selected, the pressure required is only a little higher than the burner gas
nozzle pressure (2 in above figure).
Inexpensive.
(continued on page 86)
85
Disadvantages
Goes More
Positive (+), Then:
Stays The
Same (o), Then:
Goes More
Negative (-), Then:
No change
No change
No change
No change
No change
If air pressure at the burner is higher than the gas pressure (this is usually the case), they can be made equal by installing a limiting orifice valve
between the gas control valve and burner and adjusting it until pressure
(2) equals pressure (1). However, this negates one of the advantages of
linked valve systemsthe low gas pressure requirement.
If the air supply becomes starved due to a dirty blower wheel or a plugged
filter, the system will go rich. The gas valve responds only to the mechanical linkage, not to air flow changes.
If multiple burners are controlled by a single set of linked valves, and the
fuel flow to one burner is throttled back manually or shut off entirely,
that fuel will go to the other burners, forcing them to run rich. In addition
to the safety hazard this presents, it makes multiple burners tedious to
set up. Any gas adjustment made to one burner upsets the settings of the
other burners in the zone.
86
Tech Notes
Section 2
Sheet C-3
Air and gas passages in the burner are the fixed resistances in the system.
Control valves are the variable resistances and are connected in tandem to
a common drive motor. Because it is practically impossible to get two fixed
port valves to track together over their turndown range, at least one of the
valves is fitted with an adjustable screw rack which makes the valve open
faster or slower than the linkage calls for. This permits the valves flow
curve to be adjusted to more closely match that of the fixed port valve.
Advantages
Valve operation can be readily understoodconfidence builder for persons unfamiliar with control systems.
Working parts are visiblelittle chance that a hidden defect is present.
Can be used with low gas supply pressures.
Can be used with proportioning or high-low control systems.
Disadvantages
FUEL
87
Disadvantages (continued)
And Chamber Pressure
If Air Pressure Is
Goes More
Positive (+), Then:
Stays The
Same (o), Then:
Goes More
Negative (-), Then:
No change
No change
No change
No change
No change
If air pressure at the burner is higher than the gas pressure (this is usually the case), they can be made equal by installing a limiting orifice valve
between the gas control valve and burner and adjusting it until pressure
(2) equals pressure (1). However, this negates one of the advantages of
linked valve systemsthe low gas pressure requirement.
If the air supply becomes starved due to a dirty blower wheel or a plugged
filter, the system will go rich. The gas valve responds only to the mechanical linkage, not to air flow changes.
If multiple burners are controlled by a single set of linked valves, and the
fuel flow to one burner is throttled back manually or shut off entirely,
that fuel will go to the other burners, forcing them to run rich. In addition
to the safety hazard this presents, it makes multiple burners tedious to
set up. Any gas adjustment made to one burner upsets the settings of the
other burners in the zone.
88
Tech Notes
Section 2
Sheet C-4
Burner air passage is fixed resistance for air flow. Gas passages in the
burner are usually too large to serve as the fixed resistance, so a limiting
orifice valve is installed at the gas inlet . At setup, this valve is adjusted to
provide the correct gas flow when gas pressure (2) is equal to air pressure
(1). Low fire gas-air ratio is set with spring in Proportionator.
Cross
Connection
FUEL
Proportionator
Advantages
Limiting
Orifice
Easy to set up. Once high and low fire ratios are set, everything in between is taken care of.
Can be used with proportioning or high-low control systems.
No problem with mismatched valve flow curves. Proportionator is slave to
air valve and automatically matches its characteristic curve.
Fuel-air ratio is unaffected by unforeseen changes in combustion chamber pressure.
Although air starvation due to a plugged filter or dirty blower wheel will
cause a loss in firing capacity, it will not cause the system to go rich. The
proportionator automatically reduces fuel flow as the air flow drops off.
On multiple burner systems fed from a single air control valve and
proportionator, changing or shutting off the fuel flow to one burner will
not upset the fuel flow to the others. This makes initial setup easier and
eliminates the hazard of burners in a zone going rich because one of
them has been misadjusted or shut off.
If proportionator permits, this system can be converted to an excess air
system (see page 95) with a simple proportionator spring adjustment.
89
Disadvantages
Requires higher gas pressures. Gas pressure at (3) in the figure on page
89 must equal air pressure at (1) plus gas pressure drop through
proportionator valve.
Operating principles of proportionator are poorly understood, especially
in oven and air heating industry; operators dont know how to set up
systems.
Internal working of proportionator cant be seen. Operators dont know if
its working correctly and, as a result, are afraid of it.
90
Tech Notes
Section 2
Sheet C-5
Bleed Fitting
FUEL
Proportionator
Operating Principle
Limiting
Orifice
Used where proportionator system is desired, but where gas pressure at (3)
is insufficient to make a conventional proportionator system work (see page
89). This set-up is also used where the loading pressure on the proportionator
is equal to or higher than the maximum inlet gas pressure the proportionator
can tolerate. An adjustable bleed fittingbasically a needle valve in a tee
reduces the loading pressure (4) on the proportionator to a pressure at
least 2" w.c. lower than the inlet gas pressure (3). This permits the
proportionator to respond to changes in air loading pressure (1) over the
entire turndown range.
If, for example, high fire air pressure (1) is 20" w.c., but gas supply (3) is
only 13" w.c., the bleeder could be set to bleed off 50% of the air loading
pressure, producing a pressure of 10" w.c. at (4) and (2).
Advantages
Same as the conventional proportionator system (see page 89), except that
combustion chamber pressure fluctuations will cause the system to go offratio. Can be compensated by connecting the vent of the bleed fitting to the
combustion chamber.
Disadvantages
91
Tech Notes
Nozzle Mixing Burners
Ratio Control Using Electronic Controllers
Air Flow
Meter
Fuel Flow
Meter
Section 2
Sheet C-6
Cross
Connection
Primary
Valve
TC
Electronic
Controller
Slave Valve
FUEL
Operating Principle
For all of its sophistication, a variation of the linked valve system. In this
case, the linkage is electronic instead of mechanical. This system is also
known as a mass flow control system, although this a misnomerthe
flow signals fed to the controller are related either to pressure differential
or to flow velocity.
The air and fuel lines each contain a motor-driven control valve and a flow
metering device (orifice plate & P transmitter, turbine meter, vortex-shedding flowmeter, etc.) One of the control valves is the primary valve, driven
by the temperature controller. The second valve is slaved to the first through
the electronic ratio controller.
Flow meters in the air and fuel lines feed signals proportional to flow to the
controller. The controller compares the signals and, if they are out of ratio,
sends a correcting signal to the slave valve, which then alters its flow to
restore the desired air-fuel ratio.
Advantages
92
Disadvantages
93
Tech Notes
Section 2
Sheet C-7
FUEL
Operating Principle
This system is known as the fuel only control, fixed air or wild air
system; it is the simplest of all excess air systems. A motor-driven valve is
placed in the fuel line, while the air has no flow controllera manual
trimming valve might be installed for servicing or limiting the high fire
flow.
Advantages
Low cost.
Permits attainment of the maximum excess air capability of the burner.
Suitable for high-low or proportioning control.
Disadvantage
If multiple burners are controlled from a single fuel valve, reducing or
shutting off the fuel flow to one of them causes the others to go richer.
94
Tech Notes
Section 2
Sheet C-8
Cross
Connection
FUEL
Proportionator
Operating Principle
Limiting
Orifice
Advantages
Better fuel economy than fuel-only control excess air system (see page
94).
Suitable for high-low or proportioning control.
Unlike fuel-only control system, turning down or shutting off the gas
flow to one burner in a multi-burner system will not cause the others
to go rich.
Disadvantages
Not capable of excess air rates as high as the fuel-only control system.
More expensive than fuel-only control system.
95
Tech Notes
Section 2
Sheet C-9
Optional Manual
Trimming Valve
Motor-Driven
Bleed Valve
Limiting
Orifice
Operating Principle
Advantage
Of all the excess air control systems, this one probably has the best
combination of sensitivity and a wide operating range.
Disadvantages
Like fixed bleed orifice sytems, this control system can be upset by accumulations of airborne dirtand unauthorized tampering.
The only valve proven suitable as a motor-driven bleed valve is the North
American 3/8" Adjustable Port Valve. Even 3/8" motorized oil valves
whether Eclipses, Haucks or North Americanslack the sensitivity for
this application.
96
Tech Notes
Section 2
Sheet C-10
Method:
Power
Supply
Pressure
Controller
TC
PC
Temperature
Controller
Motorized
Trim Valve
Blower
Main Air
Control Valve
ABP
Example:
ALO
Differential Pressures,
"W.C.
A-B
B-C C-D
A-C
A-D
Must Be
Constant
B-D
Firing
Rate
Back
Press
High
0" w.c.
5" w.c.
10" w.c.
30
30
30
15
20
25
10
15
20
0
5
10
15
10
5
5
5
5
10
10
10
20
15
10
30
25
20
15
15
15
Low
0" w.c.
5" w.c.
10" w.c.
30
30
30
15
20
25
1
6
11
0
5
10
15
10
5
14
14
14
1
1
1
29
24
19
30
25
20
15
15
15
97
Tech Notes
Section 2
Sheet E-2
Various Fuels
NOX
Measured
As NO2
CO
.001187
.001185
.001212
.001317
.000722
.000721
.000735
.000801
Aldehydes,
Unburned Hydrocarbons,
Measured As
Measured As:
Formaldehyde Methane
Propane
.000781
.000780
.000798
.000867
.000416
.000415
.000424
.000461
.001147
.001146
.001172
.001273
CO2
SO2
.001147
.001146
.001172
.001273
.001672
.001669
.001707
.001854
Various Fuels
NOX
Measured
As NO2
CO
842
844
825
759
1385
1387
1361
1248
Aldehydes,
Unburned Hydrocarbons,
Measured As
Measured As:
Formaldehyde Methane
Propane
1280
1282
1253
1153
2404
2410
2358
2169
872
873
853
786
CO2
SO2
872
873
853
786
598
599
586
539
Various Fuels
NOX
Measured
As NO2
CO
Aldehydes,
Measured As
Formaldehyde
.001017
.001018
.001042
.001133
.000617
.000619
.000634
.00069
.00067
.00067
.000686
.000746
Unburned Hydrocarbons,
Measured As:
Methane
Propane
.000356
.000356
.000365
.000397
.000983
.000984
.001007
.001096
CO2
SO2
.000983
.000984
.001007
.001096
.001432
.001434
.001468
.001596
* 1002 Gross Btu/cubic foot, 8.48 Cubic feet dry flue products at stoichiometric ratio.
** Calculated as heptadecane, C17 H36, 19,270 Gross Btu/lb.
98
Various Fuels
NOX
Measured
As NO2
CO
983
982
960
883
1621
1616
1577
1449
2809
2809
2740
2519
1017
1016
983
912
CO2
SO 2
1017
1016
983
912
698
697
681
627
Emission
NOX
Measured
As NO2
CO
.002031
.001235
.000716
.001969
CO2
SO 2
.001965
.002861
NOX
Measured
As NO2
CO
Aldehydes,
Measured As
Formaldehyde
492.4
809.7
745.7
Unburned Hydrocarbons,
Measured As:
Methane
Propane
1396.6
507.9
CO2
SO2
508.9
349.5
* 1002 Gross Btu/cubic foot, 8.48 Cubic feet dry flue products at stoichiometric ratio.
** Calculated as heptadecane, C17H36, 19,270 Gross Btu/lb.
99
Tech Notes
Section 2
Sheet E-3
21 - % O2 base
21 - % O2 test
100
%O 2
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
18.5
19
19.5
20
20.2
20.4
20.6
20.8
3%O 2
11%O2
.86
.9
.95
1
1.06
1.13
1.2
1.29
1.38
1.5
1.64
1.8
2.0
2.25
2.57
3.0
3.6
4.5
6
7.2
9
12
18
22.5
30
45
90
.48
.5
.53
.56
.59
.63
.67
.71
.77
.83
.91
1
1.11
1.25
1.43
1.67
2
2.5
3.33
4
5
6.67
10
12.5
16.67
25
50
Tech Notes
Section 2
Sheet H-1
% Savings=
Because available heat figures vary with the composition of the fuel and
the amount of excess air, one suppliers fuel savings data may be different
from anothers by one or two percentage points. More often than not, the
tables will be based on natural gas at 10% excess air.
Percent Effectiveness
% Effectiveness=
x100
101
% Effectiveness
90%
1500
Figure 1:
Heat Exchanger
Effectiveness Curves
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
1000
30%
20%
500
10%
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
102
3000
TechNotes
Section 2
Sheet R-1
All safety divices must be listed for their intended service (7.2.1), including purge and ignition timers
(7.2.3).
2)
Safety control circuits must be single phase, one side grounded, with all breaking contacts in the
hot, ungrounded, circuit protected line not exceeding 120V. (7.2.11)
3)
Prior to energizing spark or lighting pilot, a timed pre-purge of at least four standard cubic feet of air
per cubic foot of heating chamber volume is required (7.4.1).
a) Airflow must be proven & maintained during the purge.
b) Safety shutoff valve must be closed and when the chamber input exceeds 400,000 Btu/hr
(117 kW) it must be proved closed and interlocked. Proof of closure can be achieved by either a
proof of closure switch on at least one valve or a valve proving system.
4)
Exceptions to a re-purge are allowed for momentary shutdowns if (any one): (7.4.1.5)
a) Each burner is supervised, each has safety shutoff valves, and the fuel accumulation in the
heating chamber can not exceed 25% of lower explosive limit.
b) Each burner is supervised, each has safety shutoff valves, and at least one burner remains on in
same chamber.
c) The chamber temperature is more than 1400F (760C).
5)
Exception to the pre-purge is allowed for explosion resistant radiant tube systems. (7.4.1.4)
6)
All safety interlocks must be connected in series ahead of the safety shutoff valves. Interposing
relays are allowed when the required load exceeds the rating of available safety contacts or where
safety logic requires separate inputs, AND the contact goes to a safe state on loss of power, AND
each relay serves only one interlock. (7.2.7)
7)
Any motor starters required for combustion must be interlocked into the safety circuit. (7.6.3)
8)
A listed manual reset excess temperature limit control is required except where the system design
can not exceed the maximum safe temperature. (7.16)
9)
The user has the responsibility for establishing a program of inspection, testing, and maintenance
with documentation performed at least annually. (7.2.5.2)
The scope of NFPA 86 extends to all the factors involved in the safe operation of ovens and furnaces, and
anyone designing or building them should be familiar with the entire standard. Copies can be purchased from:
The National Fire Protection Association
1 Batterymarch Park
Quincy, MA 02269-9101
800-344-3555 (508-895-8300 if outside U.S.)
www.nfpa.org
103
Piping Schematic
Gas
6
4
2
12
13
9
11
Gas Flow
Controls
10
16
11
11
15
10
Air Flow
Controls
Item
14
Description
Reference
Paragraph
Facility to install drip leg or sediment trap for each fuel supply line. Must be a minimum of 3 long.
6.2.5.3
Individual manual shutoff valve to each piece of equipment. 1/4 turn valves recommended.
6.2.5.1
6.2.5.3.3
Pressure regulator required wherever plant supply pressure exceeds level required for proper burner function
or is subject to excessive fluctuations.
6.2.5.4
Regulator vent to safe location outside the building with water protection & bug screen.
Vent piping not required for listed regulator/vent limiter combination. Vent piping not required for ratio
regulator/zero governor.
Gas pressure switches may be vented to regulator vent lines if backloading wont occur.
Over pressure protection required if gas pressure at regulator inlet exceeds rating of any downstream part.
7.7.1.8
Two listed* safety shutoff valves required for each main and pilot gas burner system. A single valve can be
used for explosion resistant radiant tube systems.
7.7.2.1
Visual position indication required on safety shutoff valves to burners or pilots in excess of 150,000 Btu/hr
(44 kW).
7.7.1.9
10
Proof of closure switch or valve proving system required for capacities over 400,000 Btu/hr (117 kW).
7.7.2.2
11
Permanent and ready means for checking leak tightness of safety shutoff valves.
12
Listed* low gas pressure switch (normally open, makes on pressure rise).
7.7.2.3
7.8.1
13
Listed* high gas pressure switch (normally closed, breaks on pressure rise).
14
Flame Supervision:
Piloted burners
- Continuous pilot: Two flame sensors must be used, one for the pilot flame and one for the main burner flame.
- Intermittent pilot: Can use a single flame sensor for self-piloted burners (from same port as main, or
has a common flame base and has a common flame envelope with the main flame).
- Interrupted pilot: A single flame sensor is allowed.
Line, Pipe, Radiant burners
- If the burners are adjacent and light safely and reliably from burner to burner, then a single sensor is
allowed if it is located at the farthest end from the source of ignition.
15
6.2.5.4.8
7.8.2
7.9.2
7.9.2.1
7.9.2.2
Spark Ignition:
Except for explosion resistant radiant tube systems, direct spark igniters must be shut off after main burner
trial-for-ignition.
If a burner must be ignited at reduced input (forced low fire start), an ignition interlock must be provided to
prove control valve position.
Trial-for-ignition of the pilot or main must not exceed 15 seconds. An exception is allowed where fuel
accumulation in the heating chamber can not exceed 25% of the lower explosive limit and the authority
having jurisdiction approves a written request for extended time.
16
6.2.5.4
Listed* combustion air flow or pressure proving switch (normally open, makes on pressure rise).
7.4.2.4
7.15
7.4.2
7.6.2
*Underwriters Laboratory (UL) listing is accepted throughout the United States. Listed products can be found in the UL Gas and Oil
Equipment Directory, available from Underwriters Laboratory, Inc. Publications Stock, 333 Pfingsten Road, Northbrook, IL 60062-2096.
Factory Mutual (FM) listed equipment is also acceptable in most jurisdictions and can be found in the FM Approval Guide available from
Factory Mutual Research Corporation, 115 Boston-Providence Turnpike, Norwood, MA 02062.
104
Tech Notes
Section 2
Sheet R-2
General Remarks:
These schematic and notes condense the gas burner system requirements of GE Global Asset Protection
Services - Industrial Risk Insurers (IRI) publications IM.4.2.0 OVENS AND FURNACES - NFPA 86-1999 and
IM.4.2.1 HEAT TREAT FURNACES WITH INTERNAL QUENCH TANKS. They should provide most of the
engineering information required to lay out burner air and gas trains. IRI follows the requirements of NFPA 86 but
makes additional clarifications and changes for increased safety.
In addition to the requirements shown on the following schematic, IRI also requires that the combustion control
system have the following features. Numbers in parenthesis reference the paragraphs in IM.4.2.0, IM.4.2.1, and
NFPA 86.
1) NFPA: Safety control circuits must be single phase, one side grounded, with all breaking contacts in the
hot, ungrounded, circuit protected line and not exceed 120V. IRI: Any time delay used to avoid nuisance
shutdowns from momentary power fluctuations cannot exceed 5 seconds and any timer must not be
adjustable above this maximum. (5-2)
2) NFPA: Prior to energizing spark or lighting pilot, a timed pre-purge of at least four standard cubic feet of
air per cubic foot of heating chamber volume is required. IRI: Any adjustable purge timer must clearly
show its setting, have limited access, and be periodically inspected. Any employee with access must be
trained on its setting and consequences if not set properly. (5-4.1.2)
a. NFPA: Airflow must be proven and maintained during the purge. IRI: The location of pressure
switch sensing points must be analyzed against all other conditions (such as dirt accumulation
and damper positions in the system) to assure it will truly prove the required airflow. (5-4.1.2.1)
b. NFPA: Where the capacity exceeds 400,000 Btu/hr (117kW) at least one of the safety shutoff
valves must be proved closed and interlocked to the purge. IRI: Both safety shutoff valves shall
be proved closed and interlocked. (5-7.2.2)
3) IRI: The trial for ignition for pilots or main burners must not exceed 10 seconds. (5-4.2.1, 5-4.2.2)
Directly control the spark from a listed flame safeguard. (5-2.3)
4) NFPA: All safety interlocks must be connected in series ahead of the safety shutoff valves. Interposing
relays are allowed when the required load exceeds the rating of available safety contacts, or where the
safety logic requires separate inputs, AND the contact goes to safe state on loss of power, AND each
relay serves only one interlock. IRI: An interposing relay can be powered by more than one safety limit if
the safety shutoff valves derive power in series through the limits. When one limit opens then the fuel is
shutoff to all burners that use the interposing relay as a permissive. (5-2.7)
5) NFPA: Any motor starters, circulation, and exhaust fans required for safe combustion or purge must be
proven. (5-6.3) IRI: Use a rotation switch if pressure switches or sail switches are not suitable. (5-5.1)
6) NFPA-IRI: A listed manual reset excess temperature limit control is required except where the system
design cannot exceed the maximum safe temperature. (5-16)
7) NFPA-IRI: Piping and electrical schematics of the proposed system must be submitted to the local IRI
office in whose jurisdiction the system will be located. Drawings must include the various device settings,
switch positions, configurations and notes on options. Stamped approval is required before construction
begins. (1-4)
8) NFPA-IRI: The user has the responsibility to establish a program of inspection, testing, and maintenance
with documentation performed at least annually. (5-2.5.2)
105
Piping Schematic
5
17
6
8
7
4
8
9
12
13
9
2
Gas
Gas Flow
Controls
10
15
10
11
16
Air Flow
Controls
Item
14
Reference
Paragraph
Description
Facility to install drip leg or sediment trap for each fuel supply line. Must be a minimum of 3 long.
4-2.4.4
Individual manual shutoff valve to each piece of equipment. 1/4 turn valves recommended. Must be in an
4-2.4.1
Pressure regulator required wherever plant supply pressure exceeds level required for proper burner function
or is subject to excessive fluctuations.
Regulator vent to safe location outside the building with water protection & bug screen.
Vent piping can terminate inside the building when gas is lighter than air, vent contains restricted orifice,
and there is sufficient building ventilation, where there are high clearances between the equipment and
roof and there are no ignition sources.
Vent piping not required for lighter than air gases at less than 1 psi, vent contains restricted orifice, and
there is sufficient ventilation. Vent piping not required for ratio regulator.
Gas pressure switches may be vented to regulator vent lines if backloading wont occur. No vent line
required if switch has no diaphragm.
4-2.4.5.5
Relief valve required if gas pressure at regulator inlet exceeds rating of safety shutoff valve. Physical
location can be upstream to meet application requirements.
5-7.1.7
Two listed* safety shutoff valves required for each main and pilot gas burner system. Both safety shutoff
valves must close after interruption of interlocks, combustion safeguard, or operating controls; no exceptions
allowed for multiple burner systems. A single valve can be used for explosion resistant radiant tube systems.
5-7.2.1
5-7.1.2
Position indication (not proof-of-closure) required on safety shutoff valves to burners or pilots in excess of
150,000 Btu/hr (44 kW). Electrical indicators must not replace mechanical indicators.
5-7.1.8
10
For capacities over 400,000 Btu/hr (117 kW) both safety shutoff valves must have a closed position switch to
interlock with the pre-purge.
5-7.2.2
11
Permanent and ready means for checking leak tightness of safety shutoff valves. Test in progressive
intervals starting weekly, monthly, quarterly, then annually.
5-7.2.3
12
Listed* low gas pressure switch (normally open, makes on pressure rise).
5-8.1
13
Listed* high gas pressure switch (normally closed, breaks on pressure rise).
5-8.2
14
Flame Supervision:
Piloted burners
- Continuous pilot: Two flame sensors must be used, one for the pilot flame and one for the main burner flame.
- Intermittant pilot: Can use a single flame sensor for self-piloted burners (from same port as main, or
has a common flame base and has a common flame envelope with the main flame).
- Interrupted pilot: A single flame sensor is allowed.
Line, Pipe, Radiant burners
- If the burners are adjacent and light safely and reliably from burner to burner, then a single sensor is
allowed if it is located at the farthest end from the source of ignition.
Continuous (>24 hr) operation with UV scanners must use self checking style scanners (or use flame rods
instead).
4-2.4.5.1
4-2.4.5.2
5-9
5-9.2.1
5-9.2.2
5-9.2
Reference
Paragraph
Description
Spark Ignition:
5-15.2
Except for explosion resistant radiant tube systems, direct spark igniters must be shut off after main
burner trial-for-ignition.
If a burner must be ignited at reduced input (forced low fire start), an ignition interlock must be provided to
prove control valve position.
Trial-for-ignition of the pilot or main must not exceed 10 seconds. An exception is allowed where fuel
accumulation in the heating chamber can not exceed 25% of the lower explosive limit and the authority
having jurisdiction approves a written request for extended time.
Manual (pushbutton) ignition systems must be designed to prevent further spark after the trial-for-ignition
until a full purge is first completed.
5-4.2.2
16
Listed* combustion air flow or pressure proving switch (normally open, makes on pressure rise).
5-6.4
17
A Listed* normally open (N.O.) vent valve with vent pipe run to a safe outside location is required when the line
capacity exceeds 400,000Btu/hr (117kW). Do not manifold to other vent lines. Size the vent line according to the
following table.
5-15.1
5-15
5-7.2.1
1
1
1
2
2
3
3
As an alternate to using a vent valve, use a valve tightness proving system that is automatically activated
upon startup and shutdown
*Underwriters Laboratory (UL) listing is accepted throughout the United States. Listed products can be found in the UL Gas and Oil
Equipment Directory, available from Underwriters Laboratory, Inc. Publications Stock, 333 Pfingsten Road, Northbrook, IL 60062-2096.
Factory Mutual (FM) listed equipment is also acceptable in most jurisdictions and can be found in the FM Approval Guide available from
Factory Mutual Research Corporation, 115 Boston-Providence Turnpike, Norwood, MA 02062.
107
Tech Notes
Section 3
Sheet I-1
Designers of fume incinerators are sometimes concerned about the heating value of the solvents being incinerated. The table below lists approximate heating values of various commercial solvents and flammable liquids, calculated from the references at the bottom of page 109.
Liquid
Acetone
n-Amyl Acetate
sec-Amyl Acetate
Amyl Alcohol
87,360
105,670
105,670
110,290
13,040
14,410
14,410
16,220
Benzene (Benzol)
n-Butyl Acetate
n-Butyl Alcohol
sec-Butyl Alcohol
Butyl Cellosolve (Glycol Monobutyl Ether)
Butyl Propionate
132,150
97,480
104,760
104,760
105,630
106,060
18,100
13,250
15,640
15,640
14,040
14,130
Camphor
143,010
Carbon Disulfide
61,210
91,960
Cellosolve (Ethylene Glycol Monoethyl)
Cellosolve Acetate (Ethylene Glycol Monoethyl Ether Acetate)
87,140
Chlorobenzene-mono
105,420
m- or p-Cresol
122,870
Cyclohexane
130,300
Cyclohexanone
117,900
p-Cymene
146,000
Denatured Alcohol
Dibutyl Phthalate
o-Dichlorobenzene
N-Dimethyl Formamide
p-Dioxane (Diethylene Dioxide)
Ethyl Acetate
Ethyl Alcohol
Ethyl Ether
68,670 *
109,630
86,330
85,340
89,380
82,420
84,250
93,730
108
17,150
5,650
11,790
10,720
11,490
14,730
20,050
15,710
19,450
9,930 *
13,150
7,960
11,370
10,720
10,990
12,770
16,060
Liquid
Ethyl Lactate
Ethyl Methyl Ether
Ethyl Propionate
78,990
86,700
90,970
Gasoline
129,000 *
21,050 *
Hexane
113,850
20,700
131,000137,000 * 19,70019,900 *
Methyl Acetate
Methyl Alcohol
Methyl Carbitol (Diethylene Glycol Methyl Ether)
Methyl Cellosolve
Methyl Cellosolve Acetate
Methyl Ethyl Kerosene (2-Butanone)
Methyl Lactate
71,610
63,490
89,650
81,190
79,530
97,710
80,160
9,300
9,620
10,340
10,080
9,470
14,580
8,810
Nitrobenzene
Nitroethane
Nitromethane
1-Nitropropane
2-Nitropropane
90,170
50,190
17,010
66,290
65,760
9,010
5,470
1,850
7,950
7,950
Propyl Acetate
Propyl Alcohol
iso-Propyl Alcohol
n-Propyl Ether
Pyridine
85,770
96,560
93,160
109,280
122,210
11,430
14,410
14,120
17,470
14,920
Toluene
Turpentine
131,970
163,500 *
18,330
20,000 *
71,610
9,540
135,870
18,610
Vinyl Acetate
o-Xylene
References
9,470
14,850
12,290
109
Tech Notes
Section 3
Sheet L-1
In 1944, AGA Testing Laboratories published Research Bulletin No. 24, Research in Fundamentals of Immersion Tube Heating With Gas. This landmark paper established beyond a doubt that the thermal efficiency of immersion tubes was strictly a function of their lengthtube diameter had
no effect. From their tests, AGA also developed an empirical relationship
between thermal efficiency, effective tube length and burner firing rate for
immersion tubes in boiling water:
2
E = 20log
L + 71
R
110
150
E ffec tive
L ength, ft.
.47r
.771r
1.273r
2.113r
3.523r
%
E ffic ienc y
60
65
70
75
80
where r =
heat
transferred
to the tank,
Btu/hr X 1000
80%
75%
100
70%
65%
50
E ffic ienc y
Figure 1:
Immersion Tube
Efficiency vs. Length
60%
Burner Design
Figure 2:
Burner Design vs.
Firing Rate
111
Tech Notes
Section 3
Sheet L-2
Submerged Combustion
Process Description:
Combustor Description:
Over the years a variety of designs have evolved, but most modern units
are some version of either the single-tube or manifold design.
Single Tube
Combustor
Single-tube units have a relatively small coverage area, so their use is restricted to tanks with fairly confined dimensions. On the other hand, manifold-type combustors can be custom-designed to fit tanks of any reasonable dimensions without the need to locate the combustor near the center
of the tank. This permits submerged combustors to be used on dip tanks
and other jobs where the tank volume must be free of obstructions.
System Efficiency:
Submerged combustion gets its reputation for high efficiency from the fact
that the combustion gases come into direct contact with the liquid, creating excellent heat transfer. Below about 140 F, all the water vapor in the
combustion products condenses into the bath, releasing its latent heat of
vaporization and producing thermal efficiencies of 90-95%, based on the
higher heating value of the fuel.
112
Above 140 F water begins to vaporize, and the efficiency drops quickly.
One unusual effect of bubbling combustion products through water is that
it lowers the waters boiling point. For natural gas burned at sea level, the
boiling point is about 190 F; for propane, it is about 180 F. Higher altitudes will depress the boiling point even further. If the purpose of the system is to boil water away, this is an asset, but if its purpose is only heating
water, process thermal efficiency is zero at the boiling point.
From the efficiency curve below, you can see that at 165 F liquid temper
ature, a submerged combustion system has a thermal efficiency of 70%,
equivalent to a conventional immersion tube system. At higher temperatures, it is less efficient. To compete with an 80% efficient immersion tube
such as the IJ Small Bore system, a submerged combustion system would
have to operate at 155 F or less.
100
Figure 1:
Thermal Efficiency
of a Submerged
Combustion System
% Thermal Efficiency
80
60
40
20
0
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Water Temperature, F
System Design:
Custom-built submerged combustion units are available, although many
successful jobs have been done with standard burner equipment.
Tank Depth:
The tank must be deep enough to provide at least 16-20" of bubble path
through the liquid. Shallower tanks will not allow time for optimum heat
transfer. Beyond 20", the improvement in heat transfer is negligible, but
the tank may have to be deeper simply to accommodate the length of the
combustion tube, which has to be large enough to allow completion of the
flame.
Combustor Tube:
All portions of the tube immersed in the tank can be bare metal. Customary
practice is to locate the burner mounting flange within a few inches of the
liquid level so the entire tube can be left bare. Be sure to choose an alloy
that wont corrode in the solution.
113
Distribution Tubes:
Large tanks will require distribution pipes to carry the combustion products throughout the tank. Dont depend on a single combustor isolated
in one corner to provide uniform tank heating.
The effect of hole location (facing up, down or sideways) on heat transfer is probably negligible. However, facing the holes downward aids draining the water out of the manifold when the system is started up. Be
sure to provide a couple of inches clearance between the manifolds and
the tank floor (more, if you expect sludge or debris to accumulate).
Design the manifold so it is free to expand without constraint. Otherwise, broken welds and leaks are sure to result.
When filled with combustion gases, the distribution tube will become
buoyant and try to float. Long, cantilevered tubes will vibrate and thrash
around the tank. Be sure theyre properly anchored to the tank bottom.
Supply Pressures:
Remember that the head pressure of the liquid in the tank has to be added
to all the normal air and gas supply pressures.
Burner:
Nozzle mix burners are strongly preferred; the flashback tendencies of premix
burners can be aggravated by fluctuations in system back pressure.
Moisture Protection:
Flame length should be no more than 1/2 to 2/3 the length of the combustor tube, or the flame is apt to be quenched, forming CO and aldehydes.
High levels of humidity are normal around tanks heated with submerged
combustors. Condensation will tend to collect on spark igniters, flame rods
and scanner cells. Provide them with air purging if this is expected to be a
problem. Use weather-resistant boots on electrode connectors, and all electrical wiring and control boxes should be selected or situated to exclude
moisture. Combustion air blowers should be located where they wont draw
in excessively humid air.
Operating Sequence:
This will be dictated in part by safety requirements, but all systems should
have a prepurge to remove the water from the combustor tube and distribution manifold. Regardless of burner capacity, low fire lightoff is strongly
recommended.
Safety:
Depending on the tank volume and the area over which the combustion
gases are bubbled, the liquid surface will be agitated anywhere from a gentle
rolling motion to a violent boil. Splashing and spilling over the sides of the
tank can occur, and precaution should be taken to avoid exposing workers
and equipment to hot and/or corrosive liquid.
114
References:
Thermal Manual of Submerged Combustion, Thermal Research & Engineering Corp., Conshohocken, PA 1961.
Tank & Solution Heaters for the Chemical Industry AGA Information letter No. 115, N.E. Keith, A.G.A., New York, 1960.
115
Tech Notes
Section 3
Sheet L-3
90
80
70
% Available Heat
Figure 1:
Available Heat vs. Flue
Gas Exit Temperature, F
100
350%
400%
60
% Excess Air
500%
50
600%
40
800%
30
1000%
0%
10
0%
15
50
25
0%
30
10
0%
1200%
0%
%
10
20
0%
25
20
200
600
1000
1400
1800
116
2200
2600
3000
Tech Notes
Section 3
Sheet O-1
Fuel
Combustion
Air
QF
QA
Exhaust, Q X at Temperature, TX
Burner
Fresh
Makeup
Air
QM
Oven
Data Needed:
=stoichiometric air-fuel ratio (e.g., 10:1 for natural gas, 25:1 for propane, or whatever)
117
Procedure:
QE in scfm = QX in acfm x
520
TX + 460
520
The temperature correction factor, T + 460 , equals the specific gravX
ity of the exhaust at temperature TX.
For simplicitys sake, assume the exhaust has properties nearly equal
to air. Then you can use the specific gravity figures on page 21 of the
Eclipse Combustion Engineering Guide.
2. For the oven to be balanced, the sum of fuel to the burner (QF), air to
the burner (QA), and fresh makeup air (QM) must equal the exhaust
volume:
QE = QF + QA + QM
3. Determine the portion of makeup and combustion air which is consumed in burning the fuel. This equals:
R x QF
% O2 = 20.8 x
QE QF R x QF
QE
QE 1 + R QF
QE
Example
For example, we have an oven exhausting 2000 acfm at 600 F. The
burner is rated at 1.8 million Btu/hr on 1000 Btu/cu.ft. natural gas
(10:1 stoichiometric ratio).
At 600 F, the specific gravity of air is .500, so QE = (2000) (.500) = 1000
scfm
QF, the maximum fuel input, is 1,800,000 Btu/hr divided by 1000 Btu/
cu.ft. = 1800 scfh. 1800 cfh divided by 60 minutes = 30 scfm
R, the stoichiometric air-gas ratio, is given as 10:1, so:
% O2 = 20.8 x
118
670
1000
= 13.94%O2