mmID

MILITARY

MEN-AT-ARMS SERIES

TH V

MPIR

210

IAN

200 670

1~1

~I(~()I

J.E PI I))

( ] II{)S'r()PI IER

R( rrIIE){()

EDITOR, MARTIN WINDROW

lmm
MIUT"A.Y

MEl\"-AT-ARMS SERIES

THE VENETIAN
EMPIRE 1200-1670

210

Dedication
I'our :\Iimir.'.

FiN puhli,llI'd in (;1"'.11 Ihil.lill ill

I~~) h~

O'pn~. ;Ill Impl'illt IIr R",.I (:"tNllll"r l~ol1b

Artist's Note

I.ul.

:\ lidwlill 11,111'01.'. 81 Fulh.lII, R, t,;ltl.

IAllltl.,n sw, loRn

.lUli . \Ut k1.llId. "ldIHIIl"',,'. Sillc;.lporo .tlltl T"roilin

t: (:.lp\ric;llllljHtl R'I'fIIIIl'fll.tliu'lallk.H,k., l.tel.

R,prilllt'flllllJ:.!. I~IIII. I!,f,

I,j)(ic;;l. ph"l.,u 11) ill~. n"t.,J'tlill~ Ill' ulh,'''\ i.--.. witlu.H.11 th.,
PI'M Ir plnnls;.,i< HI "r III" n"l~ rit.:111 U\\ ",r. ElItjuirit.... ,h(lul.1
1M' .lddr'......-.c't1ll1 Ih,' l'uilli,I,,.....

~ic:,-,Ik.

O,wid
rl\II-Il-alarms,

21U/

I, 11:lli.tlIl1lilil;ll'~

I. Tillt-

l',n,'

puhli_lwr..\lltlIIluiril-.... ,Iumld
Sn.rpiu Gatl"r~

'M' ;ultln""--.c'fl to:

50 Hi.t.:h Slrl"t."l.

. \lIl'i~hh l'l-.c'I"'Wfl. .\p;"1 li,.,m ,m~ 1.111' tko.llint: fill' tl ...

I>urpo.bt "f pl;\,Il" 'Iud~. n''\t',10 II, "ritici'lIl Ill' n\k,,,. a..;
Ix-ollill"d u'Klt-r 1111' l~)~ ,i~lll 11t',iJ.,'lI' ,\lId l':lI,m..;. \n,
19H1t. 11<) p:ln (,r thi,. puhlit~lli, III 1lI;1} h,' l'l-pl1lChK"t'(1.
slon'1l 111.1 R'lrle\,11 ""I,m. "r 1r.III'mith'1l ill ;1lI~ ronn or
b\ am !U'''I1''. ,1... tnllik. d''1-II'M'11. ,bnllit"l.llIl'1h;lIlit,,1.

TIlt' \',-lIt'llan Empin: I!'HI 17IH',

RC;ldcrs ma~ C:lft 10 11111" Ih.1I t1w IIri.,t.:illal p.lil1lillj.,'J<

from \.hich Ih" ,'olour 1)1;llf'" in Ihi' II(HII. ",'n'
prep:tn-c! an' ;l\';lil;lblt- fur pri\.llt ... tI" .. \11
1't'!)I"l>tlu.-.ioll ('"UIJyl;J,::ht "h.l1'OOt\lr i_ 1't'I:tillt'fl IJ~ Ill,'

l.lOU 17"11

II. SI'l'i,',

355','""915

FiIIllS!'1 ill (il"';l! Hrilaill

Prilllnl Ihl"III.t.:h U"okbllildt'l'll I.Ht. H(Jrl~ K()n~

&1111.-_
~us.",x

Tr-.:33 "E~

TIlt' pllhli~llI'f'\ rel:\r"1 lhal Iht'~ ellll 1'111"1' illl.. Ill!

('"orrespclIldnl'T "1'011 Ihi, malleT.

The IEne/ian Empire 1200-1670

'I'll(' stur)' 01'\' 'Ilice i" lO .'om 'xtcnt separaLr li'om

l!lat ortlH'rl'st or EUI'OI . The.'anw '(t1ldb'S:li I'
L111' cit \ military history an I organi~atioll. Early in
11Ie ~)t h ('('lllliry the \' 'Il(tialls ddl'a ll'd Pepi 11 the
Frank's aw'mpls to \' TaWl' Ihem, and they
J'l'mailll' l. at leasl ill lhcory, sul~jcci 10 B 'zantiUIll,
Gradually. !lO\\T\Tr. \'mice driliccl illl inckpellc!l'nl'e; anc! suhsl'qul'lIt1y canTd OUI its O\\'n l'Jnpir'
a [ Ihl' 'x I l'nse (lr its lurmcr Byza 11 ti 11<: masters,
Their ppsiliol\ on a snies orislane!. .c[ in a marsh)
Ia~()()n at 1he head (I' tl\('
Irialic made the
V('11 ,[ialls \'inually ill\'llln rahle while lhey stndily
built III bCJth Iheir com n1l'rcia I 'Inc! naval strength.
III this till' l;tl11uus ,\rs('I1<11 or cni (' I layed a
leading 1'61,., 'Ollll' kind orByzalltil\c-slyle shipyard
and 11 ilitary leI otl,ay 11' Vl' exisL 'c! as carl ' a~ lhe
Btlt n'nlllry, though th ' III ' lin'al Ars 'nal \\'as not
,'ITC',d uI11il I I o,~, Its l1al,l' cOlnes li'ol, lhe \rabi
!Jur (If Sil/o'a, 'Do kyard', and 111(' concept karly
ow('d as much to Islamic in, piralion as III the
l3yzantil1' l110del 011 \\'hich the \rsenal \Va,
supposed to Ill' ba~ecl,
By ['20'.!, anel the arrival orlb . Fl unh :I' us", cl, in
\'<'Ilice, lite ei I y alrea I . held III teh t Tri tor' aroulld
1111' .\drialir. TIll' I1lCl1<lCe
piracy had led
\'ell('ti"lls III seiz' the pirate-i. 1<" ted aSlel'll shun's,
",hne til(' inhabitants or many lown still spoke a
li,rm or II ,"i,lIl, I)('i n~ eksc('ndec! li"om I he L'lli n
lJl'llplc~ or till' R(/IlHIIl Empi rl', Th Do,!!,(' or Du ke or
C'llict' aln'ady had. among his IlUl1lcro IS tilks,
Ihal ( r DlIke II' Oal matia all I Duk(' or lSI ria whi h,
till" f~lI1 ous symholic ('J'('Il1CJIlY o[',\/JlI,\(di-io dd ,\/t/r,
'l\larria~l' 10 thl' .. '(I', had also bet-ull. \'l'I1Cliall
dlJmination orl1oJ'!h- aSlern J tal)' 'amc ll1uch lall'r:
bill \'('Ilin' did 'Oillmi lhe la~()oll (oast ancltook a
do~e illl('I'('st ill the military a I1ili rs fits l1l:i,l!;hbours.
panicularly ill til(' turbulellt al1d olll~ partially
II,IIiall region .1' Friuli, \'cnCliall melThant

\'l'lltlir 'S \\CIT ortcn almost pinui al ill themsl'k 's:

,wc!th ity's Lrade ('lInlaCl~. SlrCll'hil1~ I~tr bey md
Ihe Adrialic, were well ('slablished before the
(Tea tin or I h' ;rusaekr S I a t{'s leel to tl (' f(ILI nel in.'
ors 'mi-alllonOm( LIS \'clIl'lian c 101lies on th' oa,';(
or, '\'I'ia ami Palestine,
The mililar anel pulilic,d Slnl'tun' whi h
.'upp rt cl thc~(' <leh' lllun"; ill ROl//fIIlia (tl1l'
Byza mine z Ill'l alld Ollll'lIw)'1' (I hl' l\ I L1sli m east rn
1\lcrliterralleanl \\"IS itself a mixtlllT or Ea,l and
\V/'s!. B)'z<lntinl' and Italian s)':lems. TI ('s,' wen'
The campanile or b U-rower of Koper (Capo d'lnria) which, in
the late 12th century, was Venice's main i land trongbold in
lstria and feU finally under Venetian rule in 1279. This 15th
century lower also serv d as a lighthous and observation POSI
against pirates, such tall Sl.rucrun becoming symbols of
Venetian sovereignty along the Yugoslav coast.

or

Car"';ngs nn th" w ..lIl door of Trogir C,uh"dral in Olllmatia,

mad .. by Mastu Radovan in 12.0, Though "ssenlially
Romanesque in style, Radovan'lI carvings includ" unullual
costume and weaponry reO..cling th .. Slav population of
Dalmal.ia, This archer (I"fl) hall a "omposile bow and a quiver
of almost Central Asian form" Th.. 'Guards at tb.. Holy
Sepulchr..' (right) w ..ar scal.. Or lamdlar armour o""r th"ir
mail haulnrks and, with their wid ... brimn.rd cI".pd_J"':/...
h"lm.. u, ar" probably based on Serbian or Byzantine soldi.. rs,

Venetians had a businesslike attitucle In war whieh

seems to have been regarded as an ,'xl('llsion
COllllneree by olhn lneall~" 'I 'Ill' te;lrly appl';lraIU",' tlf
mercellant'S, <lrlceswrs of the bmolls I wliau
(ol/doffiai, In 1:.!lh century' 'enice was a siKrl of I his
;lItitude and tlot of any lack ufmanial spiril" 11l1:ICl
the "cnetlan Republic norma11y lril'd It! ;1\'oid
wars. unless thesl' Wl're ol),'ioll~l) ,l..:llillK t~l hI'
prolitable-, Newrt hekss "cnin: .sutli:rl'd a wry \\'artorn history, ti'cf[llt:llIly dashing with lhe rival
maritime republic of Genoa over till" cOllllllncial
domination of "arious rc~i(ll1s, slrug:Rlillg" wilh
Hungary and later lI'ith Ih(' 011111n;\11 Empin' .1\"('1'
Dalmatia, and IX'Ing dra\,"n illln 1JIlIHITUUS W'lrs ill
dcJctlcc or the T",.m I'i-mlll, Vellin:s Illainbnd
possessions, The TI'IT(/ Fiflllll was takelt partly as a
buller a~ainst pn::dalory lJcighbollr~, partly In
guaranlee lrade rULlteS 10 tIll' Alpine pa~s~'s. ;md
partly hec<1Usc Vcnlce rdit~d CHllllaill!and wheal fill"
itS survi\al.
Laler, of coursc, the VeJH'ti;lll Empir\' hl'canw
locked in a lili.:-or-ckalh struggk with Ill(' vasl
Otloman Turkish Empire. 'rhes(' Vt'nctiallOttoman \"aI'S look at first sight like a typical D,t\'id
and Goliath conti'olllation, hut in miliwry Il'rtll"~ the
V('rwtians \\'('r(' not S0 small as lhl'~ might han'

or

refkncd in till' Doge's 1':.\fII,wfi or Guard as well as

his ccn'lllonial parasol ;llld sword" NC\"l~rlhdess, the
Vl'lll"lian sOl"ial orell'r was strictly I(:uelal. Though
within till' city no individual hdd land hy knight
tl'nun', \'arioLls Church ami olher propcrties WLTe
lied 10 milit.lry Sl'r"\"in'"
The Vt'lll'lians Wt'n' soon blll()tls lur their roving
and warlike spirit. kl't'll business acumcn ami pride,
All almosl model'll St'llSt'
'nalional' ilkntily
unirll'd lilt' cilY and savcd Venice fi'om mallY 01"
thos\' class SIJ"llg.l~ks whidl ITIll the rest of !lwd ic\"al
Iialy. Evt'll tilt, S/,/,m((' tile 'Iocking' or 'closing' of
the Velletian rulillg- cf:tSS at the end of tht: t3th
cenlury did not dampell Ihe loyalty of the
Vt:lletians, rich and IXM"H', to their Seren~ Repuhlic.
e\'(.:n though il thnearttT exc!U<lt:d all other Ihmilics
Ii-om pnliliGll power,
It is worth notill/-{ that ollly om' Order or
Cbi\'alry, thl: C(l1'flfi(ri di Sail .\/al"ro, was en:r
f(Junded in VClliCl' :l11d 110 Vtnetian could join a
loreign Ord(T withOut govcrnmelll appro\"al. Venice remailled ;1 rq)ulJlil' throughout ils indl'pt:ru-!em history, whik polities and Ihe army were
kq11 firmly ~q)araH', Iklligen'lll as they WlTe, the

or

appeared. From th . \"(:1'y dawn )1"\ ('neuan hi 'lory

all d<L~.T: \\('1"(' called UP( II Ie fig-hI. \'enic' wa'
h"'l'<ll ('il~ wilh a p pulation rsome '200,0 )0 by the
(',trly Il:lh -cnllW'; \ as immcnsdy ',,\"althy,
polilically ulliu' I and c1ipl maLi'aU
xp 'riel c d;
;Jnd had a hUKl' lta\')'.
The people Ill' medic\'al V('IIi e \ ere also noted
rlrth'irbrawlill1-, neltheirl \,. rdi,pl y.\\hil
f(l!' o'ntllries olein men
'ontinul'eI to wear
traditiollallollg dark cl l k , in th I +th elltury th
YOllllgn mcn a lUI t d lighl-litLin multi- 'oloured
hus('. TI C' d 'sign: I th
I fTging oflcn indicaled
thl' :1)J1I!)fI/!.lIiI dr/Ill (;(11-0 or '1'1' lI' 'I' Club' t which
lh We<llTr lx'iong d.
umpluary la\\': w'I"e
'UI 'l'lnd} 'na 'l' I t
urb th xtru\'aganl dress or
men and V.0111 'II, but these' uld lead l11'r-1 . to a
'hange ill li\shi 1I1, a, \vhl'n leg-aI but dull OUlel
~a!'n1l'IIts Wt... slil to n'v 'al legal but more
sumptlluu: L1llder1 thes, This wa: pr bably lhe
origin
1511 ,n I IUlh lntury':1 :h>d' fashions.
en tian 1(1\'1' 01" lispla' I ara I< xic II)' mad this
I11<U'ilinw l-il~ a Ellrope. n 1 ad r whn i cam' to
jousls, IOllrnanl('lll: an I com;pi uous cOIl:umpti n
by tI (' military ',Iile,
fn its o",n da' '('nice was seen a" a parad x
lhrough it: al ilil)'. a, am n y-mindc I !'epulli . I
d '!Cat so
'n warlik' I" udal and Renai' 'ane
pnnc(:. \'enicl' al'
enjoyed un hara tcri li'
:tabilit) I 'spit, it. turbul Ilt politi sand . a'i Ilal
military lisasl TS \ hill', b. lh(' 'nd or the 151h
l"elllurv, Ihe Venetian army rem ill d lh
nl
ill kpCIl(!ellt It'lIi'ln 1 jlit'u'y r rc ill Italy. E\ 'n
th(' inex()l"\blt- d(\\-an C )rth lloman Turks was
at firsl tllrneJ to ac!\'alllag , \' ni "nappin up
n"l\"al bas\" 'wd wi ni S 'It a heap pri
r in
return li>r prole ti In. In this way the
nClian
Empire rcachf'cl a piul a k Cp weI' !lei pI'( spcril.
in tilt' lllid-IStl
Tl1lUr', The;'
osmopolitan
charal'lt'r or tilt' 'it, it.'c1r gr '\
\'(,1'
mol"
proll(lU lieI'd through all ob\"ious Dalma tian inlIU('lln'(\1l mnn. a'p' t ' ( 1'1&, nd lhl'large
r'ek,
Arnwlli'1I1. i\lll'lirn n I bh k populaliolls within
\' 'nice.
Despit(, V 'uill"s maim nanc r r n rall g ad
I' latioll: \ ilh thl'
tl man' until Ih
late 15th
'cllLury. the Turki'lI 'XI ansion inevitably undermine I I t;.dian
111111 r iaJ dominaLion II" th
asterll Ml'diterrane, n; and a' soc 11 as thOttomans turn d lheir allen Ii n 10 the, ea a la h

,.'

or

on

,,

"\,

..\ ...
"

....,.

......

".

1-=---------..,",.....

1.)\,:Clllle iIll'\'i l;t hie, Vtnin.'s Inss or the Grt'l'k isla lid
or En'oia in 1.1]0 1I1;lrkt,d a lurning" pllilll which
WitS f\,('(,gnisl'd 1'\'1'11 al !Ill' lillll', One y,';lr IaltT til('
Vellelians Il'\'re sending' al'lnalllt"llts !ll Pn-sia ill a
classic dlort to win allies UII tht'ir n1l'rny's caSll'!"]1
flank, Thcsc yeilrs ;lIso ~ilW \'clliellusl' dominatiun
or tilt' s('as, al kasl Jlt'ylJlld lht' Adl'i;tlic. ami til('
s\;lrllfl";11I ('pit, lI;t\';1I slrugg:!t' sueh as had nOl !JI't'n
SITlI Illl' n'llillri"s.

lhe centuries pas~ed. Inll gall!")' eaplaill~ :1I\\'ays had

11'mklley 10 aet a,s 1i"T agel Il.~, lk,~pi It' lilt' tTt';ll il HI
of a Caplain Gl'lIl'l';1I 01" till" Sea ill u\'I"]":1I1 1I;1\'al
conlin;! nd, :\ sysl,'m 1,1" na \'a I p;ll ro!s was a lSI' ,S"l II P
ill lilt: 1 Jill ('enlur)' 10 t'llllll'lJ! the m{'~1 s{"n~ili\'t, seas
alii!. when' ]JossilJk, lO CUI oil' ('IH.:I11Y supplil's.
'l'III,lilllilatit,IIS 1,l"l11edin'al shipping- nlt':tlil Ihal
Vt'!lice eould IUTCI' entirdy nllllrnl allY parlllrihe
t\1t;dilcrraIICilll, Ilulugh Ve\leliall Irade could he
pnllt;('ll'd and piracy sllpprcssl'l!. ,\ COII\'oy syslem
was not hi Itg llt;W. bll t by llll' I:ilh c{'ntu ry t'Sl'01"lS or
II'om l,e, III 30 galll'Ys proll'cted many slow amI
OjEXjJfl//,lio/1
ndllt..'rabk l1lt;rt..'halll 'rnlllld ships', TllI'sl' l'oIIVOyS.
Lhei r rou Ll'S ami desti 1111 tiol1.s, 1I'I'rl' ,Sl ricII ~ n',l.!;ula It'd
by Ibe gO\Trnllll'lll, hilt il" lheir l',,('orting galleys
could be lured away or ,kkatn!. 111\"11 Vl'lll'liall
\'(.'llin'lJn';lllwa ll'uly illlpnial pOWtT ill tilt' \I'ake losses could be Cl'ipplin!-(", Sueh convo)'s \\'l'l"t'.
or Ihe FOlll'lh Crll~;](k which. in 1'21f.I, sl'izl'd lhe 110\\'(:\"(:1", only s",'n In dal1g1'I'ous ~l';ts or ill wart;nll'
Byzaillilll' capilal tJI' Ct,nslalltinopll' (lsl;lnbull as, fill' example, Whl'll Vellin' was locknl ill nil" 01"
and. Wilh \','Ill'li;11I ;li,!. 1l'IIlporarily estahlished a hlT nUIlH'I'OllS t'lJllflins with hcr areh-ri\'aL Gel1oa,
'1.;11in Empil'(: in till" Byzanlillt' IwartLtl1d, 1'11 1, Thl' \"(Tr limiled nper;lIiunal \";Illg'l' "I' IlH:dieval
SUCH'SS I,I" til a 11 YsUl'h \ Vestl'rn III iii lary n'm lIl'es in 10 galleys at firSll'lHllillnl C011\'OY ('-",'orls 10 til(' chaill
lhe ('asll'rn i\kdiltTr;u1l'an dCpt'l1(kd UPOIl an
lla\'al bases which constiluled tilt" Vt'lH'liall
abililY to tl'anspon w;lI'-horst's long dislallccS by O\"Crscas t"tllpirl'. or to li'icndly porls, Only the
s,'a, This prl1lJknl had apparl'ntly h'TII SOhTd by building
llllich Iarg-n llleIThalll-g:allI'Ys. whirh
the \'Clleti;llIs ill till' I:,nh t.Tlllllry with t1wir us,' or I'TIT able In defend tlW11lSd\TS. "I];l hlnl Ihis ClHl\'l I)'
lal',e;l'r ships ami a sySl"1ll !II' carryill/-( a,kqualc system 10 hI' ,'xlcnded hert/lld lh,' t\ledill'ITallt':III,
drinking water.
OU! inlo thl; Atlantic :llld {'veil to Iht' eoasl.S
England and Flallc!tTs, 'I'hc abS('lll'" {If;1 VI'11t'1ia11
The Fleet
galley flCCI could abo influl'llo' \'\'('I1[S 011 land, as
V('nin:s power deptmit-d. orCOllI'Sl', upon ;I~ flt'c!s Whl'll Ihl' Byzalltim:s 101)k ;Hh'alilagt' 01" stich :1
wh ich, Wlll'l her pt';ltTliJ I (Jr warli kc, were comma 11- silualion It) reGlplUI"C ISl<lllbul from Ihl' 'I,alill
ded by ;lll adilliral ad\'ist'd by 111'0 gu\'t:rtlmclll- Elnpire' ill I:lGI, FurtlwflllOrl', !4<llkys had 10
appoillll'd l'i\'ilians, Ikn(:;1\1t Ihe admiral were ddl.'lId lhcir own bast;s. c<lpl;lins ;l1lrl (I'C\\'S
!JI"u/'f'(lilori. administratr,rs and J/J/JI'(I(()/Ilili, galley man ni llg I h(' walls whclln','f IllI'y lI"el'l' at lacked hy
capl:lins, 'rllC l"!la;11 t,fl'I)lllnWlld was tiglw':llCd as laneL
O\'C!" :~,nou \'Cllctiall
IlllTdWlll ships \Wrt'
Iradi ng by llil': mid- I51 h ccnt ury, a nd mall)' ul" ,hest'
could be readily cOllH'l'1ed inlu \\':lr~hips or al I"ast
into mililary lranspons, In Ill,' Al"st'mtl wel"e ;t
rCSl'rn" of origina 11 y '1.'), la 11'1' su and 1'\"l'IIIUall Y IO( 1
\\':lr-,~alkys, The ddt'nsi\'(' equiplIlellt carried hy
cadI ship was cloSt,I} rq~lIl;lll'd by tl1l' ,~O\'t'l'llll1Ctlt.
In 125':1 a small \'I'sse! c:lrril'd liw assortcd
crosslXJ\\'s. ;1 l;u'ge ship al kas! l'igh1. plus hl'llll(,IS,
;l

TI,(' Ji/!/

or

or

or

Th~ pori of Aona ..ra on lh~ Blaek s,,".lhoul;h held by V,.n"',.',.

d~adly rival Genoa, wa .. a lypie"l lIalian mwi~..a! fortifi,.d
oUtpoNt ..urround,.d by pol,.nlially hoslil~ Irrritory and
,.><illiing 501,.ly to ..,.eurt ,he hom~ dly'" trading network,
"'mura finl>l1y frll 10 lh .. Ollom"n.. in '460,

~liidd~,

j:I\'t'1ilb, spcar~ and grallpling hooks,

:,>hip~ al~o had
\"l'f)'
lal',l~C news,
p;lIticlilarly Wlll'll 'arnwd' tor a \'oyagc III

~It'dil'\'al

dall.l.;I'l"lIU~ watt't'~,

E"CII a tI1CI'Ch.lI11 ship "'ould thCll carry al k:l.~t

60 llIetl, all ordin,ll'~ g,dlc'y li'olll '240 to "lBo. Skilkd
s:lilor~ \\"1'1"1' n'cruitt'd in \'ellice, Dalmatia and
(;n'ecl', Then.' were 110 gallt-y.sla\"t's ill llle l\liddk
,\gc's :lllcl o,lrSlltt'n ea tile from \ 'l'llin' or iIS C'1ll pi n:,
partinll:lrJ) litltll Dalmatia, \felll'tiall oarsmcn
\\efl' !>el1"("hd hy IOl I"rom lhc eity's parishes, beillg
Iitlallt'i;llI> ~llpP(l1'led by Ihosl' who rt'll1<tillCd
Ix'hind. FrulH tht' 1.l1h l:t"1ltlll'y dehlon wt'n'
j"t("tJl"lkd wllrkillg' ull"lltt'ir cIlJli,l.;"aiiotl~ al IhI' oars.
Rowill,l.;" skill:,> lI"ere l'llcuuragcd lhnlu).{h rat"l"S alld
l'c'g"<tUas ill \'lnice. especially 011 the f('a~l day t,fS,
Paul. Olher c:olllpeliliollS illclllded iI son of rough
wa !t'r roll I, and w:, H:r-li I,in~: hert jUllsu:rs stood on
tht' :'>tl'l"Il of' c',ll'll boal as thcy t't)\\'l'd towards tach
"t1H"f, tllt' Josn being- puslwcl inlu lhe l'allal. AI sca
sailor~ :llId oarSlllCrl were arllled wilh ~lI'ords or
spc'ars, but dwnges ill lI'eapo,,:,> ledlllology grad
uall)' kd to a ckditll' ill the military status ur till'
IIrditlar) s<lilor. Yl'l all <I!.>oafd \WIT still nqx'C1ed to
lig-Itl \\ ht'll IIC'('I'ssary, ('\'('n Ihl" lTIl"t'ch;lIl1 p:lsscn,1.;"('1':,>. E\'l'l') mall had his Wt',q"XlIl, Ihe mosl
itlllJlIt'I:tlll ht'illgstOl'c<lIII'lwallt lhl'taplain'srabill.
l)n ,Ii's:'>il ilIa 1:'>c ,It lin'S tH' Ina 1"i III'S ltad ,llways ~ai Ild
:11Jllanl shi p, Iml tllc'ir rult, becarnt: Ill. Ire im p.III;] III
a~ WI'" POlll') became I11m't' PO\\ l,tTlll amll'xpellsi \'e.
\'I'I\l"liall~ Llst'djanlin~ as 10111.' as lll(' 1:)lh l'('tllllry.
whill' otlw1" \\I';ll)(II1S im.:luded cooking PlJl.~ filled
Th., forlified gIlU.,)'.harbour OIl Amasra whu.. C"'DOII'li" ship..
could shelc.,r, Dol onl)' f ..om th.. Bla.,k s.,a'.. f.,a ..1I0m., ..lOrm"
bUI al ..o from ri ..... l V.,n..lian. Onoman and OIh ..r fl.,.,ts. II waS
"v"r)' ..in.pl""lruClur., compa ..ed 10 Ih.. lat"'.. V..n"'lia. gall",y_
harbour al Z.dar (..",,,, pag.. 2.4)'

Carv",d ;"'01")' ~ntl ... of an ....... Iy ..."h .,.... Iory lIa.I;.....ddl",.

H",re ,. knight h:IIl' a I);r..".1 h",lm and ",a.. ly form!! of pial"
.rmour for hi" .rm" and I"'gll (Louv ....., Pari,,).

with soap to makt' lht' l'Ilemy's dt'('ks slippl'l'y, lin'

grcllacks alld blitlding: sulphul', SWitnllllTS ('tluld
en'll ;lllOu:-k lhl' IOt's hull.thrl':ul'nil1g Illsink hint
though in li,el wry fC:w ships Wt"l"l' '.l'lually ~uttk in
tlwdk\'al W;.r1ilt"t", Cro:>s!Juw:> \lt'rl' tlllW lIlt" I\l;lill
long-distancl' \\'I"<I]>on, e:OIllan and IJllarcling still
dl"ciding the lilla IClute. lint". I II I 3{ ):'1 tilt' ,l..(t fVt't"IIIll<.:nl
inStrllClnlthat t'adl g,dl\") (',OT) :'10 ~lH'h IT.,s.shcJ\\
tlll"lI. whll wI,uld al~(1 I"Cm 011 tilt" i1\lwr IlI'lleltes,
Shouling pr:lcticc' \\,a:; ('otllpulsol')" ill Veniec.
citizt.:ns training a, tilt' hullS in g:I'UUPS (1[' l:t. Tltc~
also eUlIllX'll'd in thn'l' anllual eUll1pelitions where
Ihl' g,m'('I'IIllWIII olli,rt'd rich prizl"s: \'alll:l bit' scarlet
clolh fill'lhe Wlntll'1". a :;hortlT It-rlg:lh ofduth pillS a
Ill'\\ cro,~:,>boll' and qlli\~T [ill' Iht' rtttllWI-:; lip, Ollt'
group of t.:roS~I)I)Wllll'ti kllll\\It as the: 'lit/hie:
lXI\\"InL'n' WtTl' recruiled fl'wn the ari~tucraC) and
s(:t'\'l,d alXI:Lrd 110lh war g-:tlll')':'> :md al'11le:d
1llerChamlll~'llli'ol1l I1t(,I<I' !.lth century Oil wards,
ha vi III; Ih.. privi kg.. ul'li \'i Ilg ill tilt" G11'Iai Il 's ra hi n.
Such sc'n'ie:t, t'tmld also hc Iht, nl'St step in a military
or pt)lilil,tll~II'l'lT. Fl'\\' proli:ssional tlIt'ITt'lI:lrit's ytt
St'em to havc :'>l'r\"t'd at sea, ami 110 ll1:lI'ititll('
(1)IIdull;,ri are: n::l"Orde:d 1111lillltt;' mid-tlilh ('c'lIllIr)".
A nOI hlT illl purt a Ilt lUll ndat ion l ,f'VI"IICI i:lll 1l:1 \'<11
mighl was hl'!" ability 10 tIla~:,>-prodllcl" ships illlhe
ArSl'nal. TIlI's(' tlt,\\ Il<1d tilt' li'allll'-lIrst ~yslel1l
whidl diniTed li'otll CratTo-Rotnatl :,>hippitl"; in
lhal till' ribs.,r li',tlnt, Wt'n' l'tlll.~It"llt"tl'{1 bdiWt, lhl'
planking was applied, till' an<'il'lll:; having made ;I
planked hlillto which thq tlll'n attae:hed tlw ribs.
Thi~ modern syslem was not tlllly I~lsler hUl USl.'d
much It'ss \\'(Iocl, \\'ar-gallt,ys Wt'rl' lltemsd\'t.:s also
chang:irlg". 'I'hough tht, dilli.'r"ll("('s 1)t'IW('C1I ('arly

Carved capitals 0 .. the lowelil level of the Doge's Palace,

Veni".., ..arl), '1th centur)" An.ong l.h.. mililar)' figuns on
thes.. carvings "r" a h.... d w .... ring .. b ..scinec .. nd mail av.. ntail
w;lh loosenM bnlach.. hanging from th.. chin (Iefl); and" full)'
armoured rider carr)';ng an unidentified weapon {righl}.

flledit'va I B)'za llli llt' dmll/o/II. wi th Ihej r t wn ba nks or

oars, and till' ~ing:k-h;lnkl'd Ilali;Lll wnr-galky arl'
not Yt't clltirdy ('"kar,;1 ILCW "y~tt'lll Orl-(]'(lupi1L~ tilt'
oal"!:> dOl'ssecm to h;L\'t, I)tTIl inVt'lltet! illlhl' I I th or
12111 cenluril's. This sYSll'lll {ll/rI ~(//~i!f, or 'ill simple
1:lshion', \\'as itself 10 hi' .HljX'n.:tc!ec! C;l r1y in the Itidl
Ccnt111y. 'Cr'cat galll").,:, dl'sigl1t'd spt'cifically 1(11'
long-dist;L1lo' trade in dallgt'ruus waters. illso
appearnl ill tl1\' mid-I.ph ceillury. '-ka\'ily
ddellded, th(ILlgh hulky ;11lt! unwieldy, lllcl"chalit
'round ships' alsl' provl'd their'wo1'lh a,!{ainst thc
Otloman" whell II Lt' la Itl'l" Slid den ly IUJ"llt'd to naval
waJ"l:lrt' I"tt, 111 thc 15th o'lltury, By Ihen
1\ Icdi \t.Tra IIca II "hi ps cm played thl' mort' dlicielH
Slcrn ruddcr iJL~ll'ad or til(' sicering oars that had
beell Llsed sinn' antiquity, Thollgh this ilL\Tlllion is
gellerally bdit'wd to han' elltt'rl'd the Medilerranean from nonlLl'1"ll Europe, reC('1L1 I'videnl'l'
shn\\'~ Ihat il wa!> known 10 i\lustim marillers as
t:arly as th(' 11th century alld may alS() han' been
known 10 the Byz;ulJirU's, Oth(,1' tt'chnical a(h-anccs
indLl(kd till' n'lllpass, which was ('karl)' or Islamit'
and llllimaldy Chillt:se origin.
Ramming was nu Inn~t:r all irnportant naval
tat.:tic, the trill' ralll having het.:ll rq)lal't.:d by the
higher ami mon' flimsy mimI' or hoarding 'bcak'
cad)' in Ihc rt.liddlt A~~'s; bUI ('\'cn ,I ml(af cOllld
smash the Cllt'lny's 0,11"5 ,1l1d (Tippk his ruwers, A
/{alky's ddcll(TS Wl'lT nl11l"l,.'llIralt:d in lh\, bow,
whl"l"e a stl,ne-lhrowin,1{ l'alapllll might also hc

mOllnled in Ihe woo<kn rOllbal(1 or l'a~J1I', and tp a

It:."ser extenl in the st~'rn. \\'Oudt'll p:lr:lpet~ or
im/J(//'/,Hlli rail aloll!-; cadl ~ick ofdl~' ship III pnJlt'l'1
the uarSl1lell. Greek Fin' and l'l!ler pyroll'dlllics
\\,('1"t' greatly Ican'd, SOIUt' ships bl'il1~ swathed ill
protectin' \-inC,l{ar-snak('d hid('~ or sh\'I'\.' ur Il'lt il,
Iililt' ofha Itit:. YCt ballil's 011 tht, 1'1'1'11 s~'a l"t'lIlai 11\,1
rar('. Ap;II't li'om dercmlin!-{ enll\'oyS :llld ~LLppre"s
ing piraey, the primary l'lInetilili of the \'t'lIl.:tian
gaikp St'cms to h:HT bt'('ll in 'nllllbilled operalions', :>upponillg: a landing lorn' eilher III au,ld.
a 11 elWIll y base or de/end t hei l' IIWll, Th\' \'clictia lIS
\\'crc Ilo\l:d CXP~Tts \\'hen it ealLlI' 10 ;lIt<l\'king:
harbours and sea Willis, I-:\"{~ll thc (';lIapllll :Ihuanl
ship was, in faet, called ;\ lilflboli Ill' 'sILlIn' husta'.
\ "ooden lOwers cOlild bc l'IT("l(,d 011 c1t'('k 10 O\'tTtop
the 1;H1<1 lh.:fclltT!>. Small hoat:> could lit" ,,11l1l~
bt,t wccn Ihl' mast-Ilcads to Glrry cruS'Sl)( '\\'lnCI1. a lId
spars could IX' sWllng li'om ropes ;I~ hallaill,l.\ ral1l~,
\\'h('11 battk hClwt'('n opposirl,l{ (let'ts did occur it
onen began wilh the same ct'rt:moniolls COI1r1csy as
a land battlc. A special f1a~, \\'ilh a ~word pllil1lillgskywards, could he raised 10 signal a willill,l{JleSS 10
fighl, and ellemy slandards \\'o11ld bt, traih'd in the
wall'r hchind \'ictoriousships ",hell tlw)" n'turlled 10
porl. A commander's primary tactical ('(msidcralion was 10 ket'p his fleet togtt1l1"l". Thl'lI hl' had to
make hl'st usc bOlh of his low hut (;ISI ami
manoemTahll' galleys and his slow bUI wll ami
almosl invulncrable 'round ships'. AI.IOH' all he had
to brcak Ihe ellcmy formation lwlort' u\"t'r",hdming
il picccmt:al by boarding. This could be athit'wd by
lcignin~ flig:ht, thell wrning 011 the lOe; or by
catching his galk)'s with their sails lip ami oars

stc 1\I'n!. \!a \ i.'-:"lil III 1\ a~ alll1o~1 alwOl y~ wi Ibill ~igh t

uf laud, MJ 111;'1 ,I I'olll'l'all'd part of llil' fkl:l could
bundl .111 all1bu~h li'olll Ix:himl i..lands, capes or
hay... ( :IIIN'q Ilt'llll ~ ..m'llI M'OI\I il1R \'l~wl .. also had a
\'ilal rl',ll' In pl'l) ill na\':l1 \\'arE"ll'C, If Il('("CSSO:lI'Y
\\ar,hipi> could 1)(' la~lll'd log"llll'r to u\I'm asIatic
lIoalill\.: 1.1111'1..... Tilt) could Ix' hCildwd \,'ilh Iheir
1>lrnllgl~ ddi..'ll(!Id bo\\~ poilllinj.!; 0111 10 sta. 01' lx'
mournl ~lI'n, to lilt' Iwadl n':lcl~ h, Ix' cui lou~ ~11:1
mlln1t'III'~ Iltltin.,
En'n lilt' appl.';lr;IlI<'l or till' first GlIIllUn ahoard
~Ilip did Iii lit' to change ~ut'h Iradiliollall,u:,ics ulltil
lilt' 10111' Illlh l'elllur~, SUdl/m/1/hmdJ \\lTl' rn::,'nlt'c!
in tilt' li,l't'cl"lk'" IIfa Ii.'\\ \'t'IWlian ~alleys in Ihe
I :H''S. and 1,.,-can1\' "'~Illdard annaml'I11 in lite '51h
n:ntur), 1'\ UIlWrUlI1> ,mall ~1I11~ we're h) thcn
muUlHld t1111-;"~11IC),.1 Ild rOllnd ship:. Itl ("Ill duwn ,hI'
1'11\'111) Ht'\\. \\ hik a ~illgh- Iargl'l' cannon could I,.,
plan'd ill a j.!;alle~ 's 1)0\\ lopicrn'lll\'t'llt'llI) 's hull or
topplt: hi.. m.I"t. Sueh \\r~lpOIII') 011 III'S! pmn'd \'l'r)
SUC'Tt.....d lll a~:tilhl Olluman galll'y", \\ hOSt' ncws
..Iill T1lf~,h u"t,d t'umpnsilt" btl\\~.
River \Varfare
\ 'I'nin' \\ .IS .Iho i 11\ 111\ t'c\ in \\ al'!;ln' along Ihe hroad
li\'lT.... lakl.. antlillarsht.~ Ilrnorthern Iialy. though
1101 al WOl}" \\ il h .,-:rl'al ..ucn".., l\ Ilist such campaigns
a ro:-t , alin \ "'lIiIT 1'(II'(j Ill'n,d wide Il'rrilOrit.:s 011 Iiw
Trrm FIIIIIII ill \\ hal an' 110\\ Lomhard), tht., \ 'cnew
ami Friuli. wlwrt ri\'('1' IIn'ls l'Hlllel support
VI'll\'liall land arlllil'~. F\ltt-~izl'd ~all\')'s 0IXTalcd
011 I.akl Garda ami ~rt'''1 l'in'rs likl' JIlt' Po,
Kelt-relll'\' t\1 tl1I' liri>t pJlllrul/1 prubahly lIwalit small
.{{alhys Wilh an llppn lig"ll1ing: ckck 0\"\'1' Ihe
lI'Il'Slllt:l1. Olher \es:'(J.~ ilicludl'(l sailill.l;" ships. anti
till' link barrllf whit'h l':tI'I'il'd only Ihrl"\' rOWl'l" and
lW\, (l"\I."S1JIIWI"lll. Vt.'llicl t11ililltaill(d sizcalll\'
l1n'ls of Sill'll \"\'ssels until lhe use or ,It'curatc
1,mIlOIi. lirillg-li'lI111 a ri\'cr's hanks. plll an e11'i:cti\"('
\'lId 10 t hi~ typl' or \\'a r1:u'e al thl' wd of Ihe 151 h
t't'I\IUI"), Thi~ wa1>, IHI\\'t\"\I. a lorm ot" l'ombat ill
whieh SAJIIW or \'cniel"s ri\'al~ \\"\'re aln'ady skittt'd.
E\'en tilt' IIl't'l or six Kalkys and '.!5 smallt:r crali
which \"'lIke btlll("hld Oil I.ake Garda ill Ih\'
Willll'!' or I 1:19 -10 \\:lS aimosl inmll'diald)' dc!tII'lI)'t'd h~ \liIOlIlI"'I' lakt: cran, 'I'hi~ had IX'\'n an epic
ut' milit:tr) t'lIgillcl'rin~ in \\hich. 101' 15 day..., till'
Vt:IIt'liam hault'd Iheir ships up til\' Ri\'Cr Adig('
ami :\t'nJ'~:t 10\\ 1I1UUlltain ratl~c 10 I.., kt, Garda,

TIo", ....d"'.t Trocar. D.lrna,o., which .I.iII ....'" c.....itd V.-tiaa

..rm.

~,_r

""'-I ;ala ;1. wall ...

The Army
The \'11ltli"n ;Inn)' \\ a~ '1"i,,' a.. dli"("lin' a, ih Ike!.
cit-spilt' jihe.. Ihal lilt' ma ...... hd\\cllitl~ \\'lleliam
didn"t \';'lIIm hO\\ til riel~' prupt'rl}, Tht' "rmin. uf
131h n:ntur} h.lli;m '1.111" .tln'ad) induded
IlIt'I't'I'Il;II;I':- li'lllll I1ll1t'r IlOlrt-. of tilt' I.:uunlr~ ill
"del it im, It, a Ii '1Il1 ,t1 It-atltJ'.. I m II 111I1111111111, \Iusl
('nrl} I:~th CI.lItUI') \\I1\ti,ltltroops \\1'1'('. hll\\I"\'I'I".
~liII n>(,"l'uiltd li"m lht 1.1).:01111 ,11','.1, ph" a It,\\
1);t1rn;lli,1l1 and 1~II'i,11I ll'udal nllllill~(nt:-. In
cmcr!(t'llri,.... likl' lhal HI' l.l!),!, lh~ \ellt.'liall
pari..lws rl'gi""'rrd all malt ... 1)I:I\\I't'll I i and ()o
)".;1 ..... or a~l' arid li~It'l1 all IIII' \\(':'1)(/11 .. thl')
pOS.'il:"SlCI. I h(l.~t' r;llk,d It I lit:hl 1)I'ill~' Irj.!;alli~ld inlo
groups or I:.!. Sueh dorllt.~lit- lro"p". 1'lIlIscript~ .lTId
\'Olllllll'tT'i, \\('1'1' slitt p..dtTred to rlll'rt,:ellarit'~ in
I.Ilh cl'nlur~ \'tniCt'. \In..t lilllJ.:hl 011 li.K'1 ",hilt'
richer IIlt'll or arislocrat-. "1tTt'd a.. a ta\alr~. as I hI')
did ill att Italialllilies. !\ n.L:i... tt'l' CIt" l:tiH ('slim,Hed
that 3",000 \'lllttialls ('ould hc'ar <lnl\S: nul' \\'t't"e
till')' a 1111't'I rabbit'. as ill .~"llH lIthl'l' tlledin,.11
Url"111 mililias. ;\'Iany wert' skitit'll l'nls~IJIIWlll\'n,
whilt, othlTS lilll~hl wilh slill~s ami lin'-g:rC'lladt:s,
Venice also Ilael ils uWlIlol'al prlll;.'...~i"llal i'oldill". a
small corps Dr inl:lll\l'}" .~llardillg \'il"l C"~llt.~ likc
;\kSlrt' ami Trt'\"i~u: hUl 1111 fllll-titil t' \\t10iall
c,I\'ah')' I\'cn' a.. Yl't t'el'tlt'ded ill Iht' I Ilh l'tlllllr~.
TIlt' lil'SI Init \'tt1tli.LlI ..1;llulillj.{ .Inn} l'!llcl"1-;l'd
qllile suelcknl) I'ad} ill IIll' l.,th t'\'lllLlry and
consisled, a:. 1'1 .....\\ Ilt.'t'l ill Iialy. or (o"douim
IllCrn'llal') l'UlliraCI ",-,Iclit"'~, SUl"h :t fun'c wa~
dearl)' Ilndel! III ddi'ml \""nin"s 111'\\ mainland
tl"rri'llril.~ un Iht, Tnw /imlil. Th..: Rcpublic...
l'onlrihuliul1 III all ;ltlialltT \\ilh FIIII'I'II('"(' in 1+~6
~

Effigyofunn .. m .... V"n",i.. n knigh" ",id/la,,, '4th c"ntury, Th"

m .. n w".. r .. 'ypi".I .. rmour of hi>! p"riod, thouSh Ih" cro.... ing
<>f ,h" ch.jn~ from hi" <:oa'-of.pla'e1i '<> hi" .. word .. nd da18"r,
and ,h" l"r8" buckJe-<:o..."r <>0 bi.... w<>rd.bcolt, ..""m t<> h ....."
"""n f.."hion",bl" in Vrnic". (Victori.. 01< AI""r. Mus .. Lc>ndon)
n'lI.~is(t'd

Or 110 k~~ Ihan B,uoo ca\'alry ,IIKI :PIOO

irLlilll( ry ill Ii Illl' or wa r, :~,\)O\! alld I,' HKI rl'sl'lTtin'!y
ill pe<ln:lillll', 'I'll\' almosl n11l1i11i10Ll~ \\'ad;lrl' nrlh\'
lir~1 half "I' til\' 1.'}lh ,"'llIHry It,d In sui'll staHdillg:
:11'111irs, Ilreir ;'(11'1)<11"1 S\SIl"l1IS <llid .. ,~~ol'ialnl
taxa Iillil IIn'omill,1:: all ,11,\",'pl"c1 1:11'1 01'\ \'IWI iall lili',
whik lile lliailliallci !'it) or Brot'i:1 1)('\,a111e lhe r1I'
)ado Iwadq uarl,TS I ,I' IIll' V1'111'1 iall army. U Il iti Inl1~
W,'I'\' OIl lirsl nln' and (lilly ('t'l"('lllOllial, being
l'mlllazollt'c1 \\'illt 1I1t'l.iuII orSI l\1:lrk, Ll1er ill rill'
1.. . lh (','llll1rr red ;'11(1 whilt' strip,'d j,'rk;l1~ fl/r al
Il'a~l IJ1\' pl'/Jl'/\ioml/i di S. ,\I/1/'(I) militia lwfanw
irUTl'a~ill.I.;J~ COm11l0l1. R"\\'anl~ lilt' II'y:llly or
su,'t',"~ illdu(!t-c1 g('lll'rulls ca~1r paYI11I'l11~ ('\'ell 10
tlll' huml lie l'allk-;'lId-fik, 1}\,J1~it illS fi.r Ill,' \\"ou IIded
Ill' lll'n':I\,,'d :lIId hOlllllll~ lill" Ih,'ir kad,'n>, Thi~ was
d\'arl~ tlO IOllger :1 1l1('die\'al army. but <l
R"llai~~aIH'" florn' willi many rnlKll'rll altrilJlIll's
<tnd allillldl',~,
''''lll'liall laCI it:s III I la lid \\'\"1'1' llle S:\ Ill,' :IS Ihost' 1.1'
tllhn It:\li<l1l :lI'llli,,~I, 111 lhl' I:.!lh and I:Slh
ccnll1ri,s mililia inl;\lllry ti,ug:llI itl l'lllse-p:ld,,'d
ranks wilh Iaq{l' shields :1Il(1 lI~I'd lheir spears as
pikes, Ihlllt,l.:"h Ihel'l' \\'a,~ aln'ady all ilHTt'asing:
I1lllnlll'f of (TOSShOWIlWII proll'C\('d hy similarly
larKt' sllj(,J(ls, 1-1 igll SI:llld:1 rds (II'disciplilll'S a lid c1'lst,
,'o-tJp,Tatiol1 h"l\\tTll IlI.nil' and Ii-lilt also St'l slich
11<1 li:'11 Ii UTt'S a p:1 t'l 1'1'1 lin IhllSl' of 1Ill' t"t'~1 ,)1' Europe
FOunt'('1I1h l'n1\III'Y \'t'llt'li:Ul :lnllit,;, had to Hl("l'
1-I1111g:ari:lll iJI\'asillll~ ill F ri tlli as well a,~ IhI' Illrn's Ill'
Olllt'r Iialiall ('ilie~, On o('cas;on V,'I1\'li:l11 al'nH'lIl"t"d l':I\":dry dis1l1011I11td 10 fig:lll dercnsin'ly Ol1
ri.lll\ in 11'11:11 lI"a;, rlll'll r,'g'Olrckd as all English HlClit:,
"'hl'lI lilt' laRolln ilst,lf \\"a~ ill\"ad,'d by Gl'lHWS{, and
l'aduallliIlT"~ ill l:n~J till' \"'nelian~ built woodl,t)

'"

Il'rl~ :\11(1 I,alisad,'" I)arriradl'd "lilli' ,'all:ll;, willI

chained ships, hllK"ked olher... wilh ,ullkcll 1J:lrg,'s.
ali(I harasscd lh( Cllt'11Iy ;n hollt ,m:\11 bll:ll~ and
g:,lkys, \'('llin: III II Illlly '111"\"i\"l'd Illi~ Ibn'al blll
lriulllphl'd, ;lml \\'I'lll ,lll I,. \\ill ,'xlI'l1,in' 71'I"M
Filll/(/ llTrilOril~s ill qO,1 ,'),
Fro11l111l'1l until rill' tTi~is or l.. .lll!1 \'I'IH'lian ];1I1c1
I~,r('l's wen' W'IH"':tlly ,)11 1111' "ni'nsiw :1 lit! IIn lwd III
hi' Iltl' m"~1 elliTlin' ill 11:r1y. TI1t,~ IiJlIg:luIIOI "Illy
[Ialialls and HlIll,lpr;an~ 11111 :Ilsll (;('l'rnall~ amJ
Fr,'llch l\lll,I.:"IJOWllH'1I will', in LH~I. IN'd Ell,l4"lisll
archt'ry lat"lics 'lgaillsl \"'nin"s gl'l':ll I"IJlldllllil'll'
J,-ad'T B:lrtnltlllll'11 Colll'Olli, .Jtl~1 lIm!I']' :'1(1 ~"t";,t,
lal!'l' lhl' Vellelians wert' 1;I\'"d \\ ilh lilll-hiown
(hlOinan Turkish raids dl,t'P illln Fril1li. This wa~
sonwlhing- towJ1y 111'\\ and, clt'spilt, \'!'llI'li:Ul
l'xpl'l'i"lll'(' "I' war :lg-:lillSl ,\Illslim Tllrk~ in t1wir
ll\"'!"Sl'a~ >:mpire. Ihe ddl'l1('t'~ fir Fl'iuli bil,'d
dismally, Thl' \'\'I1t'liall~ had 10 wilhdraw inlu Ibt'ir
li.)l'ln's.~,'s, !t';I\'in,1:: 1111' Ctlulllry,id,' I" 1111' I';lsier
light1~ "(Illippnl OUo111an (':l\'alr~, Thl' lIllt' major
haltll' l"rslIlrcd in a Sl'rrOll~ \'Cllt'li:lIl tit-kat.
altltollp;h, hy a."'S('rnhling: a 1Il1ll'h larg,'r army, Ill('
V"\H'lians did beal oil' bllT OIlPllt:lll r;lick Sllch
I'XplTil'lHTS cOIl\"inn'd \'('ni,'\" 10 ['mplo)' ils 1)\1'11
'/I"{/(I;lIli 'cololli:ll' li1{hl (':I\":dry 011 Ilalian SIJil. [(I
impro\'(' ilS dllllH'Slit' mililary 1]':\inil1g, ami III
o\"(,:rhaul Ihe Systclll or ~ck('li\"t, ctlllstTiplioll.
J-!UWl'\','f. :1110111('1" sl'ril'.~ OrOllOIll:lll raids itt II~~I~J
again pnw/'(!10 bl' \'i rt llally UIl~I(lPp<t 1111', A 11l:lssivc
Fn'!wh im'asiOIl or ll:tly OIl lilt' ,'Ild (ll'lhl' 151h
\,Tlltllry Ill'''ll~hl a ;'l'l"l,'.' or dt'\'aslating ddi'als li.,r
Ih(' ''''II('liatl army, cllllllin,nill,g ill rill' disa;:lt'l'~ or
I.. ). 'l~, Yel ('\"l'1l in 1;jIIK lilt' \','l1elialls had l1l:\lla~~wl
10 1X::11 nIl' a dt'ICl'lllill{'d ill\'asioll II} lilt' Ernpl'rtlr
i\laxill1ilian ur Gl'rmany: nol old~ \\as hi~ arlllY
ddi.:a l,'d in Ihe moun lai liS lI>:ar PinT eli Cadorl'. hUl
\'('II;CI" nllllllcr-:lll<leked :Illd e:lpllll"'d lilrthcr
lerrilliry in Friu!i ami lsI ria,
Cnmmalld Ill' IhI' :, l'l11y d illi'r('d ti'lu11 t ha 1 ,,1' lilt'

Jll'cL .'\11 'IIWil'lll Iradition sialed Ihal \\'lletiall

III ,1,11'1111'1' ("I llild n 'Illnl:llld tll'lacllnll'lll\' III' III I 1ll00T
tllall :.1:1 ,m'lI, ~l't all on'rall \I:l~tn orSoldins had
h,T.l knll"l\ sinn' Ihe I"arlint days, 'I'lli' ]>OSilillll or
Captaill (;I'IIl'l"al app{'an'd as all t'Ill('l"W'I1Cy
nWaiillrt' i,l Ihl' 1_llh ('enillry, hUl m'l'rali rnall:l~(,
rl1("llt Ill' Illililal"~ :dEli ..:- stilt 1:1)' wilh a ("i,"ilian
1"/ limn iII V" 'II' '.!ll StII'ii 'It" ,Vis(' \ 11'11. R.'nlark:lbk as
it mig-Ill SI'I"Ill. such ("H'1.~lalll t-i,'iliall alld ]Jolilical
intl"l"ti...-,'II,'I' ill mililary and lIa'"al altlirs did nul
,,11;"1'1 dlieil'rll'y: ill 1;1("1 it san:d Vl"Ilin' Ihllll till'
rnililar~ tah'-llnT' ",hidl pl:lKtll'd tllher It:tli:111
t'ity-slall'"', I,llllg nqwrit'I'l'1' ot"sl:at;,ring: aml na'";l1
warElI"(' g-a'",' "t'nin' a sllppl~ or 1IH'1l wdl :lhk IU
:H"n-pt 11ll' n'spollsilliliti"l\ or it'adt'rship, parti1'II[;,rl> or illl;I11lr) IIl1Tl'S, :\nnil"S W'T(' normally
nlllllllalllh,d II) ""Ill'li:lll lIoblt-mell_ IhOll~h
proli'",sitlllab li-lOll1 lilt' Trl'l"(/ Firll/II alld JaIIT en-n
1,l(Tn"I,lr~ /"fllll!<dfi,',-i wvrl' g-in"l1 C1l1n1ll,lIld" Veill'tjall Inilil,1ry tllillking was, hown"l'r. singularly
GlllliollS, Lilst liJr g.'lory ran :l pour H'CIIIld 10
:tchi",'jll,~ ,'jewry wi Ih IIU' III illill111m I'X IWlld i, u re of"
I'lllll bl,,.,d alld tn':ISUIT, AIlIIIIll'!" li':IIUf\' lIt'
'"t'rll,liall Illililary lili' W:I:; Iht'/Jr'<I/'rIlilfl/l' t11' t-i,-ili:lll
nflnlllis~ioll\"', \\ ho arcnmp:'Inicd 0111 army and kepi
iI
w:uchflll Cllllllllissar-like eYl' on e'"\Tylhing,
panindarl~ 011 till' lllITn'll:tri,,<;" :\ l'el"il'S ot" Ill'\\'
!11"fJ1'f'dilm"i I'llit', \\'''' St"' tip ill 1111' Iatl' 1:)lh n'lItur},
illdlldillg- tilt' t"lImhal rank t,j" ('Olllrllallding
1i.'rOl"ious B:llkall Ilr Creek ,Imdiuli 1(lrel'S in 11:'11)"_ Hy
t:,ll~J tlWM' MII'PlN'dl) ci\'ili:lll (:fll11.nissiol1ers al:<o
t"UIIl1Il:ltldnl 1111' It:tliall li.r-;-hl (':t,"alry alld Ihe
:trtilh'1'~ _

Cavalry
Ikspitl' tlwir \I ('h-lil()Il'd rcputatinll, ,he Vcrll"li,UlS
h:ld rleldt'd dli'l'tiw ;tnnoun'd ca,':llry VWH itl Ihe
EffiSY oft',.d"rico Cavalli,lat,. '41h ",.nlUry, Th,. Ca"alli were a
mililary family, 50n.., of whom ..,.r"N V,.nic,. a" co"doll;"..i
nlf'reCnar;,. .. (.... situ church of S_ A......'aNia, V",rona),

Mid-151h century carvins of unknown V,.nel;an eoal..,f.arms

supporlM hy Iwo ....Idi"r" in dilllincl;"", V",n"'I;"'n colonial
armour, 00 Ih,. I,.fl, a fully ntuipped manal_arms w"'a .... a
hdmel ~m"'.rkably "imilar 10 80m" found in the V.,nelian
forl.r""5 al Khalk;" (II"" Iioe-d... wing.. ), On Ih., ..ighl a
similarly armOUrN crolilibown.an """nN his w.,apon using a
cran~uin or racl.-and-pinion "y,..en. Un
Jurja S .. raltovica
Slr,.,.I,Sibc:nilt),

8"'"

1:$lh cClllllry, :t rl'gnlation or l'.!:}~l asslltlling OIl!'

war-hoI'S\". two other hursl"s alld tlm'l' sqllil'l's Ie-Ir
l'ach Vetwliall klli~111. Tltl' I ph ,','tlHlry Pllt'l
PI"lrareh ch-dar,'d Ihal lhi .. -ll:ttillil .. I' s"ilors'
l'urp:ll\M'd all otht'rs hOllt 011 hor'l'II:u"k :11lC1 :11 S\',,"
""rious Vl'n"ti"n ;lrislon,lts bn'd lilli' 11l)rSl'~ Oil
their m:lilll:llld eslales_ tholl,~h most allimals Wl'n'
impllrh'd li-orn (;t.,.ll1a.l} alld Hung-ar}', 'I'll\' war
hor~e was by 1;11" tht, most expl'lI"iv(' part ura marlat-arm's I'qllipl1l"'ll. By till' J 51 h n'llIlIr~ it II('Call1l'
rlol"lnallo ,llt:u'k all ,-I Will} '~al1imal rallll'1" Ihall Ihl'
rider, th LIS Illakin,!.; In"sl'~ hi).!) ll"l" alld the pn Ihlnns, It"
rl'pl:ll"t'rllt'lit "'Til \\"ors~'_
H va caval r~ 111'1"1" Ir~:1 nisl'd iII III Slll,tll Illli ts "r
!al/::;t' Ihi~ 1'1II1Si"lill~ or a rll,1I1-al-arms_ a lighll~
annl'd sl'rg:ea'll :ll1d a pagl' Ilr tllolllllt,c1 SI'IY,IlII. B~
III(' 151h n'Ill11ry many ir 1101 Inust slid I 1I1I'11-"tOlnn~ WtTI' sltorl-tt'nll r'lmtfuffif'l'i 1lIl'rn'II:lril'S" :\
I1W,.,. sl,thle 1'I1'rn,lIiol1, lite IUI/::'I' '{Jr::.::.a!l or 'Ilrukl'l\
1,\11('1", was Illeanwhile e't:dllisht'cl. l'Ill1l\istillg 0('
veterall "I' picked In Hlp:< pt'nll,lll~'llil y n IIlll11i It,"d It I

'"r

"

Canal entrance to the ArseDlII, V"nic", I<>c>king loward" Ihe ",it"

of the Old An....a!' The Gate of the A.."".... I, on the left, w .."
r"built in monum"nlal style in '57~ following viclory over Ih..
Ouorn.... 1I""t al L"pa .. to.

~t"I"\"it"l..

'1')1\" llWIHll-ann"s cq ui pnWl11

Ih;11 a ~ql;lr;llioll bq;an 10
appt'ar 1n:IWI,t'li Ihl" fully arll1()urt.:d ,,(J/I/'I/; alld lhe
1'lig-hlly 11'1'1' prl""lig-i'Jlt~ 1I1;1i. NUlllerous st:vt:n:
dd(';ll~ Slllkrt,t1 lIy anw 11lJ"{'d ca \'a lry at Ill(' hands
inbnlry dJiring lht, Lph n'nlury had clearly nOl
undnminl'd 1:lilh ill Ill\' l11;UI-al-arm's mililary
potl'lll i;ll. 1-1 is ;ll"lll(llJr was IIOW S(I S()l)hislica Icd I ha t
Ill(.' !tlll:;'(' ClljOyl'(1 a n IH'W..:clllas(' llrlill: \\'111 iIll() llll'
It;th ("t'llIury. Filin'nlh .. t'l1tllry Vt:llctian!tlll:;.i ;llso
Includcd 1ll011tltld {TUSSllt'lI'lllt'll alld t:\TlllllI)UIJlt:d
haud-gullllers. lhou.C;h llo1 IIIl' illElIllry componcnt
lhal appl';uTd ill Franc\' all(ll~urg-lllldy,Along wilh
lht' t'mplu}'lIH'Jll Ill' "lrutli"li, Vcrwlian !{)ITCS now
n;cruir("d a \';lril"ly t,fulll\'r typI'~ orst:paralc amI
l1lon' l!lollile lig-ht ca\'alry tfJrmatiOIlS, In t:lel.
Velliet' 1'l<I}'ed a It';lding- rIlle in the den:lopmelilOr
\\'('Stl'1"II Ellrnpt'an Jig-Ill ca\'alry during thl' !att
llw(lin'al and ]{nJaisSill1lT jlniods,
\ "'111'1 i;lI J

wa~ 1101\' ~t! l'Xl)("l1~i\"I'

or

,.,

Infantry
Gi\"l'n til(' ;tllcil'llt Vl'\It'liall lradililflt 01" all c1ass..,s
carryillg arms and "f(IlI' gll\'CrrlllH'l1I I'lll'ollragillgmilitary Iraining al1l()ll,1{ Ih(" ordillary pvopk. il i~
1101 ~ul'prisillg- 10 rmd ,h;ll \'l'll\'liau illl:llllry W("l"e
hOlh l1Uml"'OUS and dli:nil't,. }\IIlOllg lht' I'adiesl
Wl'n' lhl' i\lililias vI" Iht: Si:-; \\';lrds or dislricts
\ \;l1io. 11\ I.. li:.> thl's(' .ft'.I/i/',i \\"('IT iIU'l"\':!sl'd 10 50fl
ml'n piT pari1'h, partly 10 hdp lht' SI:~lIlI/i tli ,\i!lli
mainlain ordlT at ni,~hL In thl' 14th t'c'utury tlll'SI'
mt'll Wl"l"(' still sdecu:d by 101. i\kll dlOSl'll lill' lhe
prestigious and lunati\'(' n',ll' iff nl'1'sJ)Owlll('n
aboard lJIl'tTh;,ml ship.~ and g.dkys \Wf(' ;dsn
s\'!l-cl\'d (i'om ;\ll1ong lh..., he,sl al llw \'arious SIUHHillg"
ranges ill Vcnice. i\kll a,l!;\"d Iwt\HTU I:l aud 3:,
were enrolled a~ nossbuwnwll by t1ll'ir parish, thl'll
being di\idccl inlO tlIIOtl(///, (groups or l:.!) tinder a
local onicer who was also resp0ltsibk ti)l' tlwir
trainin.l{ at tilt" Im'al but I", Sinn' all classl's lin'd
crowded together within Vcuiel'. till' tllllltll'lII'
included rid I and poor, nobk and {'OllllllOlll'r. who
lraint:d 'lltd.lilllghl logTI!tel". Not all Ic)u,1{lil ;IS

or

cn'SSIHI\\tIH'll. l,f IUUI'~I'. (hh('1' illHllllry WC:qxlIls

dl'si~lIl'd 'IW,'ili(,:t1I) 10 c(Jmbat c;l\"alry induded
Iht' IUI1,1.; Illal'l'-likt, II'l':!I.>Otl, :1ll<1 harhl'd spt'ars:
which \\ 1"0 !llglll ha \"(/1: :LlllOllj.;" i1lvadi ng H ullgarialls
III 1:~7:'I.
'I'll<' ilill
\'('IIl'liall itlf;llItr) W(Tl'. hO\\'(,\,cr.
dl"~m'll rrcun lht' rallb 01'111(' .lr~P1/(lf(Jlfi, 111(' highl~
skiJlld and \\'CII.paid cralisnwll Ofillc Arsenal. They
providl'd gu.ml, fill' IIIl' D..~(" I'alacc and vthn
gn\"CTllllWIlI huildinK'. :1(,lill~ as a polin' rorn' :lIld
I'vell a lirt'hri~adc. a, \\(,11 ;1' rllrllil>hin~ dewellIncnl.; 1'1' \\ t'll-c'(l tlill!>l,'d ill!:l nll-y. 'I'hl' .\!'Sellal ilSl:lr
wa~ alsu a \\ C'a P( illS !:ll'lIl1'~ and arm~ l>lorl'. as \\'dl :L~
IX'inK tilt' 1ll"'1 1;llllOU' :.hip.huildill!-{ yard ill
Europc" III I:i I I lin Ie.. ." Ihall 1.131 (Tus."I)(Jw" \\tTl'
"lurc'c1 \\ilhil1 il" \\alk \\hill' il<: IIC'" rnpc-makillg
raehll"~. datilll-: Irlllll l:i":J, lIladl' Ihousands or
crus.,I)<)\'.'lrill'"-..... TIlt' (;olll/KIJ:lli (/dIn Lal;.a til'
'Truu:o.t'r Clull,'. \I hit.'h had hC'('l1lT\'al(,d ill Ihl' 151h
('I'nlllr~ l:trl-:d~ li,r Ihl'('l1llTtainlllclll orlhl' )Olllll-{
ml'll. :11-,( I pnl\ idl'(! Irailled volulIl('n" \\ IWIl called
111)(111, 1\ hill' 1111' Ullt'mpllJ~c'd cuu[d :111'0 Ii lid
Illt'msc.'h I" lnli'll'tl. III 1"l':lll'llH'r}{I'IlCi,~ \ '('nic:t' 1i:1J
h:lf"k lll)nn lila ....., C'OlIMTiplioll '1(1 Ihal \'t'IU"lian
illf:lTJlr) Il,rn..; l'tluld 'l1l1U-linws: l)t, \'tTY l:llX" up
10 '!0,11()(1 al 111(' ,~Ial'l 111'1111' IGlh ('(llllll').
liy ,hi" lillll' mililia Onll'tTS \\orc' a hreaslplall'
ami a ,~alkl hdl11t'l, hUI lht' qualily of their lroops
":tried 1f)nl>idlTa"I~. III }{I'IU'l"a[ Vl'llt'liall milili:1
l"('ll1ainnl b) t;lf lltt' hl"l ill Italy, tlllILl,~h thosl' or
Vl'lli"I' iISl'lrwl'l'l' Ilorlllally ~llPI'l'iOl' to IhoSI' ul'th,'
Trrffl Fif/l/(/, III 1:11" thl' lalll'!' Wl'n' Onl'n usnl
m\'1"d~ :I, piOlll'l'r" Ill' bllow'IT:'. The SI:llus vr
il1l;III'I'~ had :.llIlk c(III:.ielt-rahlr liy ,h(' y(':tr 15111/,
ell-spilt Ihc' appl'anll1l'1' of' [la[ian h;IIl{I-g'uIllH'rs in
I[lt' l.Il"s :lIId I[w di,'isioll of inl:tlliry till'malinllS
iliin 'assa U[I' '1'( '(1)~ \\ iIh SWI J1,{I.~ 01' ~hl In slx'a rs. a lld
'!in" n'lllp:ll1i,'~ \\illl l'l'(,sshows or KlirlS, III I+~JLJ
d!il1'ls hOld bc','n Ill:,d, III Irain two 11\('11 from l'ileh
"7 rna Firma \'ilbKI' with halldJ.:"ulIl> hUl 1101 tllltillhe
nisis or I ~JI ,!\ had pa"l'cl n'llid a ru[ [ m"'I'ha It 1 f ,I" Ihe
\'I'IWd:lll milili,r ,'y'lc'lll Ill' clrl'ied nul.

ur

her 10 lill',lll'I' 'I '1'I'i Iori:t [ n,pa lI~i!lll, \'('1 rin' weill 011
III l'llllfjlll"t" a lal)(" pari (If llltrllltTtl ;lllt! IlurthCaSll'rn Ila[y. Tholl~h 111(' gH\'('l"1ll1l1'l11 am[ military
organisatiun of Ihl'~\' l\niIOli", I'ari,'d. il Wil~
gellt'ral[~ It':'s llppn'l>,i\'t, ,h:111 1,1:.111'111'1'1' ill [t:rly,
\'cilin' W:tS, Ill' eClUl"I', plilllaril~ l'(1I1('I'l"lIl'd willI
!\t..Turity, liK'K1 \llpplics .Iud aCCl',s tjl tilt' Alpil1e
pa.'l."S rat!If'r lhall mililal') ,1(101')" ~, thai hl'" li",hl
hand in"pircc! CUlhidl'l'ahll' [O)allY 1111 IIII' T,.rm
Fim/(l. This \la," ,'\I'll '1'11(' ill .1 h.u'k\\:lrd and :.Iill
C'SSc:ntially r('uclal an'" likl' Frilili. \dll'rl' tilt' \larlikl"
Friulani \1'('1'(' IIc'I,1! a, ,,,ord'llllll. '/rcrm Firma
urhan mililia.. or (Juli"ml:;'f lraim'(! l'al'h SUlJda~.
Stal..e

or 'Orlaado' by Sooino of Milaa, '1'3- ni" Io..oh~bl.

Dubroyo..ik, wu" cypical ... rly ISlb Uo.l .. ry
Italiao. armour of Ibe k d ..>led by Ih" military Hil .. of
Dalmatia (i...i,,, .... i .. sq........ Dubro..... ilt).
rq>re1Jeolia~

ArUlies al hOUle and abroad

V,-nin" s liJ-S1 M'riuu,' ill\'n1t't'llll'IH on I1w 7 rnll Firma
daled Ii'om ':J:iB. \\ilh Iwr elt-r('al of Padua and
SC:iZllft' (,I' 'I'r('\ i'>ll. J-1('llcdill'll, \ 'l'nicC' was ,I major
pmlt'r 111I lilt' Iialian lll:tin[:llld, and after q:.!3 a
lilllllarlll'nlal ,hili in \'I'IIt'dan policy cOllllllilll"d

'3

I sia nIHil l (:or'~1 ;1I1l iIlClph') ill 1'W'I, \ 'I"nin' ca t't'fully

a l1l11l1 bel' Ilrslr" tq~i(' Il'TTi tnl"il'." ;I~ lilT ~hal"l'
or Ibe ~hallt'l"ed ByZ,Il11ilH' Empirl', SIll' was lH,t
inll'!'l'sl('(1 ill btW' mainland lI'ITilori,'s whid1
\\Ol,ld 1)1' dink-lilt 10 ddi'ml ami I'Xpl.'tlsin' 10
gon"l'n, Rall,,'r Ihl" \'I'I1t'li;ltI~ \\;lI1t("(1 dumination
or Ih,' IU(T,ui\'t' Irack rOllll'~, :-11 tht') IlHlk parlOr
I S(;lll bul ilst'll: a ('ha i n Ilri~lallds a II(llllo~1 Ill' til(' hesl
harhllurs around (;n'('ce. Fin"l1~ 1I11'~ hlltl.~ht IIIl"
greal i~laml ore",'I\'I()!' 3(1lh~ of~llld. ,'\"nin' had
thl", al (lilt' slrok,', WOIl an I'mpirt', Orl-::ltli~il1,1{ il
was alllilher lila tl("I', "'h\" (,lei \',',,,'t i:lll ll'l"ril"ri('~ in
lilt' Adnatil' had f('tailll"d Ilwir tr.Hlilillnal ~'SH'm~
or gOH'l"llllll"nl, lhoUJ.:::h IImlt-r \'t,,1t'li,1II ellulll~ tlr
lucalliUlIilil':' or prll\ I'll It,~ alt~. TIll" 1It"\\ ('mpir(' in
'Romania '. :I~ it \\a~ kml\\ n, \\ a~ plat','C1 unrl(T
~OH'rnnrs M'nl din'(,II~ Ihlln \'t'lIin. Cn'H' \\a:.
sli~hll) dilli.'n'lll 011 ;\Ct'<llllll or il~ .. i/.(,: a \"'!ll'liau
duke' was "('SI>lIIl"ihk ror till" i~lalld' .. (It-f(',KI"S and
pr('~idL'C1 o\(:r a tlCW r\"ud,,1 d",,~ or \llllllli!oh. pili'!>
t hOSt, Ii.'" (; rt'l"k arisllKTa IS \\ ho l"('tai 11t'{1 1Ill,ir blld.
Permanl'l11 rnilitar~ Ir,rc,,,, YMIII "PI)(';ll'I'{1 d!o('wh\"n' ill thi~ l'mpi"I', lon~ hdi,rt, Ihl') did ill tilt"
Trrm Fimw, :\ItJ~t \\','rl' enli~II"(1 li'urn Ihe IlIct!
M'lt'('l~'d

'SI M .,....,I.. _ " ~IDLiD! by V"ou ofK.~ln', 0474,. P.rt of

.",.,Ie of ~inl'''I. i" l'OIrb whi.,h i.e1ud", lypic-lIy V"'D""""
w"'pDlllIlIu ..h Ihe Ihr_bladl ......"" .nd, h..re, typi ... 1
Germ. . . .rmour, V,.neli.n 1.lri. w bounded by AUlilria
while "un ry ."d Ollom.. n- .... led Bo....l. I.. y just Dyer Ih",
moua ...l"li (i.. #t .. .,hllr..h ofSt, M .. ry, s..... mJ,

and tlllalkd ahollt :)O,Olllll1WIL ItllllallY an'a~ Ihe

old l'll\llllr~ k\'il'~ had n'lllailled l'lIi'erin' fighlin~
lroop~ t1lrllu,!..;'ho1l1 till' l:llh {'t'tllllI'Y. Such forcl'S
Wt'l"l' rt'\,jnxl ";Irly ill lilt' tlilh celliury wht'll Ihey
wel"l' kllO\\"1 a~ rl'll/it/r, El-wwlwt't, Ihl' IJI"asalllry
~t'r\'nl a~ rllral g'll1'rrilla~, hara:.~ill.1{ <Ill itl\'adt'l". On
thl' 01111'1' hand tilt' full-lillll' urhall ,l{al'ri~OIlS of Ihl'
\ "'I1"!i;1l1 '/ n I'll /'trll/II \\','1",' oft,'n (If \','1') low II ual iIy.
l"(f1l.. i~lillg- or n'lin,d \'l:lt'1"a'I,~ (II' Illl'll wilh 110
Illililar) lr;,illillg" whal~ne\'I'I",
\'t'lll'li;llllll1'("l':, ~1:llillnt'd O\'I'I")o,t'a,<, in tlll' ('lI1pirl'
, f)fI ,\ /(//", \\ '"1'1' 1IfIll! In' ("l "lsi ..tt"ll fluali I y alld (,fie'l
tItTul'i,'{1 i..nl;ltnl W' hazardou~ oUIJ)l)sts, Apal'l
lintll tlU' hllW' IHHll) \\'01' wilh Iht' eOllqm':.l of
R ... r view of Verr...c";o'" 1i1..11l,. (""4,85) of Lbe f.mollti
.,o"dolti""" Bar'olomeo CeUeoni who liervl V .......,. f"ilbfutly
for m ..ny y,..r..,1t .how... ~rf""l ..... mpl" on.l'" 'Slb ..,.nlury
run.pl.. l rmOu" in Ih .. h.li." ... yl,., For .. frO'l! view ~ MAA
J6, It.Ii Mtldi.,,,.l Armi". P,:H (ill
c.mpo SS, Gio~ ,.
P.. ol... V<r."i~).

.i,..

militilr) l,lill", thUll).!:h l'wn in IIII' 13th l'I'1I1u~ '8aul~ o( Ao&hiari ( l. paialed c o",. d>~..c by IOCh t o(
Uc",U... I. lhill b,ud~ chI: V"'....c;
and F1o....nci .._
u
11:1li:III' \\ ,Tt' I)('i Il~ n'n'lli\l'd litr 'IT\'il'l' (,\ l'rsl'it:., JII 5(0",a d~(",cN th~ Mila.."'.... undu Picd..iao, tNa., Gall, o(
Ir.,I.DCl, Duhli..)
1:!l~l \'I'll in" , Cn'Ian (i.'LIiIa lnrit', n)c<,t' ill J't'\'oh. Tlw
n'i11l~ \\a" ITtl,ht'd anIT hillt'r li~IHill.L:, and
Ilwn'alit-r Iht' ddi'llnos or Cn'\I' \\t'rt' stilli:'nl'c1 hy au:til.. . ill IIK'i11 hamb \1 hilt, lirrlll~ "Olllrulling lilt'
Illall) Illt'rn'llal'it", Ilali:II1 in/i-Illll"y takillg a major pon .. , Ill(Il>{' i~IaII(I, \lilll.1 Ira(lili"11 f,t'lliraq, ,llid
ril!t' 111l1U~h 11:t1iall l'a\'all") \ll'n' mill"(' ran,ly ;"l('lTS., 1'I 1111' \ i I,d I; U't'l>h frol" \\ hieh nU~1 \','11"[ iall
rt'i"nrckd, I.oeal ,/rflflioli prll\'idrdllw bulk orhor~l' ~hip" \Wrt' huill. Otlll'rwi,,' \'c'lIin' h:lcl 110 i11ll'n"1
'111(lit"'s,
11\ I hI' bkak li1ll,"1 ('11\' 11H ,unwill' "I' I Ill' hinllTl:t ml.
I':adl pan orlhe \'I'll1'li,1II t'11Ipin' dilli:rnl ill tilt' Sornl' dIll''' IIt'l"" ohli,L:I'c1 III ~lIppl~ "hips to 'hv
details oril., Illilil:1 I) 1 Ir)..\a Ili~a Iit Ill. I". ri:t had rill,. II y "I'lll'li;llll1t'I"
Zadar 110 II'~S Ihall :\0 g-nlley~ fillly
b'TII 1'!'ll(lltl'l'l'd 1"1,' ill Ih,' 1:~lh Cf'Il111ry "tiel" a manned "'hill' all had III 'lIpply ,'i:lilors, plus
snit's Ill' a n1llhi I,il Ill' up,'r" Ii( 'liS lJ) g:a Iky llet'ls .. rill.: lIlililias fi'1" 111"it' OWll ddi'lIt'c. '1'11t1l1J..(h 111l'
lllrl i lil'a Iilllll> 1'1' 1111 N' pla("t'~' likc I'ric.'ll: ane! KoplT cou111ry~idl' 1'1'III<lill('(1 firll1l~ SIa\', lilt' llali<ln
which had ddled \'t'IWliall cOll1rol. W('I'C c1isman- charal'tl'r or Ihl' 1l1:~jor I),dlllali:m c'ilit'~ 1\:lS
i1txl. Kllpt'!' \\a, plal"l'd une!n lilt' jt\illl rult, of a stn:11~IIH'IH'd. Full) Ir;lill\'lI t'l'0.,,1J,.\\ cnilili:ll>
/JOd,"/(/ !'i\'il /-:II\I'I"II(,r :11\(1 a /lfIl/'rdit"fI' mililar~ Ix:t'anw:t li'ailln' Ill' Iht"" ,'iIi,'" \,llil,. 1),tllllali:llI
ae!lllilli,lralOl'. Z:tc!aJ', lilt' main \\'lIl'li:m n:"'al Ix'as,llll \\:trriol'~ ~lill aPI':tl'l'llll~ 11",11 t"Cllnpmill'
b:I'i" ill Dalmalia, rrl'fIIH'lltl} n'\'ollt'd a~ai1l.'1 hO\I~ ul' U}l.alllil1l' or .rlmo't Turl.i,h l"nJl,
\'('II\,ti:m rult' alltl had, ill 1:1('\, h(','11 rl'COH'I'l,d
TIlt' :l.licldlt' Ea~ll't"ll ,11 .. ,.. 1\'\1'1' 01 "('lH',ian
durill~ Iht' Ii!"'''1 hall It' or lilt' Fourth Crusad,'.
l'olollialu'IIt'p" ill Cn'\(' ami (;I'1'1"('t' \\,1,' C'\'l'll mol','
Duhro\ nik n",i'lt'(l Vl'm'lian ('ulilrol mort' dTn- oh\iou"" En'ltia, kllll\\11 tn Iht, \'t'llt'li:tns ;I~
lin-I} atld \\.1' onl) J'ullxl h~ \'cnice from I~O':' to ~q.!r()plJlllt'. \\,1' "Imlt;.t ,l' hiA .111 i,larul a~ Cn'l,'
1:~S8. EI ...ndwn.' Ih,' \'l'Ill'li:llh Il'ft <I:ly-",-<l"y
and wa,,111I' kc') Ii' \'I'Ilt'lianl)ll\"'1' in Ihl' :\q.~C;lI1,
'5

II llrislkd with l(lrtilieatillllS, indudillJ.,: il tl)\\Tr

IHlilt in till' !llid~1 nl"1I1\' Ell ripos thallrwl wilen' lip
(IJ 1.1 licks flowed ill a single day, Only tIll(' ot'tlw
1ll0S1 sl'lIior \'l'lll'ti:m :Idnlinislfalnrs t"ould bctollll"
Nt/ili,- or !!:n"ITIUll" Ill' E\"\"oia. :lI1d the l'nl1H1Y'S OWll
flag; \\-a~ tloWl1 lIll :1 IInnlZl' fl:Ig;"~I:,lr oll!sidl' dw
C:lllll'dr:d "I' SiHI :\larl'lI ill Vvnin' ilsdf Ull
ClTI'!llOllial UCC:rSillll~,
Other I.-s~ inlporlall( ,\,'ge:lll iSJalld,~ Wl're rlll're
stups a 1011,1.{ tire track n,utl'S ot" bast's li'Olll which tn
coni rol pir:ltr' '['hi' Crd,ulcs :lfcllipda,l.{tl, Ilwon'li
c:dlya lid'ofllll' l.:rlill Ernpin'orConstaminopk.
wa~ al'l ually held hy \':1 r;ous \'('11t'1 ;all Hlinilil's who
pl:H'('d lo)'.rlIY hJ VI'ni('I' ahove mere felldal
ohlig-:ltions III Illat short-I;\"l'd 'I'lllpin.', Tire tillY
i,sl:rrld of "tiliera, (Ill' Ihl' sl)UIIlt,:1'Il tip 01" Greece,
pnJ,'idl'd "ital l'11Il'l11111llieatiuns bl'lWCI'll \'<:llite
alld Crele; ;1 ("'('lltu:,lIy had lin less (h:lll Illrl'I'
("a~llc-.s and ol sizeal)l\' l-\"alTison, Corfu, at 1111' mouth
'Venelian S'raJ,'"U; al lh.. baule of '''ornovo ('4.9S)' from a
French print made a f"w year,. later, Here a combined halian
army tlnd.. r Venetian leadership was narrowlyd ..f..aled by .he
invading French, btlt not before the str"d,otli light cavalry had
caused terror On lh .. Fr.. nch flank. {Nat. Gall, of An,
W..sh;ngton)

11';

01" lltl' Adriatic, Ilad originally J;llkn ttl \'min'

durillg thl' 1':lfvin,l!"up ol"tlH' Byzarrlilll' 1':l11pil"l'. ;IS
[l'mbl obli,l!:l [iPll IWill,\.{ I hl' Sll ppl YIIf '21 I klligb ts a lid
.1.0 ~qllirl"s, Corfu was, Iww('\'l"1". soon lost 10 lhl'
Kingdol1l (If N:q)!cs ami had tn he purehasl'd had
;n 1:11.11i, Other Il'mpnrary Vt'lH'tiall P<J~S('SS;lIns ill
Gn'l'c,' illclmkd i\lnllt'Ill"ils;a, i\ktluJlIi, Arl-\"(ls,
C"rilllh, N;t\paklO,\, Nauphlia alld 1'\'1'11 Atlll'ns,
,\s thl' Ollornall~ ad":lllct'd ;11"1"1'\,\ (;n'I'\'I' in thl'
!.llh ("l'lllilry Illt'~I' olllp0:-ol:; l!("callll' lillnl wilh
Byzalltilll' n'lil~I'('S, il.larty (';Illlt' rrolll Ille (,Id
mililary i'lill' and tOf'lk sl'l'\'in' wilh \'ru;n' ,IS
\Imllio(; li~lll cavidry, Arll\,ng thl'lll W"'"I" I:Hllt'liS
rl,lllll'S like (;1'<lill.:lS P:llOlt'IIIIIg;(IS, {i'tllll IllI' last
Byzanlilll' rlilill,1.{ (;lmil). willi rose II' ("(llmna'ItI .. 11
Venniall lighl G:t\'a I1')", All dli,rt lco dri\"(' till'
()tl\llllansOltl ol"tl\(: PclUpUlllll'SC ill 1.1(j:~ .~ witli all
army (11' ,,(rad;nli, J [alian h,llld"g;uIHllT~ Olild (.m"
d'iltirri hell "y Gl\'alry l:LiIt 'd, 'fhis was lilt' last majllr
VelH:tian land ollcllsi\'l: in tlll' 1':I~1. Th(T('a!il'l"
ddcllSi\"l' 0p.Tatioll~ lI"en' kn III Ihi' na\':11 ami
g::lrrisoll ilrf:'mtl'y 'lild In ,(/'(/(/iQI;. wh(l not only
li'"ght tilt' 01l0111:1nS till 111.';1' OWll t('r1ll~ bUI W(Tl'
III uch dll';\ per 10 Ill:' iI11<1 in Ihi! II \ \\',~tl-rll"st yk 1llt'1l"

a I-anns, \ \'ieldi 11g: l;hOl"l la IIl:C~ orja \'cli Ill;, bows a lId
lighl swords, alld being- rdalin.:ly li~ht1y armoun:d,
such Jlmdioli wcrl' recruiled ill Grcl'C.':c, Albania ,md
Dalmalia. Theil' loyalty was rarely in doubt. lheir
ferocily pt"OH'rhi<l1. and their habil ofml1ccting lhe
heads or slain fbI'S nc\'cr seriously discouragnl.
NC\"tTlhckss. si,l.:"ns ordcc1ining Balkan and Grn:k
sllppnrt till' Vt'nice' he'camc apparenl ('\'("11 Ily Ihl'
151h ('t'nlll!'),
Crel!' n'lll'lined the prize poss"ssioll ami \'t'llin'
h:'ld 10 fi~hl lor il agaillSt hOlh local Grceks and
Gt:lloes(' l"rCt'-hOOlers, To cnSllrc ils subjection til('
isl,lIld had hlTIl di\'idecl illlo six seclions nallwd
after the si,\; dislri('lS of\'t'lIic(', BClIt',lIh Ihcse Gl!lW
Ij2 kllig-lllS' l"ct'S ilnd ,15 infillllry s('rgt',lIllries
mostly held by VClH,tiilll military s"tllers, ForIi fical inns spra Ilg up all ovel' t he island. particu larly
a I(Jllg Ihe nol'\ ht'l'll COilsl, \'t;l Crell' pnwnlnol to be
lh" land llf"0pp0rlutlilY as had al fina bet;ll hoped,
Evell hy 13:F many nl'l1w \'ellt;lian St'lller knighls
wcn' 100 puo!' to aflurd proper mililary equipmellt.
i'vlall)' of Iheir li:udal scrls \l't:I'(' 01" Ar,J!) origill.
dl'scrlld\,d t'rtl1n i\ Ill~lilll C(Jllq\lcror~ whn had ruled
en'l" {"('lllllrics ("arlin, Though llllfrn.:, Ihey could
1)(" SlllllllHltlt'c1 filt' mililary service. while Gn:ek
Cretans WI"IT also Ctllls<Tiptcd when llt'cl1ed, TIll:
en'lall lalenl lor s;1\'<Ig-e j.{lll'l"rilla Il'arline first
bl"(':llllC ;lpparcnt dllring lht., ll1id~I~'1th n'lllllry
l"C'bdlinll "'hil'h "'as, 11011'l'\"I'I" equally sav<lg-dy
crushed, Allullwr uprisitl,!s inlhl: mid-t4.lh n.:lltllry
contirnwd thl' Vl'l1Clians in t1wir vicw or Cn'tans as
ulliruslworthy sa\':lges, ,1l1d Ihe latle]' ill their
h:lllwl [iw V('lIelian t.'o)onial I'llit-, NI'HTthdess
Crt.'tan inl:lIllry archers were soon lighling- a)otlgsick Vl'lll"tian nossh(Jwmt:ll in lilt..' Tl'rm Firma,
From Ill,' Fllunh Crusadc's conquesl 01" l~tallbtll
ill t '111'1 II) Ih" Byzan Ii 11(' rC~<Ii ni Ilg: or Ih(-ir capi lal ill
I',d)l. Vell"tiall merchanls dUlllillatl'd L111: Black
Sea, This dall!-':t'fOllS area spallllt'd Ihc rich ('ara"all
roUles fhltn Irall and Chilla, and was abo an
imp0l'\alll SIIUtT,' fir wood fhHl1 which ('ross bows
were m,tclt.-, III 12Gl Vt'niCt' IIISI )Il'!" paramlHllll
pvsilion 10 1111' G,'nUI'se, who werl' dos,' allil's or:t
r('vivnl Il)'zaillillm, But, (It:Spill" till' dedicaled
llostilil)' ill" Ihl~~t' IWO Ilalian mariliml' repuhlics,
Venin.: and Cenoa Ih'qul'ntly co-op"raled ill lhe
hazardous "Il\'irolllllCIlI ol"the Black 5t';I, This was
paniclll:lrly <lpparenl ill Ihe Crinw:J, where a
llumbt'l' of" originally Byzantin" porls sen'l'd as

'Porl.rail of an unknown F1or~ntin~ "nigh!' by Piero di Co5imo,

<:.'5'5> showing ,h., ftut..d arn.our ,",pular ;n norlhern lIal)'
from Ihe earl)' .6,h ce... ur)', {Nal. GaU.,r)', London)

termini [i)r tht, lralls-Asiall Silk Road as wdl as

roUll'S IHH'lh illin fur-rich Rll1>.,i<l alld Siberia, Then'
were. nl'rollfsc. hll)ucly dashes, bllt Vl'lll'lialls ami
Ge1l0l'se hOlh fi'ar\'d Ih,' mighl oftl1\' llt'i~hlJolirillJ..:"
!\Iollgnl Cold,'!) I-Inrdl' ,111(1 its Sll('n'~SClr Kh'III:II,'".
The CrinH':I ilsdf 11'<1.'1 ;, rl'm<lrkalll~ mixed :In',I,
wi th Arn1l'll ialls Ii lnni Ilg ,l m:ljori I)' ill SOIll\, 11';ldi II).:
I(IW!lS and Christian (;cllhs, dt'St't'lld;llll.' tll' 1):lrk
Age and pn!l;lps slll),s('qllc'IH Anglo-Saxon rd'u,g\'l'
set 1leI'S, ill h<llJi Iin)..:" \ lit' l"flast:L I IHlllllltaillS, :-\ I Kal1;1
the Gcno('s(' e\"('11 had a ((Ili/lrll/l'lIl rio/hi,' ill l"h'lrg'e or
Gothic lroups, pillS ((lIM/alii ami otlln' lilll-timl'
military ollieials, Tltt' llali:llI~ 10.'11 1111' (:ri11\I';1 1\IIIIl'
OllOlIlalls in l.li~l. llll' Black SI';I !J1'I'omin,g :111
Ol10ll1atllakv willllilliw )'('ars. "Ih'!" which lhl' c>l1l~
'\\'l'slero' Ilwl'cllanl 1"!'J<ls,'I, 10 s;lil ils wal'T" \\"\'1"("
thnsc ol"\'t'niee's llid J),IIIIl:lli,nl l'i"a1. \)ulJro\'nik,
Thc lllcn::t'l1ary t!t'Il1\"lll ill \'l'lwtiali anllit"
steadily im'l'cascd O\'l'!' Ilw n'lllliril's, ,\lnl'l'naril",s
had IOllg IWt'l1 a kalun' 01' ll;diall 11'<lrE,n' ami
IlOl"lhtTn Ilaly rt'rnainn) lilt' ma,iul' SCHlrn' lll"SUc:/1

'7

'Kn;ghl adunng Ihe Virgin lind Child' by Clliena, early 161h

cenlury. The .... rnur'. turban and a curved dagger on the wall
suggest Ihal he represent. an 'ori,"-nlal', perhaps one of Ihe
Thrff Wist' Men or a Venelian s/rpdiol light ca"alryman, (Nat,
Gallery, London)
tl"()()P~ tor '("nin. AIIlOl1~ tin: first Ilollll:dian~ to
he hi I'ed II tTt' Ca la l;t II tTl lS.,hO\\'Jllt'll b IC' in Iht' 131 h
cenlury. Fon'i~ltel's Iwcanlt' mllrt. Cf,rnmlllt in l'llh
("{'!llury ,'cilicc, as Ihcy \\lTt' dscwlH'n' ill Italy.
tllllllg"h Ihe \'t'lleti;tll.' t'al'lll,d ;t rl'[luI;1Ii011 a,~
llowbly hard bar,l{aim'rs 1IIIt'll il camt.' to drawing
llP tIll' ("'ld'll/a n,nlral"l. Such cfllItrans wen'
g"t'lIt'r<tlly \'t'f)" rlt-tailt-d. slw("if")'in~ arms and
cquipnwllt dOWIl Iu tlll' la~t ell-tail. Fon'ig-n
nWI"t"\"l1arit's Wt'lT not 1101'111;llly l)C'nnill~'d to li\'C iu
Veil in' ilself" hUI Wt'l'\' ltllllst.,d ill b;uT:lcks fir
hadwlor lious('," Wilhill IIle ciladds 01" llw Tfll"ll
1-'11'I1111. Th('I'\' Ilw Il'OOPS St~m illlcgl'aled il1(o tll('
lot'al comll1unities. marryiug" lucd ~irl,~ and cvell
sCllilig IIp local lmsiln'sst's, Yel discipline could iilill
lw h;u"Sh, wilh hangill)..\s or Illutilalions fix St....iOll'
nl1i.:nses like clt-senioll. (,'ollflul/;I'I"I Ieackrs \I'ho
hccr;tyecl VClIin" werc Jlllhfidy humilialed by
ha\'il1g" ilwir ptlrtr;til,s hUll,!.;" up~ick-dflwn ill puhlic
platTS sud I as lhl' Riallo broltu:l.
Oil/dol/ini inl:Hllry Wl'I"t' sent m'\'l"seilS in the I.llh
t.'t'l1lmy, s(,l'vin,1.;" itl erett' and ds('wht'l'('. Tht'
/.:"IT<lll'SI SUlTt'''St'~ t,r tht'st' ltig-hl)' trained pro1i.'ssiiJlI;tls wen', lrow('w:r, ill t!ell-nn' 01" the Terro
Fitl/w. Thest' Wen' al'llil'\'('d not only ag:aillSt 01l1l'r

(Qlldollirri hUI most 1l0l;thly a,!.{ailisl I-lullj.{arians ill

Frillii ('Oldy in the 151h CI'lIlury, AlIlllUg" ,'('lIiet'"s
nOli-II alia n melTt'l L;j rics \\'t.:I"t' (;I'fll'liln ,L;"Lt lllH 'r, a llCl
pikemcll, English ardH'l"s, (jaselllls, ~wi~s, Albanian mountain intillllry, Dallll,Hial1~ and en'tall
ardH'r~. Omd/llfiai infhnlry wcn' lIst.'c! in !;{rcal
111l1l11wrs durillg Iht' 151h CUtlllry, proving tlltlch
easier 10 hire and lire Ih;1I1 the pr0ud('r ane! more
('xpt'nsin' c;l\alr)', Such tlll.'lTt.'nary inbntry forcl.'~
lltJrmally itlCluded spl'annCtt, ("I'Os..,II(JWllll.'ll and
shidd-hcart'l"S in t.'qual llttillUCr. BUI all thesc
l1lerC('ll<lry lill'cCS had thl.' dis<lch-;II11ag-t' (lrshorl
COtl1 racls. a licr wh icll 1111: lllC11 could gil a lId hi rc ou t
10 anolher' stalc.
-I'IIC 101lg" VenClian tradition ol'1llilitary Irainill~
and splendid lOtlrnatlll"nts, ill which t'\'t'll ,lradi!}l;
were takin)..\" part by 14-91, stlUI(\ VeniCt in /.:"luKI
~lead. An.:hcry butts fill' nosslxl\" prat,tit"(' \\'(,I'e
dot led aruund lhe cilY and Ihe Lickl, Priz('s wne
~elh.'rous. and III
Iso6 slmolillg" l'an,l.;"l.'S ami
{"ompt.,titions lor handgulls \I'CIT similarly sel up,
illdicalingjust how inlportalll lllC~e til'\\' \\t'apttIIS
had become. Olher \\'al'likt.' pa~tinH'~ ;ndllclt"-cl
barely C"oll1rolkd baltlc~ with :l1;lVes alld fisls
bl.'lween lhc thrcc easlern and Iht' Il1n'\' \l"t"'~\(TII
.If."ifl"; parish<,s tJfVellice, Ollidally ill;Hl~lIl'all.'d in
1'29'2, (hey lellclt:d 10 tah' placl.' bel \l't"('l1 St'plt'lll ht'l"
alld Christmas, Nonnally IIKll~in~ollllll'tlridgn
which l"ck(<! parapets ill IhoSt, days Illt'y l'llCkd

willi lilt' 10sl'J's Hilling inlo Ih' 'allal. :ham sea

ligills a 'saults Oil 1110 k a.<;llc " , nd bagordi or lighl
('<1,'<111''' manu 'uvr \
I' ua k and with Irawal
dear! inspin'cJ by Balkall or lsIami military
pra lin',w(T'alslar'atUr' rl,th cl1llrY\lni "
:0 \\01: Ih d ",r1y non-E Imp an ,\l"rel/'o war
dan l'Wilhhllllltl'd la g rs, namar's nou I \' I
l\\i l'-year! ' mililaI-y parade' and ill:p lioll' \\'ere
d ':iglH' I 10 weed ut in Ilmp'l nl 11'0 I;' an I I(
cll('l'k Ihl' qualil~ or mililar, quill11('nl.

Siege, Fortification and Fireanns

\ elH'linn sicg\' \\'arl~ln.:, al leasl 01 land. ~ II ,,'rei
th(' :an1l' p;'ltl'rJIS as d: \ h('n' in Europe, B Ihe
(',11"1)' dah PIIIIIl')' Ih' krenn' ora it)' like Padua
dej) 'ne! 'c! up II all e);1 'ri I' \\'al -r-fill d dilch and
massed ,. rlillLTy in rais'd eanh ha. tions to covcr
galf's allel mlll'r weak J oinll'. The stOll(' cily wall was
sln'llg111l'1lt'd hy having -anh I ikcl again 't il. inner
[1('(' hchin I whi 'h was anothcr e1il h l:nckcd by
eascma ('S and lowers, Filll II. therc 'ame a high
!'m ban km 'nl \-vi th a parap 'I S 'Iyj ng a' an a ':embl)'
poinl anrl additional ,utili r' pladc.1I'ITI, :ro:sbow'
\lI'n' 'Iill used b)' l11ililianll'l1, b II hanclgul1ll rs
pnl\'iclnl t hI' mO:1 ,0' Ii,' an.
In inral1lr
assault.
\ eni l' fin U~ I. an I (~I (' I. firearm III 137
\l11\'III)Olh lhl' \'c'lwliansand AU'Iri ns mploy'd
homhards ill open baIlie, 'UIlS play d a more
~iglliliralll rlJIr againsl til
'no'"
r,w y'ars
lal('I'; alld b ' Illl' t"\r1) I Ih (,tlllUl' Ih' \' 'nt'li. n
~lI'Inr clearly had an artillery Irain whil evcn Ihe
ri,'(T fI '('I'
arrid nUllwrOll, small cannon,

w...

4-----...1)-

c.l--_---"'--:-_---.J

Firearm : A-B........l of Scllioppo band'gun, '<lth C, (Mus,

Civico Marzoli, Brescia); B-Br....ch.loadin cannon 'een from
beneath, of type which could be mounted on the bulwark ofa
ship, 15th C, (Mus. Civico Marzoli, Brescia); C-Mid.15tb C.
haDdgun, shown on right in reconstructed wooden tock (Mus,
Civico, Trieste); D--Mililary whedlock pi tol with German
barrel & Brescian lOck, mid.t6th C. (Annoury of Doge's
Palace, Venice); E-It:alian caliver matchlock, I ngth abnost
"5 m ..tre (after Held),

'rcnadc: \ ere also rr 'orr! 'el, hUI il was thl'

kvdopnwl1I IJI'II (' han I-R In \- hi 'I was to pl'tlVC
ll10s1 dramalic, In lh' l ..p h n'nlury such \\!c'apOl1s

had less armour-penetrating- 'apabilil than rossbows, thollgh Ihey wer(' rh ',,!wr; bUI il11prov 'l11('nl:
illih '111 nuhrlurt' I'salLJ eln' '1I1d the IISI' r10ngcr
barrels rapidly in rcast'd Illuzzk vclnril ',The gr 'al
cilcli. n rondl/lliff/-leader. :olkolli, was popularly
CTt'dilt'd wilh lirl't using lid I arlilkr ' Oil l1lobik
carriages, an I Ihou~h ht' mig-hl Ilnl aClUally han'
b n tht' Ii r:t. h ' ('cn a i 11 h, us 'd IIll's(' 111'\\' w 'a pon:
,"I"
'11<- tiv'l)', Tht' V '11 'lian, W('IT a!'
11lhllsiasli . al out d '\T10I ing 1It'\ c'xplnsivc' wcapon:
including' gunpl wd r-fill'd mill's alld Ih' longbarrell 'd and higll)' mobile !NlJi/i,l!. sit',{ gUll, Th
\1', enal ul1\'iousl)' phyed a major I an in Ihl\('
dl"" 'IOll11l'llIS hUI was t'qllillJ~ d ",r1y unabk 10
manu a "I un' as Illan) call 11011 ,I: wcre Iwcckd ill lhe
I Ih
t'l1lur. l\l<-anwhilt- inm was smdtnl and
worked [(II' mililary I ul-pnst\ in a \\flll<- I "I' rt IJr
mace: known a~ Ihe - '\In. Ia IlT 10 I> 'coml' hell I'
kn \\Ill rtS the Ghcuo or Jcwish quancr or \ cllice.
The hilllre 01' \' 'nclian anill'ry againsl an
invading- Fr 'nch Siq~l' train <11 thl' CII I or t1w 15th
c('lllury SC'C'I11S lHll III In\,' I' 'sull(' I li'om infr-rinr
'V{'e p )IlS bUI (i'om Frell 'h Ilun1l'ri 'al Sll'l'Il,~lh and
hI' gr 'atcr ll1obilil, '

ru

River waU and bastion (left) of the 16th century defences of

Kolor, The land waU may ju t be e n rising from left to right
up the precipilou lope of Mount Lovcen,

111 I. ()l \ 111(' r~lc('d Ih' L 'agut' or Cambrai.

"'hi h pilled In sl If Europ' againsl her alone:
a11101l/.{ til ':e [C)t', wa~ Fnu1l'I' whose armi 'S wcrc
amol1g- Illl' 11l0S1 I (I\\Trrul Ill' till' clay.
nl)' IWO
I ~)

m(lllth~

ann ;[ lIug't' explosiUlI ill the "rst'llars

~lI11pO\\"(kr ~lore. \'c'llin' lI"a~ dl'li-alecl at thl'
(li~;L~lre)u~

I';lt,ll' c,f

!\~n;ldl'll(J

\I"a~ lll~l. T'w~(> ll't"ril"ric'~

:LII(I till'

Tt'ITt/ /'j"rfl/a

WITI' \<1 be' ~radually and

p;nit'lIt1y rq~ailH'd: htlt t1w most remarkahle aspect
flf Ihis app:dlill).{ )'I';lr 1I';1~. ill 1;ICt. the Repuhlic's
~un'i\al.

FrOIn ,hell on Vt'nice adopted a grimly ddcllsiVt,

all alliances and stn:nglh(,rling her
fnl1lticrs with the ,nost modern liJ1'llfications. 'j'llt,
pn'l'llrtion orea\'alry to inl;ulIry in her annil'S was
draslicall~ reduced, as in nHist OlhtT Europc.:;ul
slall,;s. whik .111 ever-growing" Ot \( IIlla II na\'al til rea t
10 her (JnTSI'as lelTllories demallckd enor mure
gaJlI'ys. plu"~ lilt' marim's and .({llllS II' lill thelll, OIL
Ihl' ntll(T hand, Vl'lH:lian mililal")' Ol'g-;l11isalifJll

.~1;1I1n.. ~hllnniltg"

lJecame mon and mort' COnSt'lTa,i\'l' and predictahle. CClilsidl"l"able dlilr!S \,'ere' c1n'oh'd til :1\'olding
"';11' Willi Ilw Ollomans and 10 m;lirllailling strin
nt'UtraJiI)' In Europ",11l albirs. The army ;\IId tlet"
lo-npo.'l":llo:d 11I(,r(' dll~l'1y than 1\'C'r. The fiwllll'r
tn11c('1lIral\d on Illainland Ihnals liOln Hapsbtlrg:\lL~lrla and Ottomall-\"ukel HI/sllla, lhl' Jall"r 011
1l;1\'allhrl":Il~ nOI f111ly Ih,m lhl" OllfllllallS but also
IhJln I hOst, champions of C:hrisll'llelIJlll, the Spaniards. whll nl)\\' rllkd ~Olllh('\"n Italy. \'('nll'l' may
11;I\'C i;hrllllk 10 a svcnllel-das~ po\\'(' .., bllt lhe
wisdom or, hese pulirics \"C'stllted in I he fl'llla I'ka hi)'
long: lik (,l" her l"mpire. which sun'lwel IIntil
N:lPO!t:OI1"s lakC'on'r in 1797. ~1:1chian'lJi's damlling: explanation or the Venetian ddi'i11 in 15U!) a-"
result illg; li"om a ' misera bit- haseness
spi rit ca lLSId

or

'The SIO~OrSI Ursula' by Carpaccio., '493. Lef'_h.. pilgri",,,

arrive al Cologne, "ho...ing (ully ar",oured men equipped in
VeneTian lilyl", and an archer wiTh a la,,,, By~anTine slyl", o(
.....ord. Belou-.llassacr", o( tbe pilgrim" by UUnll, sho...ing
Hghdy equipped soldiers ...ho are probably ba..ed on Venelian
$f.,,,diolli. (Academia Gall" Venice)

'.10

b~

a 1\'ITlclll'd

lI1ilitar~ ~y'h'H1' wa~

by slll"\'ilal IiII' almost lhru'

pwn'd

11101'(' cl.'lllllri,~

\\"rull.~

;Ig-airhl

.tll dll' lIdd, (If Eurolll"~rli Ili~lor).

Onl' I""ull or \'('lIin:~ ehallgnl lojtuati'JlI wa~ a
rclurn 10 rdiann. as I~u' ;t, pll~~ihll" orL IHT U\\ II
mell, ;\ll'I'n'llarie~ \\fTl' still recruitcd IIlII surh
I!'lOOp' IllTl" nOlI kss a\'ailabk and \\'niee \Ias al<;o
,hort (If cash 10 p,L Y them. Thl' \.cnet iar Lal'i<;tocrac~
remained ~m:dl. rl('\'lT llUmbering- lllon: Ihall :.!,Sc)o
adult maIn. ill corl1pari~un III its milital'~, na\'al.
politic;)l nnd ,Idmilliqratin' rcspollsilJililin. 01'din:lr~ pl.'upk \\I.'I'C IIOW Io.:s~ wi]lilL~ 10 .'l.'lId llll.:ir
SOliS a:. :.oldic'r,. <;0 that \"'nin' \\:"
(Ihli.l.{cd 10
p:Ll'dnn crimirlals il11Ttunll~11' 111cirlnlistlllelll. 'I'he
I'it) inl'I'c':I,illgly rdied OlL 11Ll'll ti'urn tl1l' 7"l'lm /;i'rll/(/
wlriclr. d"spile ih prohkms, wa:. litd 10 \'elrin' hy a
~rudg"ing' fWrlS, or 11llll11al ac!\allr;tg'('. The \\'n~
c'liall~ lllt'll1~d\'l's n'mairll'd ;1 mulli-cultural ;)nd
CVl'U lIlultirada] so('irly. NC\'\'nbd,'ss there were
<;lill t;tr more rC1H'gades li'om Chrish'ndo1ll In Islam.
and fl'olll VCllicl' to Ihe Otlorn:ms, lhall \,it(-\cl1>:l.
Christ ians also In 'a ttd lhei r ;\ I uslim prisoncr' ~Ia ws
I;Lr lIllI"'" tll,rll Turk\ trealed Christian slaw's,
Iarv,d) bC('albo..: Chri~li;1t1 Mxi(ty lacked lhe
l'c:1igious-Iq.{;l1 'i;IJu:tiulI!> to deal I\ith such mrttwrs .
.\kall\\ hik tilt' ("Ollln,l Ill' mililar} "flilirs \I'as
Cl/II''lIlralld ill thl' hand~ or a ('olkge or cxperts
much likt ;, modern \\':11' council. Spi.:s and
illii Inn(TS pia ~ cd pl'1'h:t ps a gn';( tlT 1'(,10.: in \' ellel i,lll
milil:ll') prep,Lr:llion~ thall ;1t1}'1\ ha(' d~(' 111
Europt. I\hik in lhe r(ilh Cl'Ill11r~ \"'nin~ itsl'!f
Iwe,L1Tw a (','llln' li,r the Wrilil1.1.: ami priming' or
11Iilitar) I)Otlks and maps. !\Iilitary nlllsiruetiun.
iikillcd arlisans. and abOI'': alllht rnakirl~ ofbrOllZC
earlnOlI WITt' jncr('a.singl~ cOllcclltr;l1cd irl tllt'
Arsenal Irmlt-r rhe d''''''SI gU\'(Tnl11ellt "uplr'\'isiol1.
\\'hik !Ill: '7 t'I'/'{/ ','iflllfl l4('nnall~ remained lo)'al
til Vl'Jlin. till' l'aSll'rtl pro\'inn' Ill' Friuli was slill
\'er~ badward arKl \'inuall} liudal. 11 W:l~ here
lhat Verliee t~c('d seri(Ju~ l11ainbud Ihn',lIs li'om
holh Hapsburg- AllStria and tlH' Turks, Both w('re.
hO\\'t'\'er. (ontain.:d: and it would 1,1' bir to!>a~ Ihal
lhe Ottoman Htilun' to conquer Ital)'. Iarg:d~ as;1
rcsult Ur\'('IU'lialr reSiSI<lIlCI. had a prulilund dli:cl
olllht nltlnw orR('nai~alKl'and Europeall hi~lury.

III l(ir.1 r7 \"'lIit'l'li'lIglll Iwr Ia,l 111,11"1' laud lIar.

ag-:lrn a~airlsl Ill\' II:tI'~l)ltrg's \\]10. Iltrllul.:h
i\rdlduke F"rc!ill;ll1Cl 01 .\uqri:l, 1\ 1'1'1' pn'tl'ltllH-\
the lro'lIhk,ol111' L.,k"k I'it.ttl" (II' S"I~j ill till'
IIclrtht'nl .\driatit'.
U~kuk ;tlld ollll'r piratn. pIll, a 11;(\;11 tlln'at to
Dalmatia rn'lll Sp;Ll1i,h :\aplt'i. \1 ('l',. rill' main
probl'lll.s corrthlllting \"'l1in' ill till' ],lll' ll'lh alltl
I 7t Ill'('r 11 uric,. Th.. llsk'lk" bi ulI'd tc, I)C' (:nr,;tckr"
li.{{htillg' the Uttoman infield. Iml ill Ell' I tIH'~ l'au~I'd
more tl'Uuhl,' 10 Chri'li:tl1 \'t'llin'. ,\Ithough lh('ir
ha.~e;1I !:)l'l1j \\:1:- IIOrltlll:dl~ ill I bp>.llLlrg 11'l'l'ilor~.
lilt l'~k'lk~ \\eIT ill rt'a]jl~ rrl'l'!lllllt,r,. NilI' \\l'fl'
chI')' tIll' llnl~ pir;rtl" irl tilt' ,\dri;rtic: Sp:llli;rrd,.
F1'Illch. ])utdl, 1:Ilg'li,h. Klligllh lir ,\I;r1t;, ;tnd
Tmcall Kni!{lll:- of SI Sl"plll'lI all pl'l'yl'd 011
\.:rwliarl ~hippillg-. ;\lrrsli11l I'"r,arr~ illdudc'd
01l0111;111 !"\lrks. :\llt,lilI1' I),lo-Id irl .\III;tllia and
sOllllwrn Dalmalia. as wdl as th\' I;Ulll'll' Ibrl>ar~
Cur.'Sair>. fi'Olll Norlh Alrica. VI'I rill')' \\,(ft' l1()t
piralt'~ ill till' Inw ~"'I\I. ,illn' dll'ir' ,ll'Ii\ilit.:>.. like
lhosl' or Christian I'lJr~:l1r, atta('killg' ~lu~lirn
";!Iippirlg, \\lTt' g'l'rlnall~ lil'crN'd II} llwir n'pc,,tin
gCI\,e1'llll11'lll '.

Veneli.n wnodeul !Ihowing Ihe ~iege nf P.d.... NOle lhe

besiegers' .. _ of <:lOnnon, h.ndg.. n~ ignited by second man
wilh he.IH tnuel",:, .nd Ihe def"-nd.,.... ..s., of inc"ndiary
gr"n.d.,,, (from Niccoli> degli AgoSlini, U S"cuu; Bell.'ci
p .. bli"hoffi in '521),

'.!l

'SI GecriP' by Carpll""io, ",1:;00, Tl!p Kllinl 's shown a,. a full)'
equipped V",.."'l'a.. mll..... I-lIrml;, Ihough wilboul a h"lm"'l U"
S"uola di S" Giorgio d"gle S"hiavoni, Venice},

.,'t"

TIll' maill tlir~'at to \"ellin"\ O\'I,:rs('as po~~~SSiOllS

11,. III rally ea me li"llm II Il' Oll( HIM ns. 'I 'he Empire f)(l
,\fafl' \\'a,~ Ih 1I"~ divided i1110 Ii 'Ill' ddi:llsi Vt %Ol1t'S: tlH'
Gulfof\"t:nin: ,wei 1~lria: Dalmatia ami ils isl:lnds:
Ihl' {;Ink j,bmls and Crl'l!": :Ind, 1;11' In til(' (':LSI,
Cypru:i, which had only I;dlt'rl umlt-r Vl'llt'lian
nltmol in q!l!J' Ihllllalia st'ITt'd as Ihl' maillslar of
\'l'nClian 11,1\',.1 pOll"c'r ",hilt- thl' rt~llIrtl1l' m:ll"ilimc
t,tnpin' n:lairlt'd ib ori,~illal slralt'gil' functiOl1 as :I
chaill or hC,IVil~' dt'f;"ndl'd baSt'S, 1Iluu,~h lht,
Ollllllla ns had :11 read) hr{Jkt'lI IhroLl,l~h thi"~ chain in
111 a lly plan's" '1'111:1'1,' was abo a II in,reasi 11g 1I'IIdl"lll"y
{fl!' \'('niel"s Crn'k ami Iblk:in sul~i("("L~ lu nl'l' the
I,TCl" IlI'avicr hand nfVt'III",iall t'ol('llial ruk li)r lhc
rt:l:tli\'t' rrcl'duill of OllOlllan tt:-rrilOry, To sunw
CSIClll V('!Iin- was sun"j,"iug on her pasl rcpulalion"
III fact. SIKh was Illl' :I,\','SOllW nUll(" or lilt: Arsenal
Ill:It II~'WS clf :LllI II III.: r dn'as(a ling" t:Xplll:.icln in ISi19
wa" said III ha,"(' t'III'UIlraKl-d the Ollomans IQ
irl\'a(k, and ultimat..!r sc'iz(' Cyprus"

The Fleet
Dert:llCI' or "'"t'l'lwas baSI'S slill fl'sled primarily till
Ilw g:allcy fln"t whoSI' news wnc still used as land or
alllphjhillll.~ (;!1Tt'~" SlJ/ll"I/rll//lili ,~allc'~ caplaim. \\'1'I"t'

11ll' ('Iitl.: of llle \"'~rKtial1 ll1ilit:lr~ 1'"~I<lbli,hl11t'IH,

wi Ih IIKi r wick '"XIX-rll-nn' III It (l1l1~ or na \'al ",ar1:II"('
Inll of g"ullllcry and comb"l on land, [ll\':lriahly of
nuble rallk. llleir baIlie disciplillc wa~ hiR"h bill Iheir
SI'nSi" ofrt'spomihility cOLlld ill tJlhn lillH"~ 1Jt' poor.
Till')' Ih:qucntly lOok IlwIr ships 'uf!' slatioll' Oil
pri'",Ht' \"oyap;t's hack ((l VI,'nict,: cIt"Cor,lled tl1l.'ir
g:dky's poops with unatllhoris('d alld appaliing'ly
t'xpt:llsi,"c gilded woor!"',n'k: 1'(UISlallll)' dl,"l11all(kd
Ill'\\' ships and gl'lwrally In::tll'd Ilwi .. \"\'ssds as
pcnonal crllISt'l"S, In mall\" way:. tlll'sl' 1111'11.
rlTOciOliS and skilful lighlers as Ilie}" \\'tTI", Ilad tllurll
in COlllmon bolh \\'idl nwdie,',,1 kl1i~h,s ancl wilh
surnt: ;,ir an's Ilt",hl: (;1"\'<11 ""ar!
:\llogellll.:r, hO""t:\"er, Ihcn' \,'<I~ a sli:ady decline
III V"l1ctian 11:1":.11 dTieicl1cy li'lJlll Iht' fait' IG,1l
("('llillry Ollwards, despilt> a "~I"l':l1 vicI"ry O\'(T tht'
Otloman (ke( 011 Lcp:ulI') ill 1:1711" '1"11t' ~Ill)na.l{(' of
cn'ws bccanw "CUiI'. Bigg:I.:1" \\arships, "llch as a
"greal galley flagship Ill" I{iOl, ""rried :) 7:l I1l1"ll, '.!~JO
beingoanil1Wll, 1:f1lwi"g"oldier~"ll(llllt"irol1inTs.
Senior llWIl rOll~lll in rull armour, rnarilll,'s in lil{hllT
(/jfM!elf; ol"plalc, ",hill,' oarslllcn \\"on' light 1l\'lnu'l.~
and Illclal-lillt:d (Qf"'I1~;;:illi f1exiblt' hudy armour"
I'"n'(' oarSlllen still hcll)l,"c! lilt' glllllH"1"S in lln~kilkd
l'ap:lCilics. bUI \'cnltc had aln'ad)' 1)1,"1'11 ohlig"t:d 10
10w('I" her staudards or n:l\':l1 nTruitnwnt in Ihe
mid-,6Ih et:ntury, By 111~" 171h ("c'1HlIry sl,,"dard"~

wen' Shllll't i Illt;~ a bY~llt;ll. III 1539 cUllscri pi ielll frtllll

lht" parislws had been ab,llldollCd ill Hl\'our or
qllota~ or O,ll"Sllwn from Ihe g"u;lds and SCI/Olf or
rdig-iolls li'alerllities, Albanians, 1);llmatiallS,
(j rl'd;s a Ild.J I'WS from Corfu i Ild uded oarSIlll'11 who
had simply htTIl press-g"Itl.L:l'd, Com'iet oarsmen
\\'{'I't' IJrou,glll, or I'\'('n bought. from lleighbouring
slal~'S as 1;0' ,didd as RI\"lri,L Chail1('d, ill-c1otlwd,
lllld{'rll:d ,lIld dying 11\ bl'R~' numbers li'olll
exposurl'. lIlt's\' nlllVil'1 (larSIHCIl wen: 1\("V(Ttlllles:s
('IHrusled with \\"t"i1pons in batik, 'rhl:)' rl:lllaill(,d
Illuch Illon' illlpUI'I<lnllO dw 171h ('Clllllry Venctian
fket Ih'll1 did Inll' galley .~I;l\'es. The laltn' could
gcnerally 1)(' distinguished hy a 'rarlar-style singk
luli urha ir lJ pOll Ilwi l' lH'ads. while lhe cOllvicts Wl:rl:
sh:I\"l'd b"ld,
Vt'llice 11:1<1 till" IOllg ]Jilt Christ ia 11 prisolll'l"s 10 th~'
liars whill- ll1l'rcly slaug-htlTing all ~luslilll, n:llegade ,md U~k()k PI"i.~l)lIt'rs. m:lI1: or 1r:malt:, BUI
tin: l'Ilronil' shunag-e ufuarslllen obliW'd V('nicc 10
lClllow (11hlT (:!lrist;an llavies by pllttill~ c;lplllred
Turk.. 'lll lilt" h"l1("lIl'~, Hug{' lHIJ1Ibl'l"1i u!"Olloman
pri~(Jlll'l"s II'l'I"e. ur course, ,l\';lilab1c alier the bank
of Lepanlo; and Ihough Ihe supply lalcr dw;ndlcd,
Christian llL-t,ts conlinued lu usc morc g-alky-sla\"{'s
Ih,lll did lhl' es~ellli;llly \'u[ulltCel'-ll1aIllH;d Muslim
g-;dlt-ys. :\krcy was still nUL shO\l'n to Oltomau
o[lie(:rs, 11;1\,,1 caplains, skilkd Ila\'Ig-aWt"1i or

craftsllu'n. \'I'w:liall clplaiu~ bl'ill,~ instrul"In[ III

ellSLl I'C I ha I such 1111'11 II'cn: 'killnl ill wha le\'tT S('('I"( 'I
and discreel 1ll:llllll'r yOll SI'C lit 10 ww',
The Ilumber of lighting- Illell al}uard :1 ship
depended on whITe she was sailing, Though
srkued mili tia lIlli IS wel"(' still usn[ at s('a, Ihost who
\'OllLllleCI"(,d 1\11' such \'oyag('s 1I'l:1'(' UliCIl dcsperalc
IIWII. SC:t servin' lwing" paid ,\I [OWt'l" rall'S lhall
snvin' all land. '1'111' illlpos...ilJilil) "I"l'ulIliing away
whell li~hting' aboard ship 1I1t':UlI Ihalc'\"('11 inl... rior
mililiarnl"ll pcr1lll'llled betll'r OIl sea Ihall Oil lalltl.
The $(a/lOli \VCl'e, slrictly speakillg-, \,cJ!lll1lL'L'1"
marines as dislilH:1 li'om lIlt' .II/!dllli who II'I'I"C troops
raised in time IIfwar for comhal wIWI"('\'('I" ll{'eded,
Ull land, sea or ill amphibious c;llnpaigns. Such
,II/ldali \1"<:1"\: g\'lwr:dly raist'll by {(JlldlJlfil'l"I 1l1l'rct"lla ry
kadel"S, Ari~lOCr;llic \"(llullll'{'I"S II't'lT still n:corckd,
bUI il is alSl) dear that mallY SUi'll 'NolJks ul" thc
Quartcrdeck' took Iheir pay but 111'\'1'1" W,'Il! 10 sea,
Early 17th eClllury lla\"a[ \V\'apOllS induded lhe
longbo\\', which S('CIll~ 10 havc' had it I"n';\'al,
where:ls crossb()ws \"ert' g"{'ll{'I',llly ahalldclllt'd ill
!l1\'OUl" ,d' handgu1ls. l,aIL'!" i'11'1'1-anlwd tTO:-'ShllWS
'Th" 8alll" uf L"panlo ('570)' pa;nted by an anonymous arl;'"
"hortly afler Ih" banle, one of the n,o,,' delailed repre
senlat;on.. of the victory over Ihe Ouoman.., Not .. ,h.. sall..y,,'
h ..avy bow sun... Ih .. a""uebus-men ma ....ed upon the dec.....,
and Ihe poorly dad Salley.....ov!OS. (Ham Hou ..", Vicu.tria "Albert Mus., London)

Ill.lI11iJer ,C\ {i'om '1S liul' as 11 'mall gUlls Oil a liglll

gall 'y, up l 1'2011 gl' al gall y, indu linl{, p" ir of
eul\'crills\\'eighill c \'('1' IO,n) Ihseach. i\lo'l na\'al
a 1'\ illel'y Sl' 'nw I dl'_ ign 'd lor nlll/{es or I flO pat' s or
111 rc, Th
gll ns were pi, 'd ina gall '} " b ""
b'ingain1l'd b~ man eU\'rinl{lh ':hil il:('Ir. HrT hI ad 'rs W('l'(' prd"l'red fi)r th lighter artillt-ry sin c
Ih "(' uld 1)(' loaded und T I)\' T \\'itho II 'x C)'in
their gUlll1l'1'S to ell 'I )' :Ill rt-raf R;l' lire: an II ronze
cannon WCI' \'alueel, _incc lhe' lid n II I'll, I al :'C '
:\1 it: pc, k ofem iel 'y the V 'nice, I'senal could tit
Ul, arm an I I I' \'i:i Il 'I nl'\\'ly I uill galle t ""ilh
,Ialldarelised pans on a pro lu lion-lill' ba ~
un" 'n anywh'r
1st.: until til, 1nelu 'trial ReTbe galley-barbour of Zadar ( ee plan of fortification), lying
between the inn r city (left) and the outer d fences (right),
Zadar wa the main Venetian naval ba e in Dalmatia and thili
harbour could contain a lilnall ftcet of warship ,

I' 'mal'kall)' a 'Curale alld il111111'IlSt'I, !Jowl'rrul wi III a how I 'Ilsinll or O\'CI' ~) kg, hut I he ' \wrt'
'Jo\\' alld rlillil'ull I l U'i', wlll.'l'ea~ anyone' (' ,uld
hlazl' a\\'a), Wilh an arqll" liS or h 'H\'ilT mllskcl al
lhl' S!\(lI'l rallg;l'~ or 11:1\',,1 cOlllbat. (:ullrll~ingl)',
h(}\\'l'HT, II a \'<d
han Igunner, WCI" slill Ofl 'n
I' '!Crr d 10 a, ba/I',l/il'ri or no" I ( wnWlI,
Na\',,1 I!.UIlIIITS rill'll1ed lilt' ITa I i'lile, (;I'acll'd in
thlTl' ranb th ')' Wl're lmilled in lhl' S 'lluia eli :ta,
Barbara ill \'t'llic', or in llh T al'lilllT) (,oll1pani ':
aroull 1 lhe Trim Firll/tl alld ()\' 'I'S('(.I Il'lTillll'ic"
The' ('njo)'t'C1 IIl1llWl'IHIS I'IX r n l".oi m,', had lhe
l'ighllO \)("11' a 1'111, , and WITI' I' 'si Oil, illl'nol nl) lor
lhe arlill 'I')' hUI also IiII' 'ig11'l1 I'll 'kl'l anc! uth T
in L'neliary de\'in's, F I II I)' ll'ai nl'c\ gll n lIers wer.,
hownTr. 11.,\\ (ollly '11 all ong a grc'at galley'
, mpll'll ('Ill )1' ':>7'2) ,'0 lllwr l11el11l)('r,
Ihe crrw
I ad tu hdp luad, shill and (,\'l'n lir' Ihe gUliS, Th ',l'
\1'('1"('

or

\'01 U I iOIl,

ThulIgl lire-pot and

ther Iradilional ineClleliary k\'in's w 'I'(' slillleing usul, l'undal11'nlal
change' in lIa\'al gunnery \ el'l' bccoming apparent
, ' dlorls were 1'11<1 Ie l sink or lisabl' a It), \ ilh
',lIlnOII aloll', Light galle, shad 110 p'll'l if Ihis
na\'al n:\'cAUlion. I utthey rl'l11ailll'd a \'ilal 'IrmenL
in till' \ l'n 'ti,ul 11,,1. Th ir el 'igll was also :t('adil '
impro\'t'd. ",itlt y 'I an tl1l'r s 'st 'm orrowillg h 'ing
intruduced aroulld 153+ known as a{ Ifll/ouia il
I' 'e1u d Ih numb l' f II W larl{ roar:, l'C1 h !Jein
pull 'c! I y;) tram r li\' to: '\' '11 CI rSI11('n. \ arious
experimental warships were I uih in lhe late 16th
l!tury. hut til\' m Sl e1ramati IlI'W 'onwr wa' the
gailI'm whi 'h (Ie" '1 P I fran Ih, lid mer I anI
great allcy, Inc! already put in all appnrancc at
L 'panto, Th ,ff.alll'(f,1 wa:. a hll I' galley which' 1'\'1' I
<Ii'> 'I floaling' rortrc:' in batt! ~,II!l c< nnon, or l'n
The late 16th century Venetian Cortre
guarding lraklion
harbour, Crete, The low profile and mid< waUs we.re designed
to resist artillery; above the entrance was a finely carved
marble Lion of St Mark, the symbol of V Dic ,

1: Venetian knight, early 13th C.

2: Dalmatian urban militiaman, mid-13th C.
3: Dalmatian oldier, mid-13th .

1: N.ltalian cro8sbowman, c.1330

2: Italian armoured infantryman, c.1320
3: Knight, ollalto family, c.1340

1: Jacopo avaJlj, .13 0

2: Vi netian infantryman, lat 14th
3: Cavalli trumpeter. late 14th C.

I:
2:
3:
4:

Dalmatian crossbowman, c.I440

Dalmatian infantryman, c.1440
Dalmatian knight, mid-15th C.
Italian peasant levy, 15th C.

1: N. Italian cro bowman, late 15th C.

2: Venetian militiaman, late 15th C.
3: Venetian manatarm late 15th C.

I: Stradiot. ~.1~8V8Iryman.c.l500
2' Venetian hg
Iy 16th C
ok noble, ear
3:. G re...

1: ~ netian 'Bravo', lat 16th C.

2: E caped galle . lave. early 17th C.
3: ~ n Han knight, c.1600

1: 'Ibmmaso Moro ini, c.1647

2: Venetian arquebusier. early 17th C.
3:' cappoLi' volunteer. early 17th C.

incrl'asill~1 r CUlt("t'n tra It'd / 'II tlte majur a Iidlura).{t's:

Zadar. SilJi.:nik. Ko1< ..., Corfu, Iraklion" Kyn'nia,
Famagllsla alld Nit'usia, Corru, dl'sn"ib('d as 'the
heart <tlld soul or this sla It"" was 1111' lYlldl-pi II ()l" I he
enlire empirt', From hert" anti-piracy patl"ob as wdl
as great fleets cuuld opcrate, Trul' IJlockades \\'('IT
slill irnpossibli' Wilh av;tilabk n;1\'al It'chnlJk'g-y
while, ill tum, \'essds as powl'rl"ul as 1he l!,(/lI~'(lJ t"OU lei
almost always I~Jrct: thdr way through Oltoman
ITSISt;U1Ct: with l>upplit's ror distalll \'t'll(,tiall
(Iutposts" !'.Iockrn artillery also enabled bigger
llu:rch;ulI ships tu (!ert:ml IhclllSClvt's, sn it was lhe
srnalln ships lhal sulli:n't1 mosl Ihllll piraln and
rOl'Salrs,

Land Warfare
On lalld major Hlctical changes had alttTt'd the E:tcl'

or Eu ropean warrart... in Ihe 1..',1 r1y

'Aull;usti"o Barbar;go', commander oflh.. V.." .. ti"n g"n.. y'" 101

the baltl.. ofL..pa"lo, by the lichool ofTitia late 161h ce.. tury,
He w .." .... Ih.. full u,,;form of. Ve"el;an '
era!. {Mu"" SIO";cO

Navale, V..nic..)

IllUUllwd (111 \\"hei'lnl carriages. wer(' IIOW rang('d

;dong: ils ,ides illsle;,d of being: ('Ol1<:('nI r:ill:d ill the
ht.\\,. "1'1" dl'spilt' (K"Ca~ional speclacular SLlCct'Sses.
till' f!/llIm\ wa~ 100 ,low alld ullwieldy to lx' widely
usd"ul amll;..w Wt'n' huill.
TIlt' Ilith t"t'nlmy ,I!.afll'illl, unlikt ilS rin:rine
1I;lll!t'sake of all l'arlier n'ntury, was a slimnwd
dO\\'ll n'r"illll or till' merchalll 'round ship' and as
such \\'.I~;tIl ,Irllwd s;rililll{ VI's.sd, It 100 nltlld SlTn"
as a lloa ting liJl't r('ss i1l a major lIa \'a 1conli'{lll ta IiOII,
hUI it was ul"liHli' lise againsl small piratt' galleys in
lht, elllllilll'rl span's or till' Dalmatian coasl or
Aq"~t','1l i"I'll1lls. 'nll' supl'riorilY ol"llfJl'lhl'rn pirate
ships ill thi' IH'W warEII"t' IIndt'r sail It.:d Vt'ltin' to
hin' ,lIld t'vi'lllu,dl} i'opy lhl'st, n'sst'is which \\'cre
kllUWll to the \\'lIeti:1l1s as ha((}//;, Not unlil llj()j
did VI'nin' ~tart huilding it~ 1111'11 'ships-ol:lhe-lint",
IIsill,L: a II En!-:li~11 \\;, r!'>hip as a model. ~(l Iii r had sunk
lilt' otW-limt' "i\\iSlrt'S.' ot" tht, St'as',
\rith tIl\' ('i!IJ.~(,lidatii!1I of" Ottoman p,)Wi'r
throughout till' Iblbns ;md !'.Iiddk E"sl, and
\.ellice's pol iry ilr ;l\'uid ing allianrcs, llll' Vellel i'lll
l'111pin' \\as lllIJl"t' isnlaltd Ihan ("\"(T, Sll'atq{y, as
wt'll as tilt" t"mt or updating: fiu,titicatiullS, wa,~

IIiI II ('t:ll1 llry, wi III

gri';tl armies now sCi'kill,l..\" a dc-cisiY(' blow rather
than indulging in tilt' dabor;l1e manocuvre and
al tri tit'll of prt'violls ccn lurit',s" Fa .. hig-htT casualt it's
wen' sum.. n'd lhan had hn'tl normal in mcdin'al
and cady Rl'naissall("t' \\'ar!:u"i', Yel lhi~ wa~ ;t
pa!t'iing phase, becauM' illlpr(WI'IlWlliS ill fiJl"Ii
ficalioll tcdll1iql.les SOOIl bog,l{('d duwll tactics OllCe'
again, :-"Ic<ln\\'hilc lilt' \'t'lletiam dUIlg- III lheir
traditionally cautious approach, lll<lkill!-{ grcal lise
of their mOLllllaitlnu~ nnnl1t'1'1i li'oillil'r~ against
both ALI.~lrians and Otlflillans" TaClic.~ \"aril'(1.
Ihough V{'nclian armit,~ sfJlnetiml'~ tllal'c1wd witll
light cavalry ill lilt' \';111 li.IIO\\"("d by ht'avy t'avalry
and inrantry, I\nilkry li,n'H..d :t cClltralllflt"ly while
a 't'clind corps Qfinlil11lry. 1li"a\'Y and light ("avalry
h1'Oughl up tIll' H'ar, Iheir ()rder Ilcitl.l;" tllC' ITnTse of
lhose in tilt' "all" ,';(mdiuli \\'l'l"~' n:ll1lrally employed
:IS a{h'aIH'l' ;lIlt! nallks guards, i\lany romlolliffi
kadcrs slill ollt-red cOlll>idcrabk IHyall), to Veniet"
whih- lilt' supposedly ('i\'ili;1I1 lirolw/illlri look ,HI
inlTeasing-ly illlpunalll njk ill positiolls (II' (Olllllland, At their ht'ad a 1'l'r}lIt'di/lll' Ul'/Il'ml had his OWIl
guard of I '.! 10 'lj halhcrdit't"~, plus a I"ull slall: OthiT
IJI'Qlw/ilol'; l'ommalldnl lilt' li,l{hl ('a\'alry and
I/mdiu/i" while a special t'Urps or 1~/IIl'I'llill!I'i rllIl'
FOl'/I'::';:'1' was eSlahlisltl'd in 15,1'" tn Sllpt'T\'isl' Ill\'
Rt:puhlic's fixed ddl'm'(':., Others arn1l'd alld
Ir(lincd lhe peasant \'ollintecrs or tll(' Trn'iso area,
cuntrolled tilt' liccnst'd pilla,~illg ofl'tLcmy lCl'ritory.
till' allocali(\tl or :milln)" Ill' llw Slll'\'l')'ing or
li"Olllicl's, The Arst:nal \\'as ;tlst! nlll liy!lful'rtlilori,

33

IIH1llg-h it prll\'nllilr ea'llT t~1111alllll:lt'llln't'llf)l1f{h

\\t'apnt!s IIt:l.lllog":ltlwllll" thl' lnlllps wht'rt' and
WIII'Il Ih..:~ \\I'l"I' IUlrkd.
'I'he arm y it.~,'Ir.'1 ill induckd lllili Ii", frOl11 \ "t'nin'
,md Ilw 'I"m FilII/fl. and many llwmbl't"s
Illl'
pOlln'r at'i~t(lITa('y had Ii II It' l'!loin' hUI IU bl"nl1lw
l>lIldi~T~. Yt'l til,' n"nall quality o(\\tl..:lian arlllil"
had cll'dilll'd I>adly I)~ Ihl' c;,rl~ 17111 'elllllly.
I-I..:a,y col\alry III filII pl,'tt' armour amI riding'bardl'(l' or announr1 hor!ws WI'1"I' anachronistic in
Ibis n..:\\' agr or 'in'arlll~ but lli..:y WlTI' rltaitl..:d.
lhoug-h in dt'l"l"easing llUmhl:I'~. li.1' rl'a~om or
prtsti.I.;"( and ttl gin' lilt' ricltl'l" al'iSI{l(Tal'Y a :-,'Il:-{' 01"
military Pl1l']lO~t'. Such Iwa,')' c";l\'alry Wl't"(: ~till
"r~alli.s,d ill 1(/1I:;i (,1"01\,' man-aI-arms. lWO liJ.{hlJy
,Irnwd ridtTs \,'ilh ~pl';lr or ("ro~sh(lw. alld a
mUlltllnl .~I'r\,'llll. EtJ(wt., II. n'lTllil IHII)kml'11 aJj
lighl ,a\,.,lry \\1"1"1' only panially ~lleccssrlli. lhough
I1H: i:;,~uillg: or hl'''\')' llll'ti-al-anns with a pair 01"
pistols did prolong th..:ir mililary riJlt-. By tilt' 17lh
l..:lll11ry, en'alry !ann' ;Uld sword h;ld finally hCl'n
aba nch ,l1l:d iII iiI \'011 r 1.1' pi~t III a ncl sword .. nil: gun,
Ilw'mally Illl\V a I'diabk \,'Iwdloek weapOI1 Ihat
1ll:nled I1U maid], would be fiH'djuSI helor\.: contact
wil h Ille lill:, wlwl'Cli p'lll Ihe :-\\"ol'd I\'('uld be dra \\'11.
Such tallin' w('l'e. 1111\\(\1.... co:-dy in hnrsl~.
LJl1rinK thl: \'arl) part
lbe IGth ('l:llIlIry,
Vel1l:lia II li.~ht l'a \'alry or Iia lia 11 origin WCl'e moslly
., rmed wi Ih cl'Ilssbo\\"s or a rq Ill'bmes a lid. II nli kc lIlt
J/mdiuli, lfJughl more as rnomHed illl~lIltr)' than real
ca\alry. ~IaIIY of' tho~, invol\'t'd ill the almost
glll'l'l'il1a warf;tn' 01" till' Friuli,lIl I"roillil'l' cal'l'icd
s11l;11l l1l,lldllnck handglllls. alll'C~IOrS or thl: tnl..:
pi~IOI. Ot!wrs, calkrl rmllfll'rilllrgj.!irm. woa' platcd
lia 11':<l1'111lIur. \\'('1"(' orga lliscd ill I(lud ~i1l1 iI" r II) I hose
1)1' lht' Iita\y cl\'alry, alld ~il1JilarJ}" tough I \\'ilh
spears. maces '111(1 s\\tll'fl~. Trill' light Gl\'alry ur
(fIN,,'I,'lIi \\"en' 11lI'~lly lll'Croatian or Balkan origin,
Ihul1.~h tltty rClllainl'C1 distinct Ii'nm the mOn
tilnll)ll~ \/lodiQI;. By the Ial,' 16th ('f'lltUl)' mally
J/mdioli \\'CI'\.' bcillg- al'llll'd with wlll'dllJck carbincs
:lI1d a small ,nll()UllI or body armour. arqudHls
prOlII;d Ullllll,li"tml. Ilist(ll-prOl)f('d Ollllw bad and
wilh a pi~tol+prnor helmct.
Relalively rich and p('anfl1l. V('llin' now la,h'd
fiK>1 soldil:r.~ ratlwr th;ll1 ('avail'\". Tht' Sf/lolr and
guilds did Sll ppl Y~1I1lt. il11'a Illry uni t:- I)lll \\''':1"(' more
ImpOrtall1 <IS Sllllt"Cl'S of o;II~llHll. while the
.1I\l'IIl/loffi :-lilllltli'l'l,d \OlllllIITI'.~ in "dditiOll 10 tilt,

or

D()g-c~

Pal<l("(' Guard. Tltl' Trl"w Firmfl ('ttll~

gU<lrds li'om tlwir OII'n f'itiz('ns <IS \\'t'11
a!i 1l1i IiIias In ,u ppkrnl'lll I'..ol;:~~inll<ll ,1.;":1 rrisl>ll
IrO()p.~. lIt ]l1':lntil1l": Ih('~I' g~l1Til>lllh \,('1'1' tht'lll~d\"t'~ rl"poll~ihll' lor guarding- J.{.ll'~. pi:l'l.l:<ll>. 1(I\><.t
and allllllll11ilioll "IOI'I'S. p<lll'olling- till' \l'al1.~, ~tf('{,I~
and ~lopill.l\ ,I.;"bci:. hqolld tlw \\<111. a1ld rn:ulIli1lJ.{
IIll' (";tadd. Svnw ('itil'S lik(' Bn':-I'ia ,11,,1 1':liSl'd all
indigellous 1(,,'("(' of g/l(,rdflmli to lak" m'I'I" ~onll'
patrol dlltif's.
i\lililiali \\"":1"('. hO\\"l'wr. of WI') \'ill'il'd qualily.
i\lust ("oll:-islnll.l"nWII 1'llli~II'd b('lwlltllll, agts Ill'
Ii ;lnrl ~.I who relllained li,dlll- li,r 'ITvin' Il11' eight
ycar1\. TIll')' WI'ft' Ofg,llli~('rl ill ~llh-c(Jtllpallil:' 01"
around IOU nll'lI \\'ho lntinnlti\'t' SUIICiays a Yl'ar.
'l'llt's\, in lurn If Inned pari f,fa lar.~l'rl'llIllpatIYfJfllp
~dl'(:t('d g-,lll'

or

1'1 IHIlI IlliJiliatlH'1l lI'hich hdd amillal rn,llllllU\'l'IS.

Pt'upll' iuil1l'd IiII' a \';Iriel}' or rl'aS"II~. lhllllgh
pIt'!tli~~il >11 1'1 111';1 r ,I nJl~ ,1 lid ,'X('mpl iun li'nlll Ja h. IIII'
'l'I'\'in' 011 Ihl' 1(lrlilicaliollS or ill de'lrin,l{ callaIs
II,T,' ,"C1tl111IHII tnoli\'t'~, [II ~oml' Ill' the wi[dn or
11IIIUnlaiIHI\lS t'eg"iolh [ike Friuli pl'Ople hahitually
l';It'1'il,d artll~ ill :tIlY cast'. and 11l1'y nlllJd he l'nlisll'd
wl1l'l1 necessary as rural guerrillas armed wilh bow
ami arrow.
'rb,' n,,,~b'l\\ (It'c1iIWd in ];IV'IUt' a~ an illl;llllry
\I','apol1, a~ il had dnne al ,>,'0'1: whiit' lhl' hardy
tt'ainl'd lIlili tias Ill'l'l' ra I'd y ("llll\IX'II'11t III li.~lll wi Ih
pikn. which Ila" ;1 h'chniqlll' dt'l1\alldiJl~ finn
di~cip[irw and 11ll1l."h pra,lio'. I'rilllili\,' .lIhirl/J!n'fi
h'llId.l{ltll<; \\'('1'(' .;Iill t'rll[lICl~I'd ill llw Ihlh n'nlllry
Illltllg"h Ill,' ;,rqulJIll....1{radua[[y ~llll\'rl"'d,'d Ilwlll.
H,,t\'i .... nnlskt,t:.. I'l'quiring: lurks to ~ujJPUI'l thelll,
'(lOll mad, ;'11 aplw,u';llll'l' ;ll1Htng till' Itlilitia. i\ll'n
\\'(T,' tr:tilwd to lin' arqudlusl':' 11.llh r\ll111ill,I.{ ,111([
tTltllchill,1{, al lat'J..:I..'ts .11I pan's distal1l: musk,ICI.....S
Il'"ilhd witli t:lrg"'I~ al 11\'in' IIlat ral1.l::l". Otl1\"1"
1l'<lillil1l-{ irl\'olwd ,III till.' usual a(l\':tllt.'iIlK. t'l'lirilll-{
;rnd ~kinni,lli[lJ..: IlTltniqlle~ 'If lall..' Jlllh ami I i1h
n'lltlll'~ innlntr~ \\'" r1;1 n'. Cfllllllt'!,d ~Ul'("ll;'t, and

s,,~hI.'S,

Woode..", ..rV"n"';an mililary .,o"l.. m.,~;n Co:"a... V"e..llio'"

Hab;,' a",i.,h. d ...od,,",;; di t ..tli if MONdo publishftl in '5gB.
A-h.,avy .,avall')' man-al-arml>; &-!.iSh, cav..lrym.. n (I .. ne..

only pardy 5hown); C--Soldi"r rrom ,h" Sr.. kia r"g;on or

......Ih"rn Cr"I~; ~G.d.,o";or F.. /i/.. eon..eripl "old;u aboard

ag-n'cd War-lTlI'S and kllll\\'11 b:ul1ll"'l> all

Iw1lwd m"inl:!ill culU'sinn ill 1J;11l[", whill' a [('w
milili" Ullih t'H'll won' till' rl'd alld whil,' 1I1lifilnll
livery llfllw \\'1I1ti,m Captain C.11IT;I!.
\'I'lli('"I"" militia, Illa~ h;l\'. ht"t'1J nltln' dll'clin'
lhall those nfnilln Ellrnpeallll:llilll1.~,yet tht'ir n'al
valut' app":rrs to han' hl','n IIHlral ratlHT lh;llI
milit<lry, Tltey fitSll.....l'd a .'l'ml..'
natinn"l identilY
and pm\'\'d lhaltlw Rl'pU!l[i"lnt'tl'([ itS"\lll peop[t'
III arm.", a rare ti.'alllt'c ill till' Ilill1 alld 17111
Cl' Iltll I'll'::'.
i\lid-16Ih c-:nlury \'I'lwliall cl\'illry sllllwtil11'"
l'arrit'd :ll'<[m'!>us su[dil-rs intn h;lttil' ridil1!-:" pillion.
By the I..ady 171h C('n\llry arqlll'lltl,ilT". ;J1.'n
t.'anyillg pi,,,ul.~. 11','n' 0p\'r;ltillg a~ tnll' Ill(JlIllll'd
in[;ullry: a ~1l1all 1,litl' "I' 11l1l1l111t'd illEll1tr~ amII'd
with wlll'dlllck muskets wl'I"e rn'ordn! in ILilli.
Tn lOpS of sud I \'(1[1lI11nT 'dr:jj..(o\ln~' Wl'n' ,imibrly
[',lisl'd hy Ilohit' .llp,II/)O. ulltil lhl' .l{O\'t"l'llllWnt
rt'alised that ,hls!.' 1lll'11 \\.'n' Oftt'll IlO mon than
moulIll'd brIm' or Ihug's in till' p:t~ of aristocralic
1;\111 ili,s. l'l'i\'a Ie a I'm it'S III' '))(/1'i WtTl' JHJI\' a prnhlnn
Ihrnllg'hullt llal~' :lnd ~I..Tl1l \II have hl'l"flllll' a rea[
thrl',1\ 10 pulilit' (lrckr ill \'.'nl,'l. .\Iany W{'I'('

or

w ...... g..U..y

.,.

J.'

'Unknown V"n"l;an nobl"man' by Moroni, mid.6lh c"alury,

!Ihowing I.h" arn.ing jack!!1 wilh n.ail pan,,", 10 prOI"CI tI."
armpilS. This _S "'0"' bf,nealh plale-armour, h"r" lying
.round Ih" man's r.... t. (NRI, Call., London)

llll'rn~d\"('selr;t II II from dt"~pna 1(' and iIII po\"t'rished

nohl,' l:lIl'lili,'s: olhn'" had IW('l1 lIlen'ctlary soldi(:rs
and lItlll1lwr,'d forcig'luTs among lhcir rrlnks, A b;"tll
on t ht nllTyiu.\.: of wcapons wil hi n \"'Ilin.: had lill Il,'JllTI. I.ar,!.;e-M'alc bra\\I~ l\"I'r(' fiTCjul'nl alld ('\TIl
in\'okl,d lhl' liS,' 01" arqlH'bllSI'S. ,,'Ilile ducls and
;I'sassinalinm \I,idl lhl' ~lt.:l1dcr I/ilrlt(l dagger
Ix'carne a I)/{I/'I' specialilY. Thin,!!:s .!!:ul so had lhal
SOIII\' Iwopl,' lllok to \W;lrillg li,l.!;11l lllail protcclioll
helll'alit lheir l"!lIIlHS. An lI11dt'sl'l'''cd ami romallli,'
1lI)'lli(llo!-{~ dndopl'd anllllld Ihl'~I' Vl'lll'liall brll/';.

\\'ho I"CIT I'"en endiled willi lllunkring lhl'ir

t'lwlllies with 1}(,i~(HI-fillcd ~lass l/iI,II(I\.
\\'hik troops from Vl'nit;I' :Iud 1Ill' 'lrl"m J.i"mw
sCl"'l"d ill the m,'!"Sra.'> ,'mpir<' and su!l;..rcd Inri Ill.,
los.~"s from di~easl' and cxposure. 11'00PS li'ollt lht'
('mpin: also 1;H1glll for \'cnin' in Ilaly. The .I(mdifl(i
abo\"(, all ;It:hil'\"l,:d some: lIotabk StH'l"L'SSI'S a!-:";Iinsl
Fn'uch he:;l\'yct\'alry ill 151(i. In 1:11'( Vl'nice 1l1;IC!c
g-r('at dlorts 10 t'llbrgc lhl' O\'ITSl'as army /J(j :11111'1'
rind 10 impro\'e lh(' qualily orl'olonialmililias. The
Slandard or t11t'.~c milili;t lon:L's n'm;lillnl loll'.
lIOWe\Tr. amllhcir e:quipml'llI lI'as On"ll abysmal.
III COrlll. Crete and CYPl'US 10(_'al Iroops wert'
lrained lu usc thl' arquebus, bUI many COluillued III
light wilh composile bows ill Tllrki~h h~hillll,
;"Iililias in smaller islands lik,' Kd:tllillia s(J1TlI'tirnl'~
signed up nwrcly to avoid slanati"ll. Elsl'\I'hl'l'l'. as
on IiiI' Catholic amI t"iel'('(~ly pru-Vcl1eti;1I\ island of
Tinos. strange relics (,ra llll'dieval li'udal systeln Ill"
reCI'Uilmenl sLLrvi\'cd, A poorl~ paid loeal ca~lk
guard or III/gIll' d(l /!.,W;;'::'Q SOll'lt'lil1les included
Venetian lroops who had ~l,ltkd {)\'\'rsc;l~ ull .. liny
Iwnsioll and wilh minimal duties. /\110\'1' all.
hOWl'\TI'. lhcrt: remained lhe folllwd ~(md;o/i. Fil'rec
and outlandishly dressed, briltle 011 points 01"
hunour and ;tddiclcd 1(1 plunder. Ihey slill foug-hl
primarily Wilh light ~p,'ars. swords and ("lJllll)l)sil"
bows. They lcnded ltl shy away frolll 1':ul'Ope;lIl fir
Oltoman infalllry wilh fir(';mns. but prnwd highly
dkcti\'c againsl Turki~h ('avalry who tough I ill
much til(' same slyle as Illl'msdws. I~~ (he lal,' I{Jtll
and <:arly 171h CC1Uuril'lt. hO\\I'\"\'r. 1l1;1ll) I/mdioli
Wt'IT thellll>I'h'c~ adopling" piltlols ;md ca\'alry
carbines.
Illt\'itahk \'(lrialiolls in lhe mililary stylt-~ nftl1\'
dillt'ring Vellt,tian P~St.:SSiorIS aJ....n p'T;.i~tl'(t, 'nIl'
,I/mdio/i of Dalmatia \\"1'1"1' bast'd ill l'ig-lll main
CI1l1rel'i. though lht,y SPClll 11l1l~1 ol"llwir time in outstalions closer 10 lhe frOlllil'r. Ou(" hundrl'd Jll'lldio/;
II'crl' based at Cvrl"u Wilh dcladllllellts nil Olhel"
Ionian islands. while the flmdior; 01' Cr('le wcr{' or
I)()(lr q ualit y. p;t ..II y bccaust' ora sca rei Iy 11I"II"rs('s ill
the eaSlern ~lcdil{'Trane:tll. Thc li'arslJllH' .~filkioli
inflllllry archers fi'om suulht.Tll Crele l'iollll'liml's
fc)ughl for Velliet.:. bUI WITt ~('nlTally a sourct: 01"
l'cbds, brigands and pirates. \\'ilh a g-l'owillg Ihl't'al
ol'Oltom:tn altack, t hI' \ \'llI'tiall aUI hnrilies tried 10
reform the chaOlic and cornLpt Crelall mililia
systcm alld In cree! ll10ckrn lonilil.. liuns. Anli-

\'l'lll'ti;111 li:din.\{ W;IS, hown'lT, rill:: lllrt.IIIg-llOllllht,

islal1d am! \\'h(.'11 Ihe Oltoman assaull did <:ome
mall)" Crt'talls ','ckolTlt'd tht, invadtT,
V(,Bt'tian rull' appC'ars to ha\'c bCt'll ('\'t'n harsht:r
ill Crprm lhan Crt'le, For Vt'nict" Cyprus nc\'cl'
lJt'CIl1l(' anything mort' than a dangl'rou~ military
tlmpOSI ",IH:re \'t:nclians wcn' llOt only unpopular
hut WtTt' nota hi y rcllll'lanl 10 sel'\'t'. Cypru~ al ready
Iwd a \'1'1') lllixnl I)(lptllalion. Thl' Vent'lian
aul1HlI'ilil'" cam(' ttl a re;lsonablt, unckrslandillg
with Ihe l'xi.~til1,l.{ C;,tholic military diu: which daled
f"nlln the 1:111' 121h cel1lury Crusac!t-rcOll([Ul;st ofthc
island. and which :llready included man\' I t;t1i.1l1s.
The \'elll'liarlS also fiwoured lilt' haskally :\ralJ
Marunill' Chrislian cOllllllunilY whos(' roOts \\"t'lll
t,,t'll dn'PlT: bUI they SCl'lll 10 haw Ihikd 10 will
1ll;lny li'iellds alllOllg lilt' 1;lr,L;"t' alld warlikt'
!\rlllt'nian minol'ily. 11 is alw illlcre~lilig to nULl'
that lTWl1Y uf bUlh lhesc mill(l1'iti(,s laiC" t'oll\"Cl"led
lO [slam lolluwill,!,{ tht, Otlumal. l'onqUt'Sl of tilt:
i.~1a nd in 157 I, bl'('ull1i ng l1tL' a l1ecSlors of a t least
p'ln ur lhL' pn'SL'llt day Turkish-Cypriot COlllmUllity. ~Iailllalid Creek ,,{mdio/i were lH'oughl ill to
\'('Ilt't ian (:rprll~. a nd b) 15 t ~l a lTum bIT ol'Cypriol
Gr('eks had also Ilt.'en enlisted, These men st'fwd
alotlgsidt, lilt' IUfro/JOli light ca\'alry rClainl'rs of lhl.'
old landed anstonacy, lroOps who~e hi~tury
similarl) Wl'lll back al kast as 1;11' as tilt' Crusadt,s.
III addili('1\ to \,ulullt(,('!"s ,\lId militias [i'om
\'('nicl', lht' Tt'I"IfI j,j'rl/lrl :U1d the ()\'t:I'~t'as pos
SI"SSiOlIS, lUlh :Illd 17tll n'tltllr)' V('lll"tian armies
l'OlllaitlL'd a Jargt' numb\... 1'1' tlHT('I'naril's, i\lllsl
(olli/llnin; tronp~, ill ullIl'r wnrd:. lhose recruitld as
an el1tin' CtHllran unit. Glm(' li'om lhl' Trim Fim/(/
(Ir dSl'lI'lwn' in northern [taly. 01he1' l'egiollal
*JldilTS ill,lmkd Cflrsicans ;111<1 Liguri;llls, while
nonltalialls numlwl'ed Swis~, (;/'l"1n,111S, (moSI
Vt'lTcliali gUllIltTS mosick the !la\')' still being(it't"1110111! Fn'[leh. Spaniards, CZI'chs, DUl('h.
Fkmish <llld English aillong their ranks, The
tll;ljority "I'I'\'L'd as int:tntl'Y whnt'as most, thOll.1{h
litH a II. Iblk:1II llHTCt'llarit,s \\''''-I'L' c;l\':,lry. Thl' Ja t1IT
\\'I'I'L' n'(Tllill'd not ollly from Venetian taritory hut
al~{J fi'Oll1 Ill'ighbourin,l.{ Ollllllltlll-rllkd regions.
Apan li'om Ihl' Calholic CroatiatlS mu.St weft'
Onhodox Christians, but SOIllI' W('rt' ofutlspt'cilied
religious atlilialinn and a ft,\\, were clearly i\lustillls
Irom Bosnia alld Albania, Tltislicamlalist'd Venice's
11l'i,L;"hhnlll"s whik C\Tn tht' VC'llctian diarist

Detail from 'Gyp>;)' and Soldier' b)' Caravaggio, h,te .6,h

ee..>Iur)', showing a t)'pical Italian Ilword of lhe period,
(LouvrP, Pari")

GirnlallltJ l'rillii 1101\'<1 lhal, lill' \'L'lIin', such

1'L'Cl'uilll1t'l!t wa~ likt' a mall 'l'ulting" olrhi~ pt'lli~ 10
spite his will". The disni lIlilla liOl1 lha I lhcst' 'rurh
1:lcl'd ill c:lrnp SIII'lllnllht'1ll 1(' all;lllcloll Vl'llt'tiall
wr"io', howI'\'I"',
Siege and counter-siege
Vt'llelian US(' of" paralld In'llch ~)SII'nlS whell
b('siegill).;' an 1'l1el11)' stl'ollg'hold m;IY th\'msL'!,'cs
~how Ottuman illfhlt'net' (sl't' 1\1:\/\ I 10, :I,.mi"1 if
flit Uf/Ol/lfll/ T/II"k, '300 '7N), alld lhl. \'('llt'tians
\\','I'C ckarly willin,l{ ltl !t-:Irn li'om any source.
Captured ~llll.') wtTl' lestI'd and lhe Arsenal
cOnst;lllll), exptTinwlltcd \\ith new (ksigns. Th!'re
was ,I gradual mO\'(' tflwards ~Ill;dkr ami mort'
mohile' aflilkry while fil'ld ~llIl~ and siq.~t: trains
\\'1'1"t' tlo\\' dt'arly separale Till' tll()~l dramalic::

37

lkn'l<,pllwIlIS InTI', h""I'n..., ill IllrliliCllioll, This

was ,I fidd ill II'hi('h !lilh lTIl\Ury Italy illflul'rlcnl
Ihl' rl'SI of Euro]ll"
"I'nil"!: Iwd adopted a ddi.:lIsin' 11l'IIlral slalllT ill
which tlll'tili('atiolls played a \'Ital rhl!:, The
nurthl"!'11 alld ,'aSHTIi 11HlIliLWill p,lSSI'S ('oole! bl'
bl(H,:knl 10 ;111 1'111'111)' ~i,'g" tr;lill wilh strall'g"il'ally
siled lilrIIT~S\'S. nTII ir inEllltry ('(Hlld always
intil1r:111' arllLllld SUi'll ddi'rll'l',', !Jul Ih\, broad
I ,<Jill 1l<1 I'd pbi n Ilad ;1 IlI'a ys hecn eXI rl'md y di flicult
III d('li.-lId,
\'\'llI'ti,Ol stralegists 110\1' 10l1k inlo
rOiISidl'r;lliOlI Ihl' riwrs lhal slicl'd Ilwir ("ITi(orr
il Llo S,','I i, 1I1~. wi Ii Ie IIH' l,m'ITs 1'1'slr,ltl'/o\,il' ci lit'S II't'r,'
1(1\,'I'n,d ,ll1d llwir ~'alt's stn'llglhl'lInl 10 lake
<I,Toun( Ill' pu\wrful II"W sicgl' anillery, CasldbtlS
\\','l't' 1't"~I)'lllSilll,' Ir1l' Ih,' IIlUlllli(111S, :tl'tilkry and
,l.;::trrisull,' of sud I 10\\,IIS, but 111l' p'HW pay ml'anl
lltal fi'\\' of lIl1' Illilit<try l,lil" <!1'l'l'pl,'d such ]los\."
The '4th '5th century defence5 ofSton, said to be the longest
"ily w,1I1s in Europe, This W1Il1i one of Ihe mOSI ..trongly
forlified po.. ilions in Daln.alia and wa.. frequently di ..puu:d
bc'wttn Veni"e aad Dubrovnik, The 'long walls' endose Ihe
mountain-top, the port or Mali Ston on the rar side orthe hilt,
and Lbe main ..eulement or VeBki S10n (here), Low round
ardltery ba"tions (lower le1) were added al a later dale,

II was lilt, ddi'lln',~ Ihl'lllS,.[\'{',~ Illal, h~ tlH' Illidl(ith O'lltury, cn'Ulllall)' solidili..cI "I'nin"s li'otllil'r~. 011I' Ilt'\\' t'OlllTpl Ihal till' \'t'lll'ti;IIIS used
,'arly ill lhl' tlilh t'l'IIIlIIT was till' 'douhlt, I'isall
rampart' ill whil'h a 1Jt'~iq!;IT, il'll1' Imlb Ihrough
Ihl' oUI,'r ",;,11. l(lLlnd hilllsl'!r I;Lt'illg " ~IT(lml
nllllp;lI'\ alld Irappnl ill ;1 tire-swepl killiug' Zolll',
Basit"llly. h'l\\','YtT, Iht 111'\1' ~y~lnl1 'If ddt'lIn',
rdil'd lin witkr ;lIld dt,tVt'!' SI'"ll'-liIWd ditdl,'S, and
flankillg firt' li'om pn~jcclillg h,I,~ti"IIS whit-h. bl'iug'
Ifl\\'. Ilrl':ld ;llld l'a!'tJI-filkd, ('(IILld III II t',l~ily Ill'
rad! lxil'al Iy,
dl's! !'Ilynl by a rl illny or 1'\','11 111 i 11t'~,
Ihe dl'\',.[OpllH'lll of IT,t1I~ elli,t,tin' glillPll\\'dtT
:lrt;lkry lIad strt'Jlgthc,wd Ill,' dt'!;'lIsivt' dl'I'Wlll ill
warbrl' r"t1wr \hal1 thl' olli'l1si\T. Tli(' 11l\d;\'\'al
castk had bn~ouH':l ]{\'llalSsalln' !urtrl's" bUI it slill
bdd lhl' lIppn halld, while' Il<llld-gllll" fired by
maSSl'S (If bardy tl'aillcd ddi'lIc1ns c'oltlel h;1\',' <t
deYasla Iillg dli:n 011 ;lU Y:t It,KK<'rS wi l( I Ill;l na,~' ,II 1'1
li/rl'c a Ill'\"ll'b. H\lw"\','r, Ih,'s,' m'ld,Tll d,'li'IKI'S
111'l'lkd wide Upt'll firl' ZUII"S, 1\lli,'11 1"(1 t'l til"
rill hless dl'lnoli IiOll ofbllilt -up a re;IS bl 'I h i ll,itk a lid
oUlsidc' their walk TIlt' lollg-"Sl;tblislll'd rt'-

"

lali()ll~hip I WI \I' Til '111 Italian eilyand iIS~UIT()Ullel

illg fOli/adli also chang I. The counlryside was now
gellcrall ' aball lone I 10 an enemy 1"licler whjl
(kr'ncl' wa~ COli 'nlnle I in lh' ity whi h was in
turn swollell 1>y rcf'ugee: from the \illagl's. Fear of'
s( liLian and in. UIT Lioll wilhin lh' wall' lhen kcl
10 a ~11'l'llglhl'lIillg ol'll1c cila I I as a derence \\'ilhin
a c1efencl'.
Th l'"rli 'Sl sud I lunificalions WlTl' buill ill <J
hurry an I of'canh. w L1nl lillie now remains. LL is
lh' SWill' dde'nce. thal replace I them which now
giVI' a speci'll charanel' 10 many n nh Ilalian
I( wn:. The \'ilal cilY of' \'croll'l. lor example, was
rL'ltll'lilied ill Lh' I :'30s, I 'ing gi\' 'n an imm 'mdy
slr Ilg ilHcI ,loll lh hills a!J()\'('. There'all rV rona
nl:\'l.:r enclur 'c1 allolher s ... iou~ allack ulIlil 17.17.
Ihough as early as l598 tlw Clulhorilics laced lhe
cllCl'ouchn1l'1ll Oll Ihl' ,ulill Ty fir' ZOlh'S or shtd',
11 JUSt's. orchards. \. 'gelable pi IS, drainagl' elil 'h :
alld hi rd-sna ring grO\TS (the \'croncs 'sLillli kc Lhei I'
u(a/Mli grille I small birds s T\Td on a bed 01'
Illaizl' nour). Among; II 0' mililary l'llg;ill ers w'ho
cll'.'igned \' ('rona's new ddell l'S \\"IS t\ I iclH'k cI i
Fordfications in the Terra Firma (Mainland Territories): AVerona <:,1600 showing ;.mprovements designed by Michele
SllIlJn.icheJe c.IS30 (note that the Baluardo di Carnpo Marzo
was added at the end of the 16th C,); B-Orzmuovi mid,6th C.
(after plan c.16oo); C-recon truction of the Venetian Arsenal
in the early 14th C. bowing the first Corden'., rope-factory
(after Pizzarello & Fontana)' D-Palmanova, designed by
Giulio Savorgn nO & Vine nzO Scamoni in IS93 (after plan
",1600); E-Malano, double-octagon bastion on an artificial
i land in th V nice Lagoon near Malamocco (after plan
c. I 600); F-Baluardo di S. Bernardino, one of Verona' bastions
rebuilt to anmicbele's design around 'S30 (after Duffy).

Courtya.rd of the Porta di dine (,60S), the best preserved of

Pahnanova's three gates (see plans of fortifications). This
fortress, designed by Savorgnano and ScaJDoni in 1593 and
built on a virgin site 10 prolecl Venetian lerrilory from
Au trian or Ottoman attack, is tbe most perfectly preserved
example of late Renai sance mililary architecture in existence.

,'alllllichtli, HI: Itad slLldil'd IItt' \\llfk of' anolher

masler. Antonio da ,'<lngallo, and was 10 han' his
I/\\'n l~lmous lollowfTs: such ellg-i n('( Ti n,l!; 'd YIl'lSlics'
bccanwa {i'atllr\' of' \'cneliall alld [lalian mililary
archill."llIrl. ill Ill<' ((jill all I 17th ('l.'Ilurics, A
lassi fi)rlili -aliun of'lhis Inil d. al Palmano\'u. still
stands \'inually un'hangrel 11I1I hI' li'om til('
y u~()sla \' I I' kr, II was plan m'd in I c: 93 as a
SUI posl.'cli ' sdr-sulJicil'llt mililar. tOWI1 \ ilhin a
sylllllleLricul llilll'-lnSlion't1 wall, buill in \'irgin
IcrriLOry as Ihe hub JI' Friulial eklellc againsl
\ustrian' n I III mans, Pallllanova was ' 111pklcd ill Ihl' carl ! (jOlJS. bUl remained sUl.:h a
1c1lH'ly and ullh 'allh, sil' Ihal lilr )'I'al'S no OIH'
\\'allt'd \() Ii\" ther',
The 171h (elJlLlry sa\
anot!wr bursl
Illnill 'ation-buildini-, amun I
Ili 'l' ,In I (J"l'rSea:.
The ll>r\ifil"llions ( I' Ihl' 'mpire Ofl I/(lre had. ill
lal'l, bcell o\'crlooked lilt" . car:, bUI IhoLl~h Ihl' '
\\'t're small and old 1~lshillncd llw)' had gel1l'1'ally
b('cl1 well maintained, Such c!l'I<:'nC'C's r;t ,I alta k
li'om both !-Ind ancl sea, all I il was li)rlllllalC tlnl
tlH' Ottomans had 1)('('11 I' hli\'l.'I} qUilt fiJI' SOn-H'
Ii 111('. n' major problem was Iha I the co I or n 'W
ClJllSlru lion h<ld to he borlle largel b IhI' Inca I
communities and tltese \ CIT Lin)'. 'x pt in Crele'
and : 'I rus. J n J)allll'lti'l til(' OllOl1lanS had
~t1l'('acl brokcn Ihrough 10 Ih Sl'a in a llumblT or
placr', whil the
skob an I Hapsburg n ad
1Illwll1l(lrlabk n('igltl mIl's. \'('Il\'lian fiJrlifi <lIIOIIS

or

E'~
C@
-._--a...

....

~-r

39

Sll h as KolOr also I '~d tl) kn:p an e, t lin the wild

i\ Iolllencgl"lllS .."hu, though ritrc " ' an I i-Olloman.
also ra v 'd a sC'a uu L1tt of'1 h i r mVIl, 0, IY (he main
na\'d bases weI" g-i\"11 Ill'W and mIlCh-I'll f(lrlili aliolls; hUI .. hell till' risi' came in the' (j-t '
\ cni e did ullcxpt,tedly wl'11. Dalrnatia was eas)' If
reinlhr (' li'omllearh \'lIicc alld wassluddec! .. illl
caslks, wh Tcas till' Ollom,lns weT' opnaling far
rrom Ih,ir maill bases a'ross bkak muuntains
inl abih"d by I/ot'll/afti pc'asallLS who WlT' all LOO
cager to !'I'voll agaillst lheir nominal Turki. h
overlords. The
(toman alta ks \
in fact
1 kal'd and
'en ice I 'lnaKed to expand her

(T"

lerrilor)'.
I n Cyprus Ihc Vel1niallS made greal cO<Jrts to
strength '11 lh ir positioll sh lnly 1 1')1" 11ll'
llO-

mans allarked. \1 first their plans b tray('cl

i:I

( 'pical Renaissan 'prl'OCClipaLioll with dal)(ll'(llt'

machiner)', :eeming to PUI Lheir l~lith 111 ropl'S,
I ulkys all I coUnICT-\\Tig-hlS, hid Icoll explosivc
minc,' ami multi-barn'lIl' I fire I I' .icclms Ic'signed
t rrar lip in all all'I'k ...s far'. n Hto l11elllillll slnwre'lease poisons in ncighh()lll'in~ wdls all I baited
f(ldckr 1'01' ('n'my horses. In the 1'\'I'nl prdl'l"t'llcC'
\ as g;i\'l'n to S I'l'nglhcning IIw IC)J'tilicaliolls or
icO'ia; Ihis cllt;,iled tlle \irlnal c1cstnlCtioll ul' Ih .
old cit\, incllCling till' l'(J}al IUl11hs (lnt! monasl Ty
(II' 'an Dnl11eni o. 'ul("l lhl' iJuillillg Ill' a S('\'('I1bastioncd five-mile- 'il'('uil wall similar 10 Ihal
rc'cenlly n' ted at lraklion ill Cret\'. \"1 ill 157l
icosia I' IIlu llle Glloman' alkr a si('ge ol'lcoss lhan
lin' mun Lhs,
\' 'nCli;1I1 deli.'n cs prov 'elmore l'lkniq ill :rCl'
whel'(' IrakliOIl endure I a ~:.!-Y(,i1r Oltoman si('~r.
The Turkish ill\"asiol1 was anually sparked by the
pi rali "al aggr 'ssion 01' L11 ~ [" niglHs or SIJ ohll hased
lin l"dalla. II Olwh il was \ enin' lhal pai llhe pric '.
Th' war was IOllg 'I lid bi I LeI'. ra Ilgi Ilg rrom
Dalmatia lO lhe I ardanclles. The Ollomans
l'vcnlually Look :relc. though till' \'('JlC'lialls Ic)ughl
\ itll a 1~lllaLiri:111 exo'lling cn~n lhal
tile Turks'
lhe ommandcr
Ihe fortress
Sl Tlll'mlnr was
said 10 haH' bluwn up himsdl: his mc'n, and lhe
'HtackcJ's when the Oltomans finally {)\'l'nall his
clCrCl es.
The OlLomans hael already unsuccrsslully

or

or

or

allcmplcd I take
lfu in I.' 7.1:k'lwl'en 15,~~PIl cI
1570 Ihe ellC:tiall ~'O\Trnl11cnl I ai 1 no Ics, Ihan
250,O)(l ducals I
slrcngllll'n thaI i Ian I's f(lrLiIi alions .. hi h easily ['('Iuls' I a final ()\(Ol11an
assault in 1716. Onl, aile 'car ("Irlier lh las(
Veil tian-held t'gean i.sland Llll" I Ill'! (L1lpusl (If'
TillOS. ha I linally rallen. The l'ncti'1I1 'mpirc as
once aga.in redu eel to thusl' po~sc 'siuns wesl of"
Green:' thaI ha I been h ,I I sin . b f()IT lh ' Founh
Crusaclco, plus Corru and (he Ionian islands which,
carly in the 1~)Lh ccnLury. pa:scd Ln another rising
imp rinl and nLl\'al power Hrilain.

Fortifications in the Imperio da Mar (Overseas Territories):

A-5plit, Dalmatia (after carved plan on fa-.ade ofS. Maria del
Giglio, Venice); B-Zadar, DalJnatia (after carved plan on
facade of S. Maria del Giglio, Venice); C-Nicosia, Cyprus
(after late 16th C. pla.n); D-Kotor, Dalmatia (after late 17th C.
plan); E-Iraklion. Crete (after carved plan on fa"ade of S.
Maria del Giglio, Venice, & '7th C, plans).

One oflbe urVJ",n ba tion ofNic:osia,ln '56, Venice greatly

reduced tbe ize of this city, and though the Venetian
fortification 'urvive they appear t'o bave been extensively
modernised during the Ottoman period, (Courtesy of Cypriot
Press & Information Office)

-Irllls fllJ(/~.jrIlIOllr
V 'Ilil" II '\'cr IJl' arne 011(' or Ih' 11 (~jor arl11:proelu il1g enlre. or Europe, I lI1 il:' coml11 rial
weallh all I wi Ie Ir;1(I, Ol1la'lS 'nsur cI Ihal
\ 'l1l'lian 1m p:; \\' "rl' LI.~lIall)' \\"11 ('quipped,
\1\ '<.II um as '" 'II as :!tips \\" '1"<.', ur 'OUl"', m'l I in
till' I\rs('l1ill, alld Ih 'gf)\'crnm 'nl al~(I,'landardis d
111(' d'sip;n (II' vilal it 'illS like 'r(ls~l o\\"s s( tI al
cro'sl ow :lring"s <II d boll,' ur alTu\\" , ',auld fil all
",,leaI'm s. 'I'h'sl' h d 'Ol1lpo:,ile arms :imilar in
slru('(lIrc 10 tlw 1(' TI"u1 COIllP( :ill' h W,' or Ih
tvlllslill1 Wlll'lrI, They" 'IT al.n n:plrl'd to the
l3alkans via V '11 li,l
almalin al least as early as
Ihe 141h c 'Illur), By Ihis lin1\' Ill, I 'mallei (:H' lhings
like To.show boIlS' as :;0 high Ihal in I ~)o+ Ihe
('ncli; 11 gov TIlI1ll'1l1 had to sul>- unlraCI lhe
11 al1uraclure of':.l ,< (I
iron boll-heach. nccde I b)
VC'IWlian comJllunal /1)1"(", Experimenlalion wilh
II W Wl'alJons rdk ICc! a sciclllilic altilude perhap'
inh Til(d li')m Ih
B)'7.antill -,', A ll1ulli-shol
ro'sbo"" slIll OSI' Iy apall' or sh lin}' I bolts
an I 'cw11 arahlc- 1) n also S n in alaI' 121h
l'l'nlur ' blamic military Irealise "a' rl"llrdcd in
lhe I' lh
I lUry, .'u 'h an impl'a Ii al mulli- hOi
ross how was again, ugg SI 'd ill I I I, by , hi h

timl' the \ cilcliall ArsC'll'll W<lS 'ds(l - 'P Tim 'IHill!!:

wilh wa 's of' improving Ihl' IH'\\' hand,L,run~_
Venic(' similarl
xp ne I s\\'or Is, II ,11I1('IS and
other pic c, ('armour IU tlH' Balkan: '111 I p'rhaps
, nd. \' ni' - h I. II' w. S op 'n I , illlluell'cs li'om
til' East. lit - Europ 'an coal-ol:'plall's p( ssihly b 'illginspir db, B 'Z. l1lin
r lsi l11i' lamellar armour
broughl 10 Europe via '('Iii" ')11(1 il' olonial
empire, 1 or W rc innu 'n 'S all rnlll1 IIll' Ea '\. The
broad bn.rilarrl clagg or "'hic!J b,tam a ma'ul"
w al 11 r
l1etian inlanlry ,as, in OllraSI,
pmb blyof' wi:: or soulh erman origin. il. name
indi alin thallh lirst SLl h dagg<'rs WC'IT imporled
(rom B.sd, TI1I' popularily or bolh harcknl' I and
'. oft' or nexi Ie I alh I' armo II' ill \ 'llicl' 'Illd tl1I'
r 'SI of' Ilal (lull als bnra' ByZCllllil1l' or Islami
innu n "
l',,[ilan nlhcr Ihan
'nie' had how'\' T, bn'l1
t1w main l'JIlr or arms I rodLl 'lion in northern
Ltal)' sin l' lhl' miel-I'11h 'cl1(ur)', i\lilall mae!'
armour. Icsigne I spc ifically or expurt, induclinO'
lh - s -call d \ >11 'liall slyl- or saikI '1I1e! barblll<l
Iwlnll'l:, \'("1 th'l,(, "TIT ulher il1110nalll 'lI"IllSm'lnula'luring- l'lllrc:, in Ilonh 'rn I I'll) , 'lIlClli'( 111
the mid-I.jlh ('I1IUI'. some o["IIw.(' la' V,'ilhil1 the
'xpancling \'~n lian Tma Finna, For 'llluriL's Iht'
ltalian cum industr) , <IS II)\' mo. I imp nalll in
E.UI' pc lhough paniall' ompklt'd WCcl( on: W IT
importcd rr m nth r 'our' ': LO has: 'mbl 'd in
Ilurlhern Ital), h mighl al'o be menlione Ilhal Ihe
arm indu'lry 'mpl y'd '" III n a. well as m'lI
wom n h ing r'(')r led as 'scwin~' hdllll'IS and
armour. Thi' probably rcf!'nTd I Ihe linin. or
de 'Ol"llilln of' hd m '\.' a n I III lh ' n LIm 'rOll' 1-ather
slraps rial I' n 'di( nd armour. 13 'Ih mi 1-151h
cenlury J'vlilan ivdl' was in decline and
enice
onlroll'l all Iht" remaining north Italian arm
c<:'nll'e. 'erm' n armour 'I: gra luaJl sciz('d dominalion ,r Ih Eumpcan mark 'I Ir III Ih mid-16lh
C Illur', bUI Ihese
enclian manul~H'llIringn;nUTS
COl linlll'd to mak' lug
\U'Ullili ',' ,rfint, arm ur..
, eapuns and abo\'(' all firearms, Th' cnainly
I' I in'd
a 'p 'ial pia (' in Ihl' mark I Ii r
'I. b raId)' I,' rat -0 'I" (ni, I arl11:;,
h
hier 'U h V 'nrtian armamenl: CllIre ,..'<I
Brci' ia, , hi h I k 0\'('1' Ii' I
lilall as Iltc' main
llalian pI' ell! cr lal . in Ihe 1 bth alld 17llt 'cnluries,
Brcs ia had, in ra I, been l11anul~l tllrill~ ann: sill {'
Ih' I I til and possibly \'('11 Rlh "Illllr)', \'lni ,took

Further Reading
G,'tlera) hi~loril's (ll' "l'llie,' :11'\' l,:t,il} :t\'ailabk,
Li~(l'C1 h,'lm\ an' ~llltH' Inor.. ~pl't"ia)iwd ~OLlnTS,
.11"111' & .JllllulIl':
U, Fntllzui,.1 mllJ/I~ I' 'i! tlir IJ/JR"'~ I'alt/Ct I V,'nin: ll,d.
,\, Gaibi, 'I:,\t'\\' hrl''>(i:lIlt, dl'lk annaturt':
cnntrihuto alb ~l(ll'in ddb arllli dir"lI~i,'"
ilaliam' . . 1I'Ilii ./I/llrltr ll!)l.l:i. PP,I.; ;)1'.
F. Ros-,i, .Ill11i I (lI1f/(lwll hu,mltll ,Id '11ttl Bre~cia

197 1 .
1-/l'mll/l)':
E, IJd TIIl""SO, ,lmlJiffl (,rl"/IM F'l/lli Uclilll' I !J7H
E, ~Iuratld,l, l.ibrolf,lrm/f/l l'OIr~/(/ \'I"rulla 19i9
E. ~IOI':.llldtl . . Iwwllfllr /'0<111,.,1' \'\'I"tllla 1~li6 ,
}(~Imet.., A-Mid-,~,h C. V~ .. ~lia. ba,;ci.. ~t. e..1 do
" "';th
"'y_Iot,. added i.. 151lo c., (o..ad al Kkalld.IM"I. M
o( An
N", ... York!; B--typiCllI Dorlh halia. barbu,a, .... '3500 (Mus.
Poldi Pu-.oIi,Milaa);IC C V~D~liaa b~lm"'l. (_ad al Kha1kis,
aD'" ia !ii"'loric::a1 Mu~ Albe".' C--h",lm""';1la hu.&ed "&bl
ch...,k_pilOCC minID&..... ISOD SO; D---Yi$C)~ hdm......i,h hinked
"khl c)'...,k-piKe mi"llliak. ".'SOD SO; _"'<:1011"'" 'Coriallow'
_1"'I.mid's,h C4"-....I"1 ...ith hiDked aawll,mid"slla Co; C.mall ....1"'1, mid"s,h Co; 1I-~1ila ........ arm"",
'Slla c.,
(11.1 ..,.. (;iv. Man.ol;' Bruda); I--Mil. .",,.., do,.., h",lm",t,
(;iv. MarIol;, Breseia);Jd....o...,ion DO' lIloo_, ".'570111.1
bursoa",I, dlCo ,.ioa DOl "ho
, lal'" ,61.h C. 1M.... Civ.
Marzoli); #(.....(;
1 1I..lm (rom Bobano, .... IJOG (Calitel S.
ADk.,lo MUlll.. Rome); "f-b<orb.. I 11 .......
w"'~ iD
~ v",h'''' ..... ilh kildHi b ....."" ornam""uuio.., lal" '5,h C.
(M..... 0... Manol;, Br....a.); N o--,...ia...d &: C .......'R
moria..!!, dlCaraLla .. lIa, .. ho...... lale ,6th C. (Armoury of
Dokc. Pllllle"" Velli"",)

la,,,,

".,i.".

lilt" t"il~ ill tl'.lU alltl Ihen'aft ..r lncClural{I.'(1 Ill('

Un,...-ialt illdtl~tt). rlr;t\\itl~ in armt'l/rers li'olll
~lil:lll \\110 hllpl'd III ",,':q)(' til(' JH"a\'~ hanrl of'
\'i""1l11li rtllt-, ~ot until IGH \\"1' thl' Ur..~cial1 ,l!uild
ul"arrlllllll't'l" di,... ,ln'd, :wd l"n'll lhal did lIot mark
lhl' t'ntl or lillt" Hft'~dall arm, !'l'lIdtlt'lioll. Apan
li',"l) illnnlil,l> l"il'hl~ tl,'("llnll"d 17111 ("('lll11r~
:Innllllt..., Ikl',ci:111 g:lltl~ ,'al'lll,:d a litle l'l'pulatioll:
llti.~ \\a~ P:ll"lit"tll:trly Inll' c,r Bf('~ci:llt \\'Ill't,ll(,,"k
pi~l(ll~ :tlld rn\l~k,'l~, Slwh ~I'lI~f;r;ll.l.\' .l.\"Utl~, whidl
\\C'I"l" ttludl llu,n' rdi:lllk than the' prt'\"lou~
tll:lll'hlut'k" :lppt'ar III It:l\'\' heell im'l'lllcd ill
(jt"rtIWtt). Fill' yt'ar~ lht') WITl' t'otl~irlcn'd so
(hre:Hl'lllll.l.\ I " 1:1\\' alld order lltal thc'y \\'l're
dl'I:lan't1 illl".l.\:tl, IIUI 1winK !"x:rmiHl'd t'\Tn tor
lllililar~ IN' utllit ':)7'1, i\l'\"l'l'lllI'lf'S" whl'dlocks
had rl'achl'{1 ""Ilicl' \ ia hl'r l'aSlerll Tum l'i"lIIrI
pru\'il1\"I' IItTl'illli t'ad) ill tilt' I S~tr.;. and tlwl'l'aticr
1111' l'lunplil':llt,(j 11\'\\ tirilll-: Illl'l'hall;\tnS \\'ITt:
itnp0l"ll'tlli'olll Gl'rm:\Il) (111M' madt, up inlU KUllS at
Bn~ia. TIll" filli,lwd \\l'''I>lIIlS \\tTI' IlwlJ rt\'XI>I\rll'd ,III O"t'I' Europt' :ltlc! Ih.. Iblk;lII~.
-1'1

Forlijirnliol/:
.\, Ddln \':llk {e1il.. l'OIr:ill r i 7/1,,/';. Srol/I"; I'
CIJ/!lrlllill IIi 111/1 cil"ililu f~lil,1ll 19!i:l' indudt ....
anid{'Sunl'lrlilkaliclIl & mililar~ l"IllllilJ1ltalilltl.
G. Gl'ml". I //IUlllilllrllti l'N/flr lIr1fi'o/fI fli (.",,/(1,;; \ol~
\ '{'nin' 1!j(lfl :i! 1
P. ~I:tl't.'h,,,,,i. I'illlr::.::.r 1,./II'::,wI/r 1],/1 'i!Ji ~Iilall
I~}H'I '

L". Piunrdlll &

\',

flr/r.lf,IOIalr III I"mr::.ifl

Fntll:lll,l.
\'l'nin'

I'irll('

!.r.!!om

l!tH:i '

,lIi!ita~l' 111;!1,(/IIi}flliOll:

J,

K. Hale. ~lt-Il alld \\\',lpon,: TIl{' Fig:hlitl~'

l'oil'lllial of Si"({'('lllh-CI.'llIUl'~ \t,tl\tian (;allqs.' ill II"fIr am! Som~l': .1 rf(/,-hfll)~ uJ .\lilit",),
1-1;~tlJl"l" nlil, B, Bonel & I, Kl'~ {I,lllldt'll I~J75l,
pp, I '13,
;\1. It ~lalkLl & J. R, Hal< .. 'FI,,' .IIilitfl~1"
(h,l!.rllli::.alilJl/ rtf (/ }(ru/li'~(lIIrr SI",(': "f'/Iirr I, I l'It' In
Ifili (Carn1l1'id.L;\' l~II'Il.
:\, TI'Ilt'tl1i. I'il'l/(I' & 11i(' /),'dillr '!.I "l'IIill' Il.ondotl
t~l-jl J.

,I: 71i,. 1:Jlft

.11: I'rut/illll

I'I'I/tlll)'

~/Ii,f{hl, ml"{l'

qlh

fI'llllI~r

I)uritl~ lhl' t'ady l:i1h ('I"tlllll)' Vt'lll'lian arm" ami

arlllour wert' hasit':dly thl' s;llln' a_~ 111lI~e nflh(" rl.'~1
of ltnly, Earlier L'ly".r.atllilw inllul'I1l"I' had I"rg:d~
disa ppt:'ar('d alld Illt'r,' had a~ yCI IK.... n lilile Urit'llla I
itllllll'nf(' from tht' \'t"lI'ti:lll O'TI~'a~ t:lupirl'. On
Ihc otllt.:r halld Italian ,t~k.. tllt'lll~d\'l" difl<-rt'd
I"rom I hft:'(' 01" llllrllwl'!l EUro!K', Thi~ kni)'.:IH \\'\'a ..":t

lidl l1l:,il IlaulJcl'k. Ihelllgh lacks lhle' surnl:ll which

had Iweollll' IIl,nll.d in Vrallec. Hi.'; kg:s are
pnollTl"d hy standard mail chausses but bl"lll'ath
his rn:lil coif is :1 d<Jsl"ljllill~ iroll I"fl7'rllihl' hdllll'1
\\itll a \"t'ry larg"l' ll:l:-.:d It' !>n'l"('l his I;UT. TIlt'
ktli~ht's l:ll'.~l' ..hidd would also haw been utlusllal
UlIlSidl' Iialy and might rl'llt-el the impnnall('(' 111.11
:H't'hl'1'Y had :tl1't'ad~ achi("\'vd ill lta[ial1 warl;ln.
1i\1'lill "IllUTt'S; ear\'l'd li'in',l', [ale l'2th c:lrly 1:1lh
C .. [;lcadl' or Vidl'lIza Calhedral; wall painlings.
[illl' 121h C .. P,dazzu dl'![a Ragiol1c. :\la11lua:
earnt! i\'o1') IllnJlH", l'2r'2 So, l\lus, Naziollak',
1{;r\'l'nrla,1
.[.:!:

/)"III((Ililll/

/liI/II1I

lIIilililll//all, /IIifl-I:]lh ("1'III/I~'lt

'l'lll" Illilir:ll") ~Iyks uf lJillrnatia Wl'1't' " St1'allgt'

rllixllrn' tIl' Iblkarl illid Iialiall [:lshiolls, .rille' largt'
Ibl-llll!leHlH'd ~hidd lls,d by his unarrllt,urvd
ill[;lllt1') rllall wuuld h:I\'(' 1)('("11 (Ollsidl'IYcl old1:lshilllWd iIr \ V,'SII'!'11 Ell rope: bu I Ihe bUilt lllS ,l!1 his
IllIli,' W('1'e':1 \Try 1110dlTll idea lhat had IliIrdly yel
appt':lrnl ill 11H' \\('sl. His soli. l1:tl-IOppt'd har
Sl'('llIS t,l "II,~~,'''I :I Hung,lrian slylt, li"lill Ihl'
Ill'i,l:'hluorrrirl,t{ I-Iullgarian-nrkd illlni"r. (i\laill
"ourn'; l'<H"\"t'd r('lid~. (.I:.q,O. weSI don1' 01'"1"1'0/,,61'
C;llllcdr:II.1

rnarmally-Ioaded LTo:-sIJt.w IHlt wilh :1 broad

hasi1<l('d <Iag-ga. (1\1<Iirl snlll'('('S: C:II'\'l',] capitals.
early l,ph C .. Dll~,,("I''s 1':t1ac,'" V.. lli...: (,'l"/Iriji\iMI.'I'df'
wall pailHings. 1',r3:;0 ;)0, churTh of S:llll'
Allbellrdiel. C()llHl.)
N~: Iialirll/ (//'lJlUlIl'f'I! iI!/IIIIII:l'I1l((lI, ",1:12

This mall i~ tlb\'illll~l) :l proli's"iullill. l.:i,hl1" a ti,IL'd

knig-hl or :1 SU('t','ssl"lll rJ11"rL;,"llary. I-k l'<I1'1'k" a
hro:ldbrirnllH'd (lilt" pie...' inJlI dlll/n'ltll':/;'" illld h:ls
all early lonn ur ('oat-or-plal,'s tJ\'('r his mail. TIlt'
[q:("-proll"'l illl-{ grea \',,,~ :Il'l' (II" harder rt'( I Il.:alhl... a lid
his Sal)alOlis larllltJrrr("d "h,It'sl ill"el :rppl':lr lel h,'
l"(l\,'nd ill h:lrderlt'd Il';ltlll'r.l-lis''''\'"nl.lll('~lt-t\(kr
basilard dag;gn al his 111'11 and IUII~-III:ldl'd
gl.liS:ll'llle axe ilre commun \\,"apl)Il~: bUI the harhed
ja\"t'lins ~Iallding: rt'ad) (l!r tl:-l' would lIsually lml)
hI' li"ll" war al sea. 1i\I<lirl sourn'; S/,\}(lrlilllt'IIUII/((f'1
Ih,. .ll1'urr! by SillHHlt' i\l:lrtini. r.r:{17" ,\Innldi"rl'
Chap\'1. dlllrdl orsl Frallcis. r\ssisi.l

'Pa~deOrlhe Gene~t di Mare in P;':r.:r.a San Marco', early '71h

century .. ngraving by Giacomo ""ran". (Mus. Ci ..., Corr"r,

V"ni""l

.IS: J)alll/aliall ,,,/di"I". mifl-I]lh UII/III)'

This lll:rH's ,'qUipllH'lIt is similar to thaI \\llrLl in
lIlt'din'al Snl.ia and t\,.n p,lrl~ or ByzarlliulJ'l, It
n 1I1SlSlS a IJri rlllned in III dlfl/II'/.d":/F" el\'I T a 1m ,ad
mail t', lir that ,I !so prol(:cI("d Ilw lIlal r's SIIUllkh.TS. III
addilion Ill" rllail h:urlwl'k he has all i1'oll I:lmdl:tr
nlira~." or d""rly I':".'l ..rll lOr Byzilnlill" ill"piraliort.
His sword is. hO\\'('\'l'r. !ypil'ally European. t?\lain
.~ll(l1Te: (;/111111\ (II Ih" }-Ir)(1' ,""'/lII/rhl"r, can','d rl'1id~
,..r'2.lu, \\"t'SI dnur or(I"O,l.;ir Catlwdral.)

,.r

JJ: Tli/'ji/lill/llj I!/ Ih,1 141h ({,IIIIII)'

lJ,: ,\i)/Ih I{alilill (1"IJ\.I/III1('I!/(Ifi. I".I:J:JO
(:nlssb,)wrm'n playnl all essential ('(,I" irl r.ph
l'l'nlury II:rliall \\ar!;ll'e alld many appc;rr ltJ han'
Ill','ll pl'el(l',,~illrlall1lt;rt.:t"IJ:lrit~. En'l) urhall mililia
tTOS,S!J"WIlWIl would g"I1''I":III)" ha\'l' bl'l'11 well
l'quipped by Ihl'ir rkb rllil's. Thi~ lll:m is a Iypical
l'x'lrnpk. with his "trnllg: iron $alkl helmet Wilh a
Iringed H:rsal; tlrickly p:rdded mail tippet 0\"('1' Iled:
arld sh(,uldl'r, and mail hallbnk un... a lhickl~'
quil1l'd g:lllllwson. I-k is al"llwd not unl)" wilh a
43

N:F I '111"';111/ ~I/i,!!ltl ld Ih,' (,'fllI(lI/!I,filllli~J" (,1.')./(/

:'Iliiall.l
HI'l"" a you 1Ig' 11WIIl lll'f of I h,' \\ adike Col b Ito 1;1 III i IY
1'1'11111 "enicr':; 71'11"1I Fill/lll l11:,inlallll pn:,sc:!isitll):;. i~
(.': Till' .II'(IJ//(I half (!i'lhl' l.fIh (1'/1/11I.1'
11(.1 tlldy ;lrlllllUn,d ill lIlt' 1a1l'~1 ll:diall Sl~ k hUI also (.',: ](lrtJ//IJ (,'(//'{/lIi, uJt/o
wC;lr, a Iwaddulh lhal dOl'S nol appear 10 havc Jacopo C:n'alli Iwrl' \I't'ar~ a hC;l\ y. cr{'sted ,~n':tt
bCl'1I 1"11"11 III11:.ide 11;d~.lli, ba"t'illt'llwllHt.:1 has i1.~ hdm lhat wlluld l1ol'1nOlliy h<tv" I,t'('11 l'I':.{'I'1'nl tiw
m;lil ;t\"l'mail doubkcl Il\"'r ill anlll!lt'r Iialian par;\{k'~' Only lh,' shuuldtT ddi'IK"~ lIrhi~ nml-ol:
b~hi 11: \\ hi I" hi~ 1;11 lriC-((.\ lTt'd coa l-ot:pl:t Ie, and
pl,lIl"s ;tlT lltl\\ \'i~ihk, th(' n'Sl hl"ing oh~l-UrL'd
,blluldn ll:l p, \\'1 'L1ltl pl'C1Il;l Ill) ha \"I' Ill.,"'ll Ii Ilcd wil h hL'Ilt':tth a tighl-fitting sun'oa1. Tltt' knighl's il'Oll
inJll or t'uir-boLlilli hardetlt'd kalhn sraks, Th,' arm-prOl('c,ting rt'rt'bracl's. COlllt'I~ :llld \'amIW;lCl's
rcrt'hr<ll'!":. lhal prol.'CI his upper ann~ would only t'OVt'I' the outside or lhL' lill1b~, and thl' iron
pl'Ob;dlly h;l\'c llll'lal 1'I"lIll'lllS ill~id,', as \Iotdd Iht' polcyns amI gn'a\'t's Oil hi~ l,'~~ an' or a silllil:trly
('un:; ofbi, hulrlt-athl'" ,~aLlnllels. Th(, ~r,';\\"" lhal li,\{hl InX. Hi~ shic.:ld now Ita' a Ilolr!tt'd !allcT-rt':,1
prolt,,'l olll~ 11ll' I"rolll of hi, lq..(~ ,liT 110\1' or iron. in Oll(' ('OI'l1t'r. His hnrs(' is prOlt'C-h'd hy " small
li\laill ,ounT:;: t':tl'\'t'd (apilals. c"dy 1,Ith C .. a mOUlll of a nnour, I.-OIl.~iSlil1g: of a 11 iron dlalllfrOll
Dugl'\ Palact.:, "I'uit'l'; dli,\{) or Ik1'll:l1'Clino d"i wilh eXira ll('c,k lallles_ a quilted aim'l 011 tilt' Ileck
Bar;llli':Olli, t.I:H,'j ;)1I :'Illls, I.apidari'l [sl,'ns\,. a nd a ~Illalt {Tupper' O\'I.-'r' IIw a Ilima I's nUll p, ( i\ I a i 11
i\1,/,II'n;l: '1IP!)t)rlill.\{ lig-III'I'S 1111 lomb 1.1' AZZ()lle sourct.:s: tomb of Federico (:a\alli. lalt' l.ph C.,
"i,n,nli, 1.I:t~'1 dnll'l'lI III'S, (;1'11;11'(1" in COl'll'. church 01' S. Anastasia, "1'1'01101: 100nh
Callsig:Iloro ddla Scala, (,135() 75 Otl\~idt' l'hurdl or s.
i\lari;l Anliqua, "nona: Batll,' or "al di (:hi:tlla,
'Fran<:..s<:n Morosini' w..aring Ih .. Dog..'. cap and a s ..nior
wall painting 1:l73' Palai':zo l'llblin" Sit'II:!.l
<:on"nlllnd.. r'", cloak with ljhOllld.. r d ..<:oration", by Giovann;
c

or

Carbon<:ino roid"7lh <:ent .. ry. (M ..... Civ. COrr...., V..ni<:e)

(,':.!: /'(lIl'Iillll illfIllIIJIIW/I. la(, 1./(1/ rfJIllI~l'

Onl)' thc' lIppl'r arm rndmll'l'l$ arl' 1I0W mack 01"

harc!t:llc-d !t::llhcr, Ihl' k~ h:trIl('s~ Ij('ill,C. ;ill ori1'On.
as an' the splil11s inside his 10\\',,1' ann \'amhl'acc's
:lnd his t~thric-e(l\'ercd solid brcatplale. TIlt' deep
f1uled basc:inel is a lypienlly ltali"ll helmet. but
appears to lx' worn on:r ,Ill old'(;Uihiolll'd mail coil:
Tht' largl' reclangular nd mantlt'l bearing lhe
goldcll Lioll of 51 i\lal'k was, or ('Olll'S(', ",old)' all
infantry shield, The broad-bladed sp('ar is a Ualkan
W(apOll. p"rhaps illlpol'tt'd f!'Olll Daltnatia. rMail1
sources: lomh
i\lanno I)OIl;lli, laIc I.l1h C,.
church uf S. Antonio. P;ldua; .1\(11'/11 111I11/1' b"It'l'l'fI
I i'lltliall tliUllmprrilll/ol'rt'.I, wall pain ling by Spi Iwlill
An:lillO mid-qlh C.. Palazzo Publico, :iiclla; ,)'fo(J'
dS, J(I/III'J, rdids t)ll s1l\'('r altar hy !.l-'onardo di SCI'
Gio\'anni 1:17[, Pisloia Calhcclt'al.l

or

(':3: TI'II!IIfll'lt'r i1l sul'i(,

qf Ihl' (:lIl'1llli j(II/';~)'. /all' 141h

(,I//UI'I'

n"
q\j

\It< \ '
.,

",

This trumpeter wCilrs no armour S;l\'C' lor a Jiglll

m:lil hauherk, and a Ckl'p helmel which has a
hinged dwek-pitec. pCl'haps nrigillally itl!\'llCled for
an archer, The man's daggl.-T ag-aill p('rhaps sho\\'s
Iblkal1 illflucllce, (i\lnin sources: Vl'llt'liall helml'l
rrolll Kbalkis, hll(" l+lh carly 15lh C .. Hislorical

J\[lIs., ALl1l'ns; /Jalllt' I!( l'rd di Cltirllla, wall p<lil1lillO'

1:~73, Palazzo Plilli 0 'iclla.j
J): em.\ 'illg Iltl' /.6/JPio Pa.l.I. 1./39
D,: Dalmaliall ITO SOOlIIl/{/II, 1'.1+/0

B) the I th (Tnlury vari us ' stems or 'panning

more I /)\ c'rrul crossl ow' had om' into uSc: h Te a
ranequin is shown. Thi Dalmatian soldi T ha:
allolhn decp Iwlmel \vilh a hing'd h k-pi C' n
Ihe righl si c. He nlhcrv,is w'ar, rull,latc arm ur
on his arms. legs and bod" though the laller is
co\' reel b
a quilted surcoat in somev hat
BUl'g-ulI li'ln style. (Maill SOUI' e': rdicr 'iLl'ving
mid- 151h '" J ur:ja Barak vi a ,Ire 'I, Sib nik;
cneli. n helll1l t ['rom Khalki', II' t hall' 15th
Hislori I M U:., then:.)

Staff weapons: A-ronco, .6th '7th C. (Armoury of Doge's

Palace, VeDice); B-ronco, 16th C. (Mus. Civ. Marzoli, Brescia);
C--eeremoDial partizan, decoration not shown, early 17th C.
(Mus, Civ. Marzoli, Brescia); D-remains of broad-bladed
spear Or partizan found in ford Dear TriJj, Dalmatia, undated
(Archaeological Mu., SpUt); E F-halberd-partizans for
officers, '7th C. (Armoury of Doge's Palace, VeDice); Hceremonial halberd, late 16th C. (Mu', Civ. Marzoli, Brescia);
l-ceremonial halberd, 16th C. (Armoury of Doge' Palace,
Venice); ]-pole-a"e, 16tb C, (Armoury of Doge's Palace,
Venice); K-glaive, '5th-,6th C. (Mus. Civ. Marzoli, Brescia);
L-ceremonial glaive, decoration Dot shown, Venetian 17th C.
(Mu . Civ. M.arzoli, Brescia).

D2: /)"III/olioll il!f""/~Jnt(l/I. (.1.1-/-0

Here a helrm I with ( hing d hcek-piccC' also has a

moveabl' visor. Thi Lime Ih' ,ur al i. or rich
bl'( c. It' importc! Ii- m Ihe Islamic world. Th
strap supportinO' Ul rondcl d gg r goes to a belt
wom I,'n 'ath the surco I. Th man': armour i.
again ol'rull ironllat with a minimum ormail: and
lhe hrge triangular shield i an il fanlr)" limn that
had J en ud in the B< Ikans r I' .ome c l1luri ...
( ain s( ur's: r lid' alying mid-r th C., J ulja
Bar(lkovin str' 't, ,'il nik: \ IH lian helmct from
Khalki. first hall' (r 15\h .. ,iSI Iri II [\1 us.,
Athens. )
DJ: /'t'I1l'lirll/ mlll/lial klll:l!,hlji-ol/1. 'iht'llik. Dallllalio. II/id'511i rl'llll1~'l'

or

Though 111' is a Dalmatian and wears a form

heacldress brlrayillg IUlIg<trian inOu'n t, this
knight ha: Ilw I SI impurted Jtalian armour.
T piral \ uld be < sail t helm 't in a specifically
\ en ,tian sl I, rover d in \. -Ivel and \vilh golden
de nrati ns riv,t d l the surface, ole the -'xtra
fringe or mail from the rim (II' the l~llIld laSL 'ned 10
the lower edge ( I' his brcastplal . ( lain sourc<:s:
stalu' or knight carly J. th C., Orlanc!m' Kip,
Dubrovnik;\Ii.\,\f/1 or Duk, Hr\' ~i\' \ ukcic
Irvatini'lIr 'plit, 1 npkapi Lib" Istanbul)

IJ.J.' llf/!i,," /1('(/,\(11I1

11'1!)' ,

1511i

rel1ll1l)'

L ngl ows orsimpl . construction Wl'J"C l' 'garckd a.peasant wcapons in late mcdi val ltaly, On the
olher hand some' orlh ' I eSI y w wo d 1'01' su h bows

was grown in Italy, being expl rled in Jarg

Cluantiti s I Englan I. ( lain s()urr ': bronze Inor
by Ghibeni Illid-l.~th C,. Bapti:tcry, Florence, ~

F' III) ,\((o/ld hO{/I!/ IIII' 1511t (1'/11111)'

,: ,\(I/-/l/(',-" Ilaliall rro,ubllwlllall, 11111' 1,';111

1"1'111111)'

AnULh r IWW m thocl orspannin~ a TO. show was

the' TOW' 'I(, It' 'hown here: Ihough sOllletin ('S used
in wnr. it appears tn han' be 'n more pupular rOT'
I uillil g or larglt-sh Iting. This ir rantryJ1lan . till
hasa I' ps II t wilh a hinged nasaL but hi, armour
i~ othC'1"\'\risl' light 'I' 1I1(1n in carlin' plTiods. The iron
breastplale al. 0 ha.s \' '1')' 'ar! lill'lns or tassets lo
pI' IllTl hi, Ihighs, Ol hnwise I hc man's Iq~s arc' onl y
c!ef('nc!ed by light gre;l\'('S, His s\\Iord, wilh the
\(Ttic;).! guard, III a)" agaill rdlcTI Balk,lIl or \:rlllan
i nl') LI n e. ( ['',IIai n sou r l'S: SI (1.\1I11l (:l'fl(' by
Ca rpac io 1.~93, \caclemia, \ cnicc; ,llImr!rlllls q/
Luigi (;on-ago, wall painting by OOll1cllil'O J\lor{lll'
1~9(), PalazZ() Dunik, Manlua; \' 'IWU<ln hdrn't
I'rolll K hal kis, J. lh '.. H istorieal t\ 1u.s .. Athens,)
1':2: 1'l'Ilelia/llllililiOIl/OIl (!/Iltl' (.'r1/1l/IO.!I,lIi dl'//o C((I:Of(. Inlf
l,'jllt ('111111)'

Hand,l;L111S wen' increasingly importanl in the latl'

I ::Jth (' Illury. This -xamplc- is a vl'ry simpl ' ri)J"(n
i,e;nivcl with a separate heated iron IOlldll'. Apart
li'( m a lighl Itdnwl wilh separale ('ar-picn's, Ihis
young man is unannOUl'e I. though his 'xLra\'aganl
costume is in the Ill-ight or Velll'lian lashioll and
shows him to be a 111 'll1lwr or Ollt' o"llw 'Trousn

45

Cluhs'. He nlStI cUTin, ~1 bro:ld-bladl"d dl/lIIWdl'fl

his hip. I r..laill ~ourCts: Sli '''.1/110 crdr
b~ Carpan'in 'I!I:'I, .\c;ldc'11li;I, \'t'llit't': h:lIld-g"un,
mid-15th C .. ;"111'" Ci"i,o, 'I'ri,'slc.!

~h(lrl-.~lI'ord otl

['1I!,-lIlIIt'lI kl/~~hl hy Pic'l"O di Co~i11l0 (.t~)t;I' ~al.

G;llltTy, ',\llldclll: SI (;'''''}!.'' by CarpatTil' ',15fl(,.
Senlur;1 di S. (;iol',~i" dt',~k S('ia\'lIlli, \'t'nict'.1

/':'J.' (;rak IwMt'lJllII/.1 r(J1II

H:;: I ;'II"illll 1II11II-fll-IIIII/', Ifllr 151ft I'rllllll)'
In (",.mpk-h' ('()]JI ra"l It' llll' 111Ianlll.urnl IW1Id~ttllllr.

thi .. Illall-al-arms is (:quipp,:d lin' dost,

t..'cullh"l wilh llll' IhnT-j:>llinled rUlltl), ;\ pendi;lr
\\',';I!l0ll thai pn.\"t'd n'l") popular in II .. I~, His
armour is a tllag-nilin'lll ,'xamplt' Orril11 platc 'whill"
armo11r' mack ill nortlll'rtl Ital~ and "XI:>lIl'u:d
Ihl'oll,l.{lulIll Europe. TIn' ann ddt'lln's an: slig-htJy
diniT"111 liJr l'adl ann. His 1;lr~c' irull sallel i~ or an
allll()sllilllyt'Il("!I.s,'d tYllt', 11:\\'itlg-nludl ill t'01ll1110n
wilh SClillt' ;IIlCi('lll Gn:l'k hdllU'ls, (i\ [aill SOll1Tt'S: SI
i'H1I11I (l'df hy C"rpan'io t,l!n, i\eademia. \'t'llit"c:
,/lIl'11dllll/l I!/ /,lIip,i (;III1'::'IIPJI, \\';r11 p;1I11ltllg' In'
Dorlll'llif'1/ i\lorOlw 1.1~)tj, I'ab'l.zo DOt'ali-, ;"lalllu;l;
\'I'I1C'li:lIllwIIlWI tl-clll1 "h:\lkis, l:",lh C" Hisloril"al
i\lll~ .. '\thl'lh,l
F: Tltr ",,111'
. dil" frllllll"l'
.

F I: 'Sll"fIdil/t' h:ii,hl fIIl'lt! ~l'I//(1IIfi 1//11 /)alllllli ill, (. 1;j00

Slradioti \I'I'I'C' ;!Iways lig-llIly ;lrlllOtll"\,d or {:n:l1
tlllarmoun'd, hili fi:\\' illtblnltiollS ~lln'i\"t.: ~hcl\\'ill,g
IhOiw n't'ruiltd ill till' ~Olllht'rn and t:'li'lt'nI1l10~1
paris Ill" 1111' \'em'II;lll t'rnpin', Thi~ man probabl~
cnnH'~ li'o111 D:tltll:Llia or lsI ria ill what i~ Ill)\\'
Yllgmla\,ja. Hi~ ho\l' is or lhl' :\si;lIit.. l"OrnpOSill'
lype. l-li,H'ul'wd ~abrt' i~ similar lu those used iu thl'
Oltolll:ltl Ernpin', whill' his shield is I)f:l typically
l'asll'rtl EUI'l.pt:;lll Ill' HUIIg;lriall lorm. His liglll
arnl\Jur IS, hlJl\'I'\Tr, typi"all~ Iwlian, ((\laill
sourcr's: SI {''''1I111 err/I' by Carpaccio 1.193,
Anuh'lllia, \'cllin': (."l1'a!mdr. \\,;\11 paililing 1.174,
I'hllt't'h tlfSI i\1;lry, Lknlll'l, [slri;!.)
F:1: "/'IIr(;1I11 lighl (fI/'(//~rl/l(lI/. [.150{)
\'~'J1('liall dn1TH'slil' alltl
[Ialian c:l\'alry \I'('I"{"
di,'idl'd iulu li,l.:1tt and 11I';\"y ullilS,lhflll,l.{h till' main
dilli'n'm't st'em.. 10 h;\ \'1' Iwt'u iII Ihe IISl' (Jl" 01 h!'l'wise
Ilrlllll'Sl'-:ll'lllllllt'. 'I'hi~ man, as a lig-hl cavalryman,
has a d~nn'd salll'1 illslead ot'tllt' dosed arillel uscd
hy lwa,'y ';l\"alry. Hi.~ armOll1' i~ also 01";\ flUlCd
\'aric'ly: though lll;ld,' ill northern Ila[y il clluld
t'dll'~'1 tire' illl1lll'tlt'~' ",. Gt:rntan ;ll'lllC'lln'l"S. whn
mad!' much .~t't:;t1l'r us,' or I1l1tin,~ lill' hoth
deC"ur;ll iOlI a ml ~trl'ug-t1lt'lling-. I i\ \;1 i11 sources:

'fllt'! ifll/-m/<"(/ It'l ri loll),. ,{/ r~ \'

Ifi/ll (t'III/I~I'

Tilt' lillIe Ihal i:- kllown ;Ih"rtl ariHoCr;llic n.stlltlH'

in Jllth-l'l'1Hury Gt'CITt' ~ho\\"s it III han' !lVt'l)
~Irol\~l~ illlhlt'llt't'd by {)l t0Il1:I11 'l'urkil'JI ~I~ It,l'. (}1I
thl' utht'l' halle!. Ihis mall'S short llllli,' i) dt';II'I~
Europt';\n, His :-word was mafic- ill Il:lly: ;lIld hi,
hrimmvd hal was a Styll' ~I't'll dlrtlll.!.,:hnUl till'
13;\ Ikall,~ alld H It ngn I'y. ( ,\ b ill "1l111Tt~: -"I ( '/ Ilda (ydl'
hy C;1 rpaccio 1.19:'1, .\c:\rkrnia. \ ';'lIke: .ldOff/liUII 11
Iht' ,\1(I,~i wall paimillg- lal(' t5th C .. ~11I'" Ci\im,
Padua.!
(,': .111 {/,I,lfI.I"illlllilJlI 1111"11//11 ill "I'll/I"<'

IU'l/IlIrI Ifit",

I "'lIdif/1i 'BI"III"li', Ittlr ilillt <"1'11(111)'

Vl'IIiCt, was OIH: (If till' Illain l'~'llIrt'l< 01' "'c'StITH
b~hinll durill~ till' l!ith {"'llllll'~. ;llld ret:ord~
indi(';\lt' Ihal ltirt'd bodygllar{b Ot' lhu.L:,~ known as
Hrlll'i wen' .Illlon,t.: Ihl' mosl l'Xlra,a,l.::lIltJ~ dn'sst'd
Illl'll inlhc' dty. This indi\'idu;Jllighls \\'illl;1 l':lpicr
and Idi-hamkd dagg-t'l' ill;1 l'har:l('Il'l'islil' latc' 16lh
century fi1rtn of ll:l1cin.\{, !;"Iaill :-"llrt'l'~: ('lIklllJ/('1I
r'tlldiml IIIlMrll/ll1l by i\11'lr(lll;, Illid-J!ilh C .. !\at,
Gallery, London; '\"'Iletian Bn,,'o', itl \';'cdlin's
CQ,llIlIIr BooL puhlis/wd ISH!I,}

(; I:

(;:1: /~\((Ill1'd ,l!.td/~l'-,lm'f, fIIr~l' '7lh IIHIII~1'

\'t'lll'li;m g::r1lt'yslan's amI lho", t'llll\'i("l~ will,
sn\"l,d their SI'llICIH.'t"S al II1\' ";Irs \\'11"1' :-imilar
co:o;t 11 tlll':'i: IIlis was IOlall y ina([,-q 11;11 C' ri.r tht' rig'oll I'S
fir lif(' in ;1Il 01'('11 \\':rrg'alky and rnall~ died thllll
l'XI)lJ:;un'. 'I'he \\"(';llJ1)1JS lhal Ihil' 111:111 has "l'i".nl
illdlldt' a lon~-h:dkd halh;ll'eI, :1 tl:Jg'g'I't' li'oll)
Croalia, ami a p('culi;11' tonn ol" IH';r\'~ l11:ttdllnck
pistol with;1 r('vokin,1:;" Iriple barrel. ( ;"laill ~1!ltITt'S:
'Galley slaw', in \'cl"l'llio's (,'0,1/1111/1' 111101.: \'c'IH"li:m
hallJt'rd. c'ady 171h C .. Arll1ollr~ nl"\)og-I",~ P;,[;]c't'.
\'c-nit'c,l

(,':1: /'l'lIl'Iillll kllig!ll. ufit"l

i\!ost arrllours lhal sUI"\"in' ill l11USt'lllll~ lal'k Ihlir
original lining. This wa~ olkll C:Xlellell,d In Ii Inn ;1
dl'corati,t..' ri'ill,~e around o'nain pit'I'l's, as showtl
hl'I't:. Thill \\'c;l!lhy aristocrat h;l~ ;1 ht'lnll"l Ill" tilt'
dosl' helm 1'1 ,rill. H is ~WI ,rei is \'l'l"~ /\('a\'~ l"'111 pa n-d

lilt, rapit'r 01" hi~ lIpplillClll. Iron shield;, \\CIT a

I'daliwly latt' dcwlopIlH'l1l; althou)..:"h dcsip:lwd 10
\\'ilhsland piswl and muskt'l balls. t1wy \\'en:
prohably more (kCOrali\'I' Ihan dlcC!in:. (i\bin
sourc,': rull ,lr111our. \Iiblw~t' or Hn'seiall f.1570.
i\lu~, Ci\"iw \larzoli, Br(sda.)
III

H: Thl' dl'at/' '!J TO/III//(/Ill .lfmUJilli. IG.17

III.' Tamil/till! .\/(.If/J.lilli. f.d/:17
By Iht' mid-17lh ("l'nlury 111(' g-re'lt age or armour
had l'mkd, :\ 1(-\\ lidl arrnOllrs W(T(' \\'01'11 hy ht',w)'
ca \'011 ry and by ('lJllllll;llldillg' ot1iCl~rs for pnsli~(' .. \t
sea tlll'Y wIHIld have Ilt't'n \'irtually suicidal.!'O herl'
,'\'t'll 'I'\I11'lma:m :>.Iorosilli has bC('11 ~i\'t'n a
l>anil"ularly lil1\' lornl 1'1' Ilalr arrnOlll' wilh a
matching- lobSler-tail 11<'lnlt't. The broad nas<ll
shows ('\'I'U 11101"1' dearly Ill\' ori('lltal illSpiralion or
a II sllch hdnH'I'. This pa 1'1 icu I;, r sui t of a1'l1H,W' h:ld
IWll allcrllali\c l~pcS ufproteclion fOI" thl' hips alld
~n Ii II; 111(' \'er~i()ll worn hl'IT \l'as for com IK\t 011 li)!)t,
wlwreas IllI' 01111'1" was III bl: worll on hnrst'hack.
NOlt' thaI l\ltlro.~ini is armcd with a ba;,kd-hilted
nlpilT ami a lilll' wlll"dlock pislol. [l\laill ;,01l1"C1':
mid-17lh C. I~n'~dall half armour. l\lus. Ci\'lcn
i\lal-l.llli. Brc:-cia.J

I'tIrb'

/71h (f'flllll:l'
'I'hllm'astpl;ttl ot"lhis ordinary soldier has llll' samc'
d('lll or 'proofing mark' as Ihl' line armour 01"
'l'omllla~(1 i\llll'osilli. ThotrKh del'oral('d, hi~ breast
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CominUt!d

160
44
41
90
106
111
199
211
111
88
116
181
U1

151
149
192
161
172

185
189
B.4

114
119
151
116

110
104
161
98
106
116
96
17

78

115

from

Nap's
Nap's
Nap's
N.1IH
Nap's
Nap's

tk 'o~,

Guard Infantry (2)

German NIleS (I)

GerrNl> Allies (2)

German Nlies (3)
German Allies (4)
German Allies (5)
Nap's Spe,;,alLst Troops
Nap's o,.erseas Army
Nap"s Sea Soldlllrs
Nap's It.lhan Troops
Ausv"", Army (I ~ Infantry
Austn.1l1 Army (2~ Cavalry
AuIUl.1l1 SpeooI'lt Troops
Pf\JS\.laO l.II1e "'Ianlry
PrvsSlaO L'ghllnf.mtry
Prvs\W> Reserve 8. Ircegulars
Prussw> Cavalry 1792 1607
P"hSl<lr!Cavalry 1807-15
Rulwn Army (I~ Infantry
Rulwn Army (2): Calr.llry
Well"'lllon's Generals
Wcll.ngt.on's Infantry ( , )
Well,ngton's Infantry (2)
Wellonglon\ Htghlandcr<
Wellmgton's Ugt11 Cavalry
Welhngton's Heavy Cavalry
Wellington's Specoalist TrClOp'i
Brunsw"k Troops 1!I0915
CAJunBeIli"'" Troops
Hanovcnan Army 17921816
The Arne""", War 181 21 "
Mllery Equ'P'nents
Flags of the Nap Wars ( I)
Fklgs of the Nap War. (2)
FkJg\ of the Nap Wan. (3)

19TH CENTURY
231 Bolivar and San r1ar1ln
In Alamo 8. Texan War 18)!>6
56 Mco<J<:anAmencan War 18468
272 The Me><0QI1l Adventure 1861-67
61 Arnencan~ Wars 1860-90
170 ~n 0 ...1War ArmIeS:
(I): Confedo!ral~
117 (2): Unoon
119 (3): 513ft, SpcwIrsts,

""'~
190 (4):
Stale Troops
207 (S): Volunteer Mhoa
)7 Army of NO<'thern V"go.J
)8 Army 01 the Potomac
251 Flaeo; of the AmeriUt1 0..,1 War
.~"

Volunteer
Indoans

iIlOS

1950-90
Rebellion 1851-66
1y of the

" on Campa.gn:
53

nea, 18S4S6

51
59
HO
95

The Zulu War

Sudan Clmpa,lr'S 1881-98

US Army 1890 1920
The Boxer Rebelloon

THE WORLD WARS

8(1 The German Army 191~18
81 The Bnt<si, Army 191~-18
245 B"llsh Terntonal Ur.fS 191418
269 The OnOlT'lan Arm~ 1914 18
206 Lawr",""e and lJito Arab Revolts
182 Bnlosh Banle Ill\Igno,l
(I) 1914_18
181 (2) 1939-4~
14 Tne Spans/1 CMl W~r
111 T~ PoIts/1 Army 193945
112 an\lsll Battlcdr~~ 19)761
110 A_oed Commandef'> of WW2
115 The Royal Air Focce
10 US Army 1941.45
216 Thl: R.cd Army 1941-45
146 The fl.omanIiIn Army
220 The SA 1921 45
1<4 The P\.!er Dl-vrsoons
166 The AlIgemeJIle5S
)4 The Wat(~n-SS

luftwaffc f del [)"""""

German COtlYY\andero; 01 WW2
Gem"", MP LJn>ts
Ge<m.:in Aorborne Tcoops
Germ;r.~{~ F. Fr0l11 Alloes
Germany's Spa",s/1 VoIunlec<>
Welvmacht Foregn Volunteers
WeIYm1cht Aux,kary Focc('S
AlliCd Fon."i:" VoUllef:rs
Partl'ian WJrfare 1941 45
~ta1'(e Warfare 194Q.'IS
Flags of the Thrd ReICh
\ I) WehnT;)cht
114 (2) WalfeoSS

119
124
213
139
1)1
10)
147
25<4
H8
142
169
110

178 (3) PilI"Iy

a. PollCC UnoIS

MOOERN WARFARE
132 r1alay<Ul CampaOW' 191860
174 The Korean War 195053
116 The Speaal Air Scnocc
156 The Royal Haroes 195(,94
I)) BattJC 101" the ralkl.lnd<
1)4
135
150
111
128
194
165
10<4
141
209
111
18)

101
142
159
178
111

(I ~
(2~

Land f OI"~

Naval for<:e<;

0, A"

Forc~

Argentne For,~ on the Fidl<land's

Isradl Army 19<18-7)
ArdbAtrnes(l~ 19487]
Arab An-noes
197).88
Armes on Leb.lnon 198284
Vllllllim War ArmIes 19627S
Voetnam Wa,' ArmOC'S (2)
War In CamOOd&a 197075
Warm Laos 196075
Modem Alr"an Wars:
(I~ Rhod!..~ 1%5-60
(2): Angola a. Moumboque
(3): Sculh,West Afra
Greoada 1963
Rv;,<;t', War In Nl!hanistan
Central Amel"'('a~ Wars

01
e~:

Alrrca
n Alnc;a

1lTlp<lJlr'S 1860-70

"'"r
ps ,n the

~
_ y 195759
91 Beogal Cavalry RegllTlffilS
91 Indliln Infantry Regimet11S
U) French Army 1870-71 (I)
U1 French Army 187071 (2)
177 The Ru<<o.Turlush War 1877

GENERAL
65 The R<:>yal Navy
101 Brltosh I<1f.mlJ'Y EqulplS. (I)
106 Bnt<s/1 Infamry [qulplS, (2)
118 Bnl/'Jl Cavalfy Eqopts.

72 The
114
105
U4
151
12)
164
161
191

~l

Front"",

US Infanlry Equ<pts.
US Army Combat Equ'PlS.
Germatl C<.>mb3t Equ;pts.
Flak )"Ckets
Ausvalliln Army 1899-1975
Canadlin Army at Wa,'
Spanrsh Forcogn Lcgoon
Royal CarOOoan Mo..onled Poio(e

rmm
MILITARY

rmm
MILITARY

lVIEN - xr- ARMS SERIES

An unrivalled SOUTce of infonnation on the unifonns, insignia and appeanmcc of the world's fighting
men of past and prescnt. The ,Men-Ilt-Anns titles cover subjects as diverse as the Imperial Rom:m amlY,
the Napoleonic wars and Gennan airborne troops in a popular 48-pagc fannat including some
40 photographs and diagrams, and eight full-colour plates.

COMPM'IION SERIES FROM OSPREY

ELITE
Detailed infonnation on the unifonns and insignia of the world's most famous military forces.
Each 64-pagc book contains some 50 photographs and diagrams, and 12 pages of full-colour :utwork.

WARRIOR
Definitive analysis of the annaur, weapons, tactics and motivation of the fighting men of history.
Each 64-page book contains cumways and exploded artwork of the warrior's weapons and amlOur.

NEW VANGUARD
Comprehensive histories of the design, de\'e1opment and operational use of the world's antlourcd vehicles
and artillery. Each 48-page book contains eight pages of full-colour artwork including a detailed cutawlly
of the vehicle's interior.

CAMPAJGN
Concise, authoritative accounts of decisive encounters in military history. Each 96-pagc book contains
more than 90 illustrations including maps, orders of battle and colour plates, plus a series of
three-dimensional battle maps that mark the critical stages of the campaign.
THE ANCIENT WORLD
118 Anoen! Ct>~ AI'mlI.";
109 Anoen! Mdd~ East
137 Tho: Scyttlian\ 700-300 B,C.

69 Greek & Pe~ W'> 500)23 B.C

148 Arm'( of Alexar1d<!e the Ge.... t
l'21 Carthagtnoa,n W~ ...
... Roman Army:

""",.T","

9)

119

2 Hadn;an-Constanllne
~I
's Enemoes

'! """"""', D~~

I sa I
175 3
180 ~.
243 5

GallIC & BrItISh Celts

Po1I'th4ans & Sassantds
$pain 118 8.C.19 B.C.
rhe ~<1 Fr<>ntoe<"

THE MEDIEVAL WORLD

247 Romano-ByUnlJrlo! Arm>es 4tr>-9th C

IS4 ArUv & AngloSa><on Wars

1SS Armoes of trot M'lSIJm Conqves!

115 Amlles 01 islam. 7thll\t1 C
ISO TM Age of Charlemagne
89 Byzantine Armoes 8861 I ! 6
8S Saxon. V>Iung & Norman
2J I Freoch Mf:dOf:val Artl'IltS 10Cl0- I 300
75 ArrnIf:s of the C ~
171 Saladin & the Saracens
155 Kn,thts of Oms!
200 EI CId & ReconqUtSU 10.50-1492

105 n... Mongols

222 The Age Of T~n'"If:rlane

PiefM note thol fa< spe eeawn:s ~",lffi

tIIle5 eve g~ ~. when OH!erlfli, ~ quole
die l'llf: r1iJ'l'ltOf:t. e.f. 'MAlI 109' for 'Ancient
NI'l'1/f:S 0( /he MddIe Eas!". etc

15 I M~ Clw1esf: Armoes
50 ~vaJ Eueopoean Aemoes
lSI Scots & Welsh W~rs
94 The Swlss I)OJ. 1500
136 Ita/ian ArrTl1eS I300-1500

164 German Armoes I300-1 500

195 Huo2MY & E. Europe
loo]"IWI

159 The MamkJks 12SQ.-1517

I'" Ottoml Tueb 1300ln4
210 Venel.W1 Empre 12001670
III A~ of Cr~ ~nd POI!lf:rs
144 Mf:dlf:Val Bu....,ely 11641477
3 ArrrIoe5 of AglocOl,ll't
1<15 W~rs of trot Roses
"

MedItV1lI Her~Id')'

16TH AND 17TH CENTURIES

156 ThelnshWirs 1485-1603
19 I Henr)' VIII's Army
58 TM l..andsI<nechts
101 The COI'lQUI5tadorf:s
263 Mvgh.JIlndia 15041761
135 Gunavus Adolph./5 (1IInf~nt')'
262 Gustavus Adoj~ (2 . Cavalry
.4 Engb5h Qv.I W~r Armes
0 NewJ'1odf:IArmy 1645-60
203 L0U<5 XlV's Army
267 TN: BrMh Arm~ 1660-17Cl-l
.7 Marlboro.Jgh's Army.
86

Samurai Amues 15501615

1&8 PoJtY1Armoes 15691696(21

18TH CENTURY
261
260
264
II 8
2J6
140

I8\t1 Century H~rs

Petee lI1e Great's ArTJ'Iof (I ~ Infantry

Petee the Greafs Army (2): CaVil')'
jacobite RebeUIQf1lO
Freder..:k the GeeA!
Fre6erxk \he Geea! 2)

I"

248 Feedf:r..:k the GeeAl )}

271 AuslnillArmy 1740.80(11
176 Aus!n;all Army 1740-80 (2
48 Wolfe's Army
128 Amenan Woodland tndlans

39 Bnt Army III N, Amenca

W~e Ind

244 Feenc.h III AtTIer

27) ~ I W~sIw>gton', Army

(I); 17751778

NAPOLEONIC PER'OD
157 Napoleon\ ~ III Italy
79 Napoleons EgyplJin Campa>gn

87 Napoleon's Marshals
64 Nap's CUlr~ssltrs & CaribK1iers
SS Naps Dragoons & Lanc.ers
68 N~ps lJne Chaosseurs

76 Nap's Hussars
Nap's Guard Cav~I')'
.41 Nap's U"" Inf&r1!')'
.... Nap's Ught Infantry
IS] N~ps Guard Infantry {11

.84 PollShArmoes 15691696(1)

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