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A Theoretical and Experimental Study On Dynamic Characteristics o
A Theoretical and Experimental Study On Dynamic Characteristics o
Research Online
University of Wollongong Thesis Collection
1995
Recommended Citation
Qiu, Zhi Ling, A theoretical and experimental study on dynamic characteristics of journal bearings, Doctor of Philosophy thesis,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Wollongong, 1995. http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/1567
AMENDMENTS
"A Theoretical and Experimental Study on Characteristics of
Journal Bearings"
by
The calculated bearing has two 20 axial grooves. At very low eccentricity, the oil
starting boundary is close to the oil groove. If the perturbation amplitude is larger than
some value, the starting boundary could shift from up-stream of the groove to downstream of the groove at the perturbed position. This big shift (about 20) results in
sudden increase in the variation of the bearing coefficients as shown in Figure 3.18(a).
At normal eccentricity the starting boundary is far from the groove, the boundary shift is
normally less than 2 (depends on perturbation amplitude), thus the calculated bearing
coefficients do not change as dramatically at those at very low eccentricity.
Addition to page 325. following conclusion (7)
To measure the bearing coefficients in situ in an operating machine, the impact exc
(Chapter 8) and the step force excitation (Morton, 1975) could be used if the forceapplying equipment is installed in advance. For Morton's method, the estimation is
affected by the dynamic characteristic of the foil baring, through which the step force is
applied to the journal. N o practical method has been reported to improve this method.
Additional references
Holmes, A.G., Ettles, C.M.M. and Mayes, I.W.,1978, "The Aperiodic Behaviour of a
Rigid Shaft in Journal Bearings," Int. Journal for Numerical Methods in
Engineering, 12, p685-702.
Akkok, M . & Ettles, C , 1984, "Journal Bearing Response to Excitation and Behaviour
in the Unstable Region", Trans. ASLE, 27, p341-351.
from
Department of Mechanical Engineering
THE UNIVERSITY OF W O L L O N G O N G
by
Zhi Ling Qiu
B.Sci. (SJTU) M.Sci (SJTU+SMERI)
1995
Supervisor:
Associate Professor
UNIVERSITY OF
WOLLONGONG
LIBRARY
A.K. Tieu
DEDICATION
ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to express his deepest thanks to his supervisor, Associate
Professor A.K.Tieu for his continuous encouragement. Without his help, patient
guidance and shared pride in the work, this thesis could not have been written.
Gratitude is expressed to the University of Wollongong for providing the
Postgraduate Research Award to support this research project The Australian Electricity
Supply Industry Research Board is acknowledged for its financial assistance in this
research.
Great appreciation is expressed to Mr. R. Marshall, w h o did painstaking work in
manufacturing the test rigs and was very helpful during the experimental stage. T h e
author is also grateful for the help of Mr. S. Watkins, T. Kent, K. Maywald, R. Young
and Mr. M . Morillas during the experimental stage. M r R. W e b b is acknowledged for his
help in calibrating the load cells.
Special appreciation to Mr. N. Freund for his cooperative efforts in designing and
commissioning the main bearing test rig and its instrument system. Thanks to him also
for letting the author use his program of acquiring the temperature data from
thermocouples.
Appreciation is also expressed to Mr. Des Jamieson for his enthusiastic guidance
on various computer software.
Thanks are also expressed to Dr. Y.X.Yao, Dr. X.D.Fang, Mr. M . Mackenzie,
and Dr. B. Kosasih. Their encouragement and friendship have benefited the author in
writing this thesis.
Special appreciation is expressed to his beloved wife, M e i for her moral support
and continuous encouragement.
iii
SUMMARY
(1)
Three different numerical methods are developed to calculate the static and dynamic
characteristics of circular journal bearings with different slenderness ratios and
different geometries. T h e Reynolds equation with Reynolds boundary condition is
solved by the finite difference method and finite element method. The bearing oil
film force coefficients are calculated by the finite perturbation method and the
infinitesimal perturbation. The calculated results agree well with data from available
literature
Static and dynamic characteristics of grooved and ungrooved bearings with 5
different slenderness ratios are presented in 13 tables.
The relation of eight linear force coefficients of journal bearing with the perturbation
amplitudes is also studied. T h e m a x i m u m perturbation amplitudes for different
coefficient variations are also presented.
(2)
The oil whirl property and stability of the rotor-bearing system is studied. The
dynamic performances of the rotor-bearing system under the impulse excitation,
position perturbation, unbalance excitation and harmonic excitation, are simulated
considering both linear and non-linear bearing forces. The linear scope in which
the linear force coefficients can be used is determined.
iv
different data processing techniques are developed for the separated excitation and
combined excitation procedures.
For the impact excitation method, an explicit coefficient estimator on least-squareestimation is developed on the transfer functions of the impulse responses to the
impact forces, all 16 bearing coefficients can be calculated through one operation.
A n e w unbalance excitation method is proposed and is successfully used to identify
16 force coefficients of two practical journal bearings. F r o m the unbalance
responses under two or more sets of trial unbalance masses, all bearing coefficients
can be calculated by solving a set of simultaneous linear equations.
The impact and the unbalance methods can be conveniently applied to estimate the
coefficients of large journal bearings on-site, without relying on the expensive
excitation equipment to apply large dynamic forces to excite the rotor as required by
previous methods.
All the three experimental methods are thoroughly simulated on computers.
To perform the proposed experimental methods two bearing test rigs are modified.
T w o eccentric-mass vibrators are firstly used to excite the rotor-bearing system.
The dynamic coefficients of two grooved bearings and two ungrooved bearings
under different loads are estimated. The estimated coefficients correlated well with
the theory especially w h e n the misalignments are considered in the theoretical
calculation. T h e experimental results verify that the misalignment can improve the
stability of the rotor-bearing system.
The sensitivity and uncertainty of the estimated coefficients to the measurement
errors are analysed.
Applicable experimental procedures, data processing techniques for all three
excitation methods are proposed and performed on different test rigs.
A data re-sampling technique is used to avoid the alias of frequency characteristics
and reduce the noise affection.
vi
, Vol 177,
pp63-69
(2) Qiu, Z.L. & Tieu, A.K., 1994 "Misalignment effect on the static and dynamic
characteristics of grooved hydrodynamic journal bearings". A S M E / S T L E Tribology
Conf., Hawaii. Accepted for publication in J .of Tribology
(3) Tieu, A.K. & Qiu, Z.L., 1994 "Stability of finite journal bearings-linear and
nonlinear bearing forces" A S M E / S T L E Tribology Conf, Hawaii. Accepted for
publication in STLEiTribology Transactions
(4)
Qiu, Z.L. & Tieu, A.K., 1994 "The effect of the perturbation amplitudes on
eight force coefficients of journal bearing" Accepted for publication in STLE: Tribology
Transactions
(5) Qiu, Z.L. & Tieu, A.K., 1994 "Stability and the oil whirling frequency of a rigid
rotor in journal bearings" Proc. 4th Int. Tribology Conf., Perth, Australia, pp717-724.
Accepted for publication in JEAust: Mechanical Engineering Transactions
(6) Qiu, Z.L. & Tieu, A.K. "The Nonlinear Effect on the Linearised Force
Coefficients of Journal Bearing" Under review by Tribology International, 1994
(7) Tieu, A.K. & Qiu, Z.L., 1995 " Experimental study on the characteristics of
misaligned journal bearings part I: method and static characteristics " Under review of
STLEiTribology Transactions
vii
(8)
Qiu, Z.L. & Tieu, A.K., 1995 " Experimental study on the characteristics of
misaligned journal bearings part I: method and static characteristics " Under review of
STLEiTribology Transactions
Conference Papers
(9)
hydrostatic journal bearing with 4 circular Recesses, 11th Australasian Fluid Mechanics
Conf, pp901-904
(10) Tieu, A.K. & Qiu, Z.L., 1992 " An experimental study on the dynamic
behaviour of a hydrodynamic journal bearing" 11th Australasian Fluid Mechanics Conf.,
pp893-896
(11) Qiu, Z.L. & Tieu, A.K., 1993 "Full determination of dynamic coefficients of
fluid film bearing from impulse responses" Proc. of 4th ASIA-PACIFIC
Vibration
viii
CONTENTS
Chapter
page
DEDICATION
ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
iii
SUMMARY
iv
vii
CONTENTS
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
xvii
LIST OF TABLES
xxvi
NOMENCLATURE
xxviii
1.0
INTRODUCTION
2.0
LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1
2.2
2.3
Stability analysis
13
2.4
21
2.4.1
21
2.4.2
23
2.5
25
31
3.1
INTRODUCTION
31
3.2
CHARACTERISTICS O F J O U R N A L B E A R I N G
34
3.2.1
3.2.2
Bearing forces
36
3.2.3
Attitude angle
37
3.2.4
38
3.2.5
Side flow
39
ix
34
3.2.6
Friction force
40
3.2.7
42
C O M P U T A T I O N B Y FINITE DIFFERENCE M E T H O D
47
-JMTNJTESIMAL P E R T U R B A T I O N (FDM-IFP)
3.3.1
47
3.3.2
50
3.3.3
Dynamic coefficients
51
3.3.4
51
3.4
C O M P U T A T I O N B Y FINITE E L E M E N T M E T H O D
53
-FINITE P E R T U R B A T I O N (FEM-FP)
3.4.1
Variational principle
53
3.4.2
Element equations
54
3.4.3
3.4.4
Boundary condition
59
3.4.5
60
3.4.6
Program by F E M
60
C O M P U T A T I O N B Y FINITE E L E M E N T M E T H O D
58
61
-INFINITESIMAL P E R T U R B A T I O N (FEM-IFP)
C A L C U L A T E D B E A R I N G CHARACTERISTICS
65
3.6.1
65
3.6.2
69
3.6.3
72
75
75
76
76
3.6.4
EFFECT OF PERTURBATION A M P L I T U D E O N D Y N A M I C
COEFFICIENTS
80
85
90
92
INTRODUCTION
93
S Y S T E M M O D E L O F A RIGID R O T O R S U P P O R T E D O N T W O
95
S Y M M E T R I C A L BEARINGS
4.2.1
96
4.2.2
97
4.2.3
97
L I N E A R STABILITY A N A L Y S I S
98
4.3.1
98
4.3.2
Critical speed
100
4.3.3
4.3.4
4.4
107
4.4.1
Impact excitation
109
4.4.2
Position perturbation
112
4.4.3
Unbalance excitation
115
4.4.4
Harmonic excitation
118
4.4.5
Discussion
122
C O N C L U S I O N O N STABILITY A N A L Y S I S
101
105
125
INTRODUCTION
128
DEFINITION OF MISALIGNMENT
129
134
5.3.1
Load capacity
134
5.3.2
Attitude angle
138
xi
5.3.3
Side
flow
143
5.3.4
Friction force
143
5.3.5
Misaligned moments
143
5.4
E F F E C T O F M I S A L I G N M E N T O N D Y N A M I C CHARACTERISTICS 147
5.5
M I S A U G N M E N T EFFECT O N B E A R I N G STABILITY
157
5.6
CONCLUSION
160
INTRODUCTION
163
6.2
SYSTF^MCraLCFRlGJDRCttaiCNTWOASYMMEIRICBEARINGS
164
6.3
6.4
6.21
Harmonic excitation
168
6.22
Impact excitation
169
6.2.3
Unbalanced excitation
170
COEFFICIENTS ESTIMATION
171
6.3.1
Dimensionless model
171
6.3.2
Estimation method
173
6.3.3
176
6.3.4
177
S I M U L A T I O N TESTS
179
6.4.1
179
6.4.2
Separated excitation
182
6.4.3
Combined excitation
185
185
188
6.4.4
Noise effects
190
6.4.5
191
6.4.6
193
6.4.7
xii
193
6.5
6.6
SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
196
6.5.1
198
6.5.2
199
201
JOURNAL BEARINGS
203
7.1
INTRODUCTION
204
7.2
205
7.3
7.2.1
rig
7.2.2
Tested bearings
208
7.2.3
Tested journal
208
7.2.4
7.2.5
Lubrication system
7.2.6
7.2.7
Instrument system
209
210
212
213
7.4
205
215
7.3.1
215
7.3.2
Data pre-processing
7.3.3
7.3.4
Pressure distribution
222
7.3.5
Supply flow
226
7.3.6
Temperature distribution
227
217
218
229
7.4.1
Experimental procedures
229
7.4.2
Data processing
229
230
237
xiii
7.5
7.6
7.4.4
241
7.4.5
Critical speeds
246
E R R O R ANALYSIS
247
7.5.1
Precision of transducers
247
7.5.2
Manufacturing tolerance
248
7.5.3
249
7.5.4
250
7.5.5
C O N C L U S I O N O N T H E H A R M O N I C EXCITATION M E T H O D
251
252
255
8.1
INTRODUCTION
256
8.2
SYSTEM M O D E L
256
8.3
DERIVATION O F T H E COEFFICIENTS E S T I M A T O R
257
8.4
S I M U L A T I O N TESTS
260
8.5
8.6
8.4.1
Symmetric bearings
262
8.4.2
Asymmetric bearings
264
8.4.3
Noise effects
268
8.4.4
270
EXPERIMENT
270
8.5.1
Bearing test
8.5.2
Experiment procedure
274
8.5.3
274
8.5.4
Example
275
8.5.5
Verification of simulation
8.5.6
Discussion
281
CONCLUSIONS
283
rig
270
280
xiv
.0
284
9.1
INTRODUCTION
285
9.2
SYSTEM MODEL
286
9.3
287
9.4
9.5
9.3.1
290
9.3.2
290
9.3.3
291
SIMULATION TESTS
291
9.4.1
Symmetric bearings
293
9.4.2
Noise effects
298
9.4.3
298
9.4.4
Asymmetric bearings
299
9.4.5
Initial unbalance
301
9.4.6
Effect oftimeshift
302
EXPERIMENT
304
9.5.1
Bearing test
rig
304
9.5.2
Experiment procedure
305
9.5.3
305
9.5.4
Example
307
9.6
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
313
9.7
E R R O R ANALYSIS
318
9.8
9.7.1
Transducers error
318
9.7.2
318
9.7.3
Experimental errors
319
9.7.4
320
CONCLUSIONS
321
xv
10
323
11
REFERENCES
329
APPENDICES
A
346
350
Transducer calibration
353
xvi
361
LIST OF FIGURES
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
Computation program by F E M - I F P
3.7
3.8
e=0.2
(b) e=0.4
(c)
e=0.6
(d) e=0.8
3.9
3.10
Sommerfeld number
Sommerfeld number
3.13
3.14
3.15
3.16
3.17
xvii
4.3(a)
4.3(b)
4.4(a)
4.4(b)
4.5(a)
4.5(b)
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9(a)
4.9(b)
4.9(c)
4.9(d)
xviii
4.14
5.3a
5.3b
5.3c
5.3d
5.3e
5.4a
5.4b
5.4c
5.5a
5.5b
5.6a
5.6b
5.7a
xix
5.7b
5.7c
5.7d
5.7e
5.8a
5.8b
5.9a
5.9b
5.10a
5.10b
5.11a
5.11b
5.12a
5.12b
5.13a
5.13b
5.14a
5.14b
5.15a
5.15b
5.16a
5.16b
6.3
6.4
xx
.5
6.6
6.7
6.9
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
Lubrication system
7.8
7.9
7.10
xxi
7.11
7.12
7.13
7.14
7.15
7.16
7.20
xxii
8.3(a)
8.3(b)
8.3(c)
8.3(d)
8.3(e)
8.4
8.5(a)
8.5(b)
8.5(b)
8.6
Impact hammer
8.7
8.8(a)
xxiii
8.8(b)
8.8(c)
8.8(d)
8.8(e)
8.8(0
8.9(a)
8.9(b)
9.3
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8(a)
9.8(b)
9.8(c)
9.8(d)
9.9
9.10
9.11
xxiv
C.3
C .4
C.5
C.6
C .7
xxv
LIST OF TABLES
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
3.14
4.1
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
7.1
7.2
7.3
xxvi
7.4
7.5
8.1
8.2
8.3
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
xxvii
NOMENCLATURE
B,B
b(j, B^
bfj, Bfj
dimensionless
dimensionless
c, ci,c2
Cb
n(clR)
Qt
Cfk
= 6 / i Q / c 2 ( ) 2 constant
c
diameter of bearing, m
e,e
Eb, Et
FFT
fei ^
F^
Fe
Fx, F y
Ft
Ft i
Ft2
fi, f2
excitation forces, N
ft
xxviii
FEM-FP
Finite Perturbation
F(jco)
Fourier transformation of F
gyroscopic matrix
H ,j
Ib'b'l
IFP
Infinitesimal Perturbation
eq> Keq
kjj, K^
*
ip=Ip/1%
dimensionless
dimensionless
dimensionless
Jacobian matrix
width of bearing, m ;
Lo
Li, li
i=l, 2, distance from rotor gravity center to the i-th bearing, m ; li = Li /Lo
Lif, lif
i=l, 2, distance from excitation force to the i-th bearing, m ; ltf = Lif/Lo
Le
shaft mass, kg; number of trial unbalances or division number of oil film
in circumferential direction
mi, m 2
trial masses, kg; or numerical coordinates corresponding to the start and end
boundaries of the pressure oil film
xxix
Mj, M j
Nj
nt
p,P
' 2 M i dimensionless
LiflRL
P = -()2
6/iQ /?
dimensionless
Pi
Pt j
PJ
P0
ps
groove pressure
qs, Qs
q, Q
Rj, rj
BU9*k{*r
nW
dimensionless
Sommerfeld number
c
Si, Si
T, T 0
sample intervals, s
TaVe
tN
sample duration, s
Uk
V^
Vx
Vy
static load, N
Wi
xxx
W'n
Ax, X
Ax, X
Ay, Y
Ay, Y
z, Z, A Z
coefficient matrix
Ze
Zj
cci ,a 2
8C
8^
|i
<Pj
92, <J>2
$i
u)
frequency, rad/s
co,-
Qcrit
k, Xcrit
mi)
X=C0/Q, Arit=aVftcrit
Pi
2;
xxxi
T|
superscriptr
1
xxxii
dEIAIPTTIEIE 11
INTRODUCTION
With the development of manufacturing technology, rotating machinery become
increasingly powerful with higher and higher rotation speed. Fluid lubricated journal
bearings are widely used in large rotating machinery because of its low cost, long life,
silent operation, high radial precision and simple application. The journal bearing herein
means the plain bearing with lubricant which generates dynamic pressure to support its
journal under rotation. The dynamic characteristics include the dynamic bearing forces,
linearised force coefficients, stability of the rotor-bearing system and critical speed. It is
well k n o w n that the journal bearing cannot be looked upon as only a supporting or
guiding device of a shaft. The dynamic characteristics of the fluid film dominate the
dynamic behaviour of all rotor-bearing systems. With increased speed, the bearing's
dynamic characteristics become more and more important. Unstable bearing could cause
catastrophic vibration and damage to the entire rotating machinery.
Although there is a considerable amount of publications in the theoretical calculation
and experimental measurement of the dynamic characteristics of journal bearings, there is
still incomplete understanding on the bearing dynamics. It is c o m m o n that different
lubrication authorities present different calculation results because they use different
assumptions. For example, the eight theoretical dynamic coefficients of the linearised
bearing forces are not the same in different publications. The experimental results also
show poor agreement with each other or with theory. There are a few "hot" topics in the
bearing research. For example, different assumptions on the oil film boundary condition
still confuses people. The pressure in the cavitation zone also causes controversy. It is
not clear that up to what vibration amplitude that the linearised bearing force coefficients
can be used. The misalignment effect on the bearing dynamic characteristics has not been
(1) the development of software to calculate the bearing static and dynamic
characteristics. Three pieces of software are developed for different numerical
methods (finite difference+infinitestimal perturbation, finite element method+finite
perturbation and finite element method+infinitestimal perturbation). The
relationship among eight linear force coefficients and the perturbation amplitudes is
also presented.
(2) an investigation of the stability of the rotor-bearing system. The critical stable
speed and whirl frequency are predicted based on the linear theory. The dynamic
performances of the rotor-bearing system under the harmonic excitation, impulse
excitation and unbalance excitation are simulated considering both linear and nonlinear bearing forces. The scope in which the linear force coefficients can be used
is determined by comparing the dynamic behaviour simulated with linear and nonlinear bearing forces.
(4) three experimental methods to estimate force coefficients of two journal bearings ar
studied.
The traditional harmonic excitation method, which can only identify 8 bearing force
coefficients of one journal bearing or two symmetric bearings, is extended to
identify 16 bearing force coefficients of two asymmetric journal bearings. Two
different data processing techniques are developed for the separated excitation and
combined excitation procedures.
For the impact excitation method, an explicit coefficient estimator on least-squareestimation is developed; all 16 bearing coefficients can be calculated through one
operation.
A new unbalance excitation method is developed in this thesis and is successfully used to
identify 16 force coefficients of two practical journal bearings on test rig.
Applicable experimental procedures, data processing techniques for all three excitation
methods are developed and performed on two test rigs.
enAPraiR
LITERATURE SURVEY
The journal bearing is a wide subject with many factors to be considered, and many
investigations have been done in this field. It is difficult to include all literature in this
thesis so only closely related and available literature is mentioned here. T o simplify the
review, the literature is classified into the following sections:
2.1 Solution of Reynolds Equation
2.2 Calculation of dynamic characteristics
2.3 Stability analysis
2.4 Misalignment effects on the bearing characteristics
2.5 Experimental methods to determine the linear bearing force coefficients.
of tests with different clearances, loads, speeds and viscosities, they found that the
positive pressure was only distributed in a film less than K radian circumferentially. The
bell-shaped circumferential distribution and parabola-shaped axial distribution are very
close to today's bearing theory.
conveniently realise the Reynolds boundary condition. Limited by the large amount of
manual calculation, the finite difference method was not widely used for the bearing
design at that time.
In 1949, the mechanism of thin film lubrication was systematically investigated by
C a m m e r o n and Wood(1949). They found that the half-Sommerfeld boundary condition
gave flow discontinuity at the exit edge of the oil film. They employed the Reynolds
boundary condition p = 0 and dp/d())=0 at the trailing edge to achieve the continuity in the
oil flow. With this boundary condition, their theoretical steady characteristics of the finite
bearings with different L/D ratios agreed well with previous experiments.
Ocvick(1952) and Dubois et al(1955) made another important contribution to the
bearing lubrication theory by eliminating the circumferential pressure gradient from the
Reynolds equation (set dp/d(])=0) and thus obtaining a solution for the narrow bearing. At
this stage, the analytical solution for both infinitely long and infinitely short bearings can
be obtained. Since the practical bearings are of finite length, both infinitely long and
infinitely short bearing theories will result in considerable error in the calculated bearing
characteristics.
With the advent of high-speed digital computer, numerical methods are quickly
used to solve the Reynolds equation. In 1957, Sternlicht et al transformed the Reynolds
equation of a thrust bearing into a difference equation. T h e bearing surface was divided
into a m e s h of m x n nodes. The node pressure was explicitly expressed in terms of the
surrounding pressures, viscosities and film thicknesses. A n iteration method was used to
find all the node pressures. In successive iteration, if the pressure was negative, the
pressure was set to zero. The energy equation was coupled with the Reynolds equation,
and the temperature distribution was also obtained. This FDM is easy to understand and
simple in programming and is still widely used today.
function of the eccentricity, attitude angle and the slenderness ratio. The motion vec
under different parameters were drawn in the clearance circle according to different
bearing theories, such as infinitely long bearing and short bearing theories. Then the
journal motion equation was expressed as a simple function of this mobility vector. The
motion locus of the journal under dynamic load can be solved graphically. The accuracy
of this method is not high and it is time-consuming to draw the motion vectors.
Reddi (1969) developed a finite element method (FEM) to solve the lubrication
problem through the variational functional of the Reynolds equation. The node pressure
was obtained by minimising the variational functional. Employing the FEM with the
pressure in the element expressed as the linear function of the node pressures of the
element, Reddi successfully solved the pressures in the multi-recessed hybrid bearing,
step bearing and conical spiral-groove bearing.
In 1971 Wada and Hayashi presented the application of the FEM in the solution of
Reynolds equation for both infinite width and finite width journal bearings. They also
assumed that the film pressure is linear in each element. The result of FEM is compared
with a numerical solution of FDM and an exact solution of the infinite long bearing. T
claimed that FEM gave more accurate results even when using fewer elements but also
recognised that for the uniform space, the FEM took longer computation time than FDM
for the same accuracy.
From 1971 onward, due to its versatility and adaptability to different film shapes,
FEM has been widely used in bearing problems, where the thermal effect upon density
and viscosity (Tieu, 1973), and bearing elasticity (Freund & Tieu, 1993) are considered.
For normal journal bearing where bearing geometry is simple, the F D M is also widely
used for its simpler program and shorter computation time. In 1989, Someya(1989)
published a data book on journal bearings. T w o numerical methods, F E M and
FDM(over-relaxation method), were employed in the theoretical analysis. The Reynolds
boundary condition was used in the theoretical calculation. F r o m these methods, 59
calculations were m a d e to determine the static and dynamic characteristics of the bearings
from different tests. Experimentally, eleven sets of tests were carried out on different
types of bearings, including circular bearing with two oil grooves, tilting-pad bearing and
two-lobe bearing. The bearing characteristics were measured by means of eight different
testrigs.The tests were carried out for both static and dynamic loading.
One year later, Holms(1960) linearised the bearing forces for small oscillations
according to Taylor's expansion theorem and neglecting the second and higher order
terms. By differentiating these linear forces with respect to displacements and velocit
and employing the short bearing theory he obtained the analytical solution of the eight
force coefficients.
In 1962, Lund and Sternlicht calculated the linear stiffness and damping coefficients
for small motion about an equilibrium point by numerically differentiating a finite
difference solution to the Reynolds equation.
In 1968, Lund developed a perturbation solution approach to the Reynolds equation
which eliminates the requirement of numerical differentiation to obtain the eight linea
stiffness and damping coefficients. In 1975, Reinhardt and Lund applied a first order
perturbation solution involving a modified Reynolds number. Eight modified dynamic
coefficients were obtained in order to determine the effect of fluid film inertial forc
the dynamic properties of a journal bearing. The corrections to the regular amplitude a
velocity coefficient were found to be small but the acceleration coefficients could bec
significant for short rotors. Numerical results were given in graphical form with
dimensionless coefficients as functions of the operating eccentricity ratio. Three L/D
ratios of 0.1, 0.5, 1.0 were considered
In 1976, Bannister calculated 28 oil film force coefficients of a 120 partial bearing.
Unlike other researchers, he used first and 2nd order terms of the Taylor expansion to
represent the bearing forces. Finite perturbation method and FDM were employed to find
all the coefficients. Comparing with experimental unbalance trajectories, he found that
using the 28 oil film coefficients can predict more accurately the journal trajectory t
using the eight linear force coefficients when the vibration amplitudes are large.
10
More recently in 1988, Kato and Hori employed the Rayleigh-Ritz Method to
calculate the dynamic coefficients of the finite width journal bearing under quasi Reynolds
boundary condition, i.e. where the trailing boundary line was approximated by a straight
line and the continuity of bulk flow across this line was ensured. The time required by
this calculation is m u c h shorter than the F D M .
coefficients were compared to those in the paper of Lund and Thomsen(1978), and found
to be in good agreement
In 1989, Someya published a data book on journal bearings. In this databook, the
author presented both theoretical and experimental works in determining the static as well
as dynamic characteristics of various types of journal bearing. T w o perturbation methods
were used to calculate the dynamic coefficients of the grooved journal bearings. O n e is
the infinitesimal perturbation method(IFP), which uses the partial derivatives of the
bearing forces with respect to the displacements and velocities to calculate the coefficients;
the other is the finite perturbation method(FP), which perturbs the journal position and
velocity to a small distance and calculates the coefficients from the finite force difference
with respect to displacements and velocities. The dynamic coefficients were obtained in
the eccentricity-attitude angle coordinate system and then transformed to the horizontalvertical coordinate system. With the finite perturbation method, he found that the
calculated coefficients were sensitive to the perturbation amplitudes. H e reported that the
optimum perturbation amplitude is around 0.01 c or 0.0lQc. F D M (over-relaxation
method) and Reynolds boundary condition were used in the calculation of the tabled data.
In the same year, Wang and Tieu (1989) studied the static and dynamic
11
3 0009 03143355 5
characteristics of full journal bearing operating in laminar region. The purpose of their
investigation was to determine the load carrying capacity of journal bearing, the pressure
distribution of the oil film along the mid circumference of the journal and the eight
linearized oil film coefficients. F E M was employed in solving the Reynolds equation
combined with the Reynolds boundary condition. The finite perturbation method (FP)
was used to determine the stiffness and damping properties which were found to be
sensitive to the perturbation amplitudes.
Choy et al (1991) studied nonlinear property of bearing force and also found
perturbation amplitude influencing the linear force coefficients, but he only presented one
stiffness coefficient under three different perturbation amplitudes at one bearing
eccentricity. H o w the perturbation amplitudes affect all eight linear bearing force
coefficients has not been reported.
Today, the perturbation methods IFP and FP are the two most acceptable methods
in the calculation of dynamic coefficients. For IFP the coefficient is calculated by:
dx
For FP the coefficient is calculated by:
12
reported the coefficients of the finite perturbation method are sensitive to the perturbation
amplitudes and found the optimum perturbation amplitude is around 0.01 c or O.OlQc.
In his relation curve between the coefficients and the perturbation amplitude, the fi
difference terms diverge from the partial derivatives of the infinitesimal perturbat
method when the perturbation amplitudes are close to zero. This is in conflict with th
linearisation theory which requires the finite difference converging to the partial
when the step size is close to zero. More investigation on the relationship between th
perturbation amplitudes and all eight linear bearing force coefficients is necessary.
conditions a rotor mounted in sleeve bearings whipped when the rotor was running at an
speed above double critical speed. The whipping happened when the bearings were
running full of oil and could be stopped by reducing the amount of supply oil. Newkirk
and Taylor qualitatively explained the phenomenon based on the fact that the average
velocity of the oil film is half of the velocity of the shaft rotation, but the expla
could not explain why oil whip persists at speeds higher than double the critical spee
Since Newkirk and Taylor firstly reported the existence of violent whipping,
hundreds of papers on oil whirl and oil whip have been written, each adding more
the journal bearings with various bearing geometries on a vertically installed test ri
Employing the flow continuity condition and neglecting the side flow, he concluded tha
13
the upper limit of whirl frequency is a half of rotation speed. For heavily loaded bearing,
the upper limit would be reduced by the increased side leakage. His experiments showed
the stability of full plain journal bearing was poor compared with the tilting -pad bea
Another early notable contribution to this area was the work of Poritsky in 1953.
He established the rotor motion equation for small eccentricity upon introducing the li
bearing force based on the infinitely long bearing theory with the half-Sommerfeld
boundary condition. Routh's stability test was applied to derived the stability formula
Poritsky concluded that the rotor is stable for all speeds below double the critical sp
and unstable at speeds above double the critical speed. He also clarified the usage of
whirl and whip by defining 'whirl' as the self-excited forward circular instability at
1/2 rotational speed, and 'whip' as the same mechanism when it becomes locked up on
the lateral spring, mass, damper resonance of the rotating system. He pointed out that
critical speed of a rotor, which neglected the oil film flexibility in calculation, is
true critical speed of the rotor bearing system. The true critical speed is lower than
rotor's critical speed.
In 1953, Pinkus also experimentally investigated stability of a rotor-bearing system.
He found that the whip does not persist at all speeds above the double first critical s
but drops at the speed of three times the first critical speed, which he found to be th
upper limit of oil whip. Once the whip occurred, the whipping frequency was near the
first critical speed of the rotor. In the following paper (Pinkus,1956), he mentioned t
at low speed, the whip was characterised by a vibration at about half of rotation speed
when the rotation speed was increased to above the twice the rotor critical speed, the
frequency was constant and equal to the rotor's critical speed. What confused him most
was the temperature effect. He consistently found that the hotter oil tends to reduce t
stability of the rotor-bearing system.
Two years later, Cameron(1955) presented two oil whip theories: the flow
continuity and the resilience theory. The first theory resulted in the conclusion that
14
whipping shaft whirls at half rotation speed. Using the resilience theory which considers
the oil film as a spring, he worked out another whirl frequency. He pointed out that
when the whirl frequency predicted by the resilience theory is greater than one half
shaft speed, the rotor-bearing system is stable; otherwise, it will be capable of vib
Cameron found that at very low eccentricity the critical stable speed increased, whic
explained why lightly loaded rotor is unexpectedly stable at low eccentricity (about
the rotor whip in sleeve bearings. They observed that whip occurred at the speeds fro
to 5.9 times of the first critical speed of the rotor. The upper limit could be highe
rotation speed was not limited. The whip frequency was found to be related with L/D
ratio, clearance ratio, rotor weight, supply pressure and the oil viscosity. In genera
higher eccentricity produced higher whip speed. In the discussion to Newkirk and
Lewis, Poritsky commented that the basic causes of the oil whip and the exact conditi
under which the whip will occur still remain unclear.
In 1959, Hori investigated the oil whip both theoretically and experimentally. The
infinite long bearing theory and half-Sommerfeld boundary condition were used in
finding the bearing forces. The rotor motion equation was linearized. Employing the
self-excited whirl of oil film ( normally at half of rotation speed) could occur at a
frequencyeven lower than the critical speed of the rotor at light load. When the
rotational speed reaches twice the critical speed of the rotor, the oil whirling freq
coincides with the rotor critical speed and large vibration occurs. This explained wh
whip occurred at about double the rotor critical speed as reported by Newkirk(1925).
After obtaining eight linear force coefficients from the short bearing theory,
Holmes(1960) was able to calculate the critical stable speed according to the Routh's
criteria. The stability contour was drawn against eccentricity ratio. The ratio of cr
whip frequency, above which the system will be unstable, to the rotation speed was al
15
presented. According his theory, all journal bearings of whatever L/D ratio will be stable
above the eccentricity ratio of 0.8. This conclusion is very close to today's theory.
In 1962, Tondl observed the whip (defined as self-excited vibration) can occur at
the speed above the rotor's critical speed. He thought the whip is not a resonance
phenomenon because it occurs over a wide region of rotor speeds, and normally the
region has no upper limit. He defined the subharmonic resonance, which has the
vibration frequency from 1/3 to 1/2 rotation speed and occurs predominantly in the
vicinity of double, or exceptionally, triple the critical speed of the rotor.
In the same year, Reddi and Trumpler(1962) developed the equations of motion for
a full-film bearing and a 180-deg partial-film bearing in order to analyse the phenome
of oil-film whirl in bearings subjected to steady loads. The nonlinear motion equations
were firstly solved numerically on a digital computer by the Runge-Kutta-Gill method.
The journal motion loci were used to predict bearing failure. In the evaluation of the
hydrodynamic force, the contribution of shear stress on the journal surface is found t
negligible for the full- film bearing, whereas for the partial-film bearing it is foun
significant at small attitude angles. The equations of motion were linearized and the
coefficients of the resulting characteristic equations were used to determine the stab
response of flexible rotor on fluid journal bearings. The stiffness of rotor, four sti
and four damping of journal bearings were coupled in the system dynamic model. The
forces transmitted to the bearing pedestal were expressed as functions of frequency.
According to their conclusion, the fluid film bearing provides an important source of
attenuation to the dynamic vibration.
Still in 1962, Jennings and Ocvirk simulated the bearing whirl on an analog
computer. The oil film forces were obtained by the short bearing approximation and the
16
negative pressure w a s neglected . Although the simulation accuracy was not satisfactory,
the whirl frequency from the simulated loci was around half of the rotation speed.
At this stage, the causes of the oil whirl and whip are clear. In brief, the oil whirl
a resonance phenomenon which appears at a frequency from 1/3 to 1/2 rotation speed.
The oil whip is the unstable vibration whose frequency is dependent on the rotor's cr
speed( mass and stiffness) and the properties of the oil film. Possibly the self-exci
When the oil whirl coincides with the rotor's critical speed, the whip normally occurs
The following efforts were made to predict the whip speed or the critical whirl
frequency and critical speed above which the rotor system will become unstable.
In 1965, the stability speed of a rigid rotor in two full journal bearings was obtain
by Mitchell et al( 1965-66) using nonlinear theory. They used analogue, digital and
experimental techniques to support the theories which were based upon the long bearin
and the short bearing approximations. Holmes(1966) plotted out the stability borderli
based on eight linear force coefficients obtained from the theories of infinitely lon
infinitely short bearings. The rupture of the oil film was assumed to occur at the po
of minimum oil film thickness.
In 1968 Sternlicht & Lewis(1968) fully discussed the effects of oil film bearing,
seals, bearing pedestals and coupling on the rotor's stability. Formulae to calculate
system critical speed were given.
In 1971 the work of Mitchell and Holmes(1965) has been extended by Akers et
al(1971). To determine the stability contour of a rigid rotor in finite long bearings,
simulated whirling trajectories at different trial speeds taking into account nonline
bearing forces which was obtained directly from bearing pressure at each journal
17
position. T h e pressure was solved from the Reynolds equation with the Reynolds
boundary condition by FDM. Friction force was considered in their rotor motion
equation. The position perturbation was used to initiate the dynamic procedure. The
critical stable speed was determined according to the convergence of the whirling
when the out of balance load is included in the analysis, the bearing is sometimes mor
stable and sometimes less stable than when an out of balance load is absent.
Unfortunately, they did not mention the relationship between their nonlinear results
those from the linear theory.
In the same year, Lund(1974) developed a method for calculating the threshold
speed of instability and the damped critical speeds of a general flexible rotor in fl
journal bearings. The rotor model could simulate any practical shaft geometry and
support configuration. The bearings were represented by their linearized dynamic
properties and the calculation included hysteretic internal damping in the shaft and
destabilising aerodynamic forces. Application was demonstrated for multi-stage
compressor.
To save the computation time, the short bearing theory was adopted by some
researchers. In 1975, Hahn(1975) determined the threshold speed by solving the
characteristic equation of the rotor-bearing system. Employing the short bearing
approximation and constant lubricant properties, the 8 linear oil-film force coefficie
were obtained and substituted in the characteristic equation. The stiffness of the jou
was also considered in the characteristic equation. The stability speeds were determin
from the roots of the characteristic equation which was solved by an iterative method
digital computer. Design maps for both rigid and flexible rotors were presented.
One year later, Kirk and Gunter(1976) developed a piece of general software to
18
simulate the motion trajectories of the rigid rotor in short bearings. The bearing forces
were also integrated from the pressure obtained from the short bearing approximation.
Extensive investigations on the transient response of rotors under position perturbation
and unbalance force were performed. They showed the effects of unbalance, steady
loading rotating loads upon the stability and performance of a short journal bearing. For
systems with eccentricity ratio greater than 0.73, stable conditions existed at any speed.
The concept of whirl is examined and several plots presented the instantaneous whirl ratio
for the various loads and speeds.
In the same year, Barrett et al(1976) analysed the unbalance effect on the oil whirl.
The short bearing approximation and half-Sommerfeld boundary condition were used in
finding the bearing force in a fixed Cartesian coordinate system. They found the
representation of bearing pressure infixedCartesian coordinate system rather than polar
coordinate system provides simpler transient dynamic analysis. The unbalance applied to
a journal operating above the stability threshold speed w a s found to introduce a
synchronous vibration to the half frequency unstable whirling. Increasing unbalance
amplitude reduced the half frequency component of the whirl motion.
19
speeds were determined based on the linear theory. T h e results showed that all
parameters which stabilised the bearing increased the bearing sensitivity to large
unbalances. The bearing types were ranked in the order of increasing resistance to
unbalance loading: three pockets, three axial grooves, offset three lobes, elliptic and
circular. The unbalance response was simulated by considering the nonlinear bearing
forces which were obtained from the pressure around the bearing. The Reynolds
equation was solved by FDM using the effective viscosity concept and the bearing
unbalance response was investigated for small and large unbalance forces. The validity
of the linear theory was verified by comparing the limit cycle orbits simulated from b
linear and nonlinear theories under small unbalance force. A reasonable agreement was
obtained where the peak-to-peak amplitudes reached a value up to one third or one half
the clearance space. They did not employ nonlinear simulation to predict the stability
speed as done by Akers et al(1971).
In 1987, Lund briefly reviewed the development of the concept of spring and
damping coefficients for journal bearings. He presented the methods for computing the
coefficients and their use in rotor dynamics calculation (unbalance response, stabilit
The limitations imposed by nonlinearities on the application of the coefficients were
illustrated by some examples.
Hori (1988) determined the stability limit of a flexible rotor from the simulated loci
due to the sinusoidal excitation. He found that if a nonlinearity of the second order o
displacement and velocity in the oil film force is considered, the stable limit at smal
vibration amplitudes is 16.7% higher than that predicted by the linear force. He has no
extended his conclusion to the rigid rotor.
Choy et al( 1992b) used only odd power(3rd, 5th, 7th) model to approximate the
bearing forces in simulating the transient journal orbit. Finite perturbation and FDM
used to obtain their higher order force coefficients. Since these nonlinear force
20
application are m u c h more difficult than the linear coefficients. For example, from their
method, the critical mass became nearly zero w h e n the rotational speed is higher than
2500 rpm(Fig.3a, Choy et al, 1992b). This is unimaginable according to the existing
bearing theory.
In the above stability investigations, the relationship between stability contour
determined from the nonlinear simulation and that from the linear theory has not been
reported. For the rotor-bearing systems with the same stability status, knowing their
whirling trajectories under the position perturbation, harmonic force, impact excitation
and synchronous unbalance excitation will be helpful in analysing the system stability.
These problems will be investigated in this thesis.
21
w a s suspended on a rigid shaft, in both vertical and horizontal planes, the misaligned
misaligned plain bearings. In this way, the relation between the misaligned moment and
the misalignment ratio was experimentally determined. The relation was presented in a
set of design graphs.
curves of the misalignment torques for different L/D ratios at different eccentricitie
presented.
Misalignment effects on static characteristics of a 180 partial journal bearing were
theoretically studied by Stokley & Donaldson (1969). The misalignment in their paper
was restricted to that the shaft was tilted around an axis normal to a plane bisecting
bearing arc. The pressure under misalignment was solved from Reynolds equation with
the Reynolds boundary condition. The calculated bearing static characteristics such as
Sommerfeld number, side flow, friction coefficient, minimum oil film thickness for
L/D=l, 1/2 and 1/4 were presented in design charts and tables.
Asanabe et al(1972) investigated the minimum oil film thickness and friction force
of misaligned journal bearings in 1972. In an approach different from Dubois et
al(1957), Asanabe et al set a known misalignment ratio to the bearing first; then the
minimum oil film thickness were measured at both ends of the bearing. Misaligned
torques and friction forces under different misalignment ratios were determined. The
experimental results agreed well with their theoretical calculation. They concluded th
the misalignment reduced the load-carrying capacity considerably by reducing the
minimum oil film thickness; the maximum pressure was increased by misalignment; but
the friction force did not increase significantly. In their calculation, the misalignm
only in the plane determined by the journal axis and the bearing axis.
22
23
trajectories of a partial bearing. Unfortunately he did not report the misalignment eff
on eight linear bearing force coefficients although he depicted that the misalignment in
vertical plane suppressed the unbalance whirl trajectory significantly.
the vertical direction. All static and dynamic characteristics (including load capacity
attitude angle, side flow, friction force, misaligned moments and eight linear force
24
In the stability research, the oil film stiffness and damping properties were found to
be very important in determining the system critical speed. Since there are still some
incomplete understandings in the bearing theory, such as the boundary conditions,
cavitation and whirl phenomena, it is difficult to calculate the dynamic coefficients
accurately. Researchers around the world have proposed a few experimental methods to
estimate these coefficients.
Hagg and Sankey(1956) were pioneers in this area. In 1956 they obtained two
stiffness coefficients and two damping coefficients from the unbalance responses on a
vertically installed bearing test rig. These four dynamic coefficients were discussed and
experimental data were presented in 1958 (Hagg and Sankey, 1958) for a partial journal
bearing and a tilting pad journal bearing. However the four cross-coupling force
coefficients were neglected in their motion equation, which were later found by other
researchers to be not true especially for partial or circular bearings.
In 1967, Glienicke experimentally measured the eight coefficients of the circular,
two-lobed, pocket and the MGF(three lobed) bearings. The L/D ratios of all experimental
bearings was 0.5. The tested bearing was suspended on a rigid shaft; the static force was
applied on the bearing case by three air bellows; the dynamic forces were applied by two
eccentric-cam exciters positioned at 90 to each other. The exciter cams were driven with
the same speed of the shaft and the synchronous harmonic forces were exerted on the
bearing case through the compressed springs. The measured coefficients of pocket
bearing and the MGF(three lobed) bearings were graphically presented but the
comparison with theoretical results was not given. H o w he worked out the coefficients
from the experimental measurements was not mentioned. His calculation showed that 1 %
error in amplitude and 1 in phase angle will result in 5 % m e a n error in the estimated
coefficients.
25
Morton (1975) is the first investigator to measure the bearing force coefficients in
situ. H e applied a steady lateral force to journal through a narrow foil bearing. B y
suddenly breaking the link rod, an approximate step force was applied to the journal.
Eight bearing force coefficients were worked out from the receptance of the journal
motion response to the dynamic force. His method was successfully used to measure the
coefficients of journal bearings as large as 550 m m in diameter at 3000 r p m speed,
although the experimental results were scattered to some extent.
26
compared with the theoretical results which were obtained by the finite perturbation and
finite difference methods. The time domain signals and estimated coefficients from hi
experiments were presented although they were scattered. One significant advantage of
the method is that it avoids the measurement of the vibration phases whose accuracy i
essential to previous methods. This 'selective vibration orbits' method has also be u
by Brockwell & Deochowski(1992).
discrete time under the assumed coefficients. By minimising the residuals between the
measured and predicted responses in time domain, the assumed coefficients can gradua
converge to the true values. Experiments were performed to estimate four damping
coefficients of the squeeze film bearing. The method was later fully simulated by the
authors (Burrows et al, 1986 & 1987; Stanway, 1983).
Dogan et al(1980) also used the PRBS excitation method to identify 8 bearing force
coefficients. Different from Burrows and Stanway(1977), Dogan et al transferred the
displacement responses to frequency domain. A numerical hill-climbing technique was
employed to fit the transfer functions by minimising the energy error between the fi
system and the experimental system. The method was able to determine eight bearing
hydraulic exciters were applied to the bearing case. Their experimental results were
to agree well with theoretical calculations.
27
forces were exerted in the middle of a rigid and symmetric rotor, the displacements wer
measured at two locations near the bearings and were averaged. The pulse forces and
their impulse responses were transformed to frequency domain and the transfer function
at different frequencies were found. All eight coefficients were estimated by fitting
amplitudes of the transfer functions. Since the error criterion is a complex function o
eight fitted coefficients, the estimated results were found to be sensitive to the init
values of the coefficients input at the start of the fitting iteration.
Zhang et al (1987) proposed a method to determine all bearing coefficients from the
unbalance responses. The method uses the forced displacements resulting from
synchronous excitation due to introduced unbalances. They decoupled the mathematical
model of the flexible-rotor-bearing system by a finite element method and solved the
coefficients bearing by bearing. Unfortunately, they have not refined their method to
practical application and no experiment was performed.
In 1989, Lee and Hong(1989) proposed an identification scheme for the dynamic
coefficients by using unbalance responses. The unbalance responses due to two different
sets of trial masses were measured from four sensors at two locations and then were
separated into the "forward" and "backward" whirling vectors. After a series of matrix
operation, all dynamic coefficients can be solved from a set of linear equations. The
Their theoretical analysis showed that the coefficients of two symmetric bearings cann
28
be uniquely determined for lack of information regarding to the backward whirl. Since
the displacement or whirling vectors of the numerical examples in the paper was solved
from the system model in frequency domain, the method to determine these displacement
vectors from the noisy time-domain signals was not mentioned.
In 1989, Someya published a data book on journal bearings. In the book, eleven
sets of experimentally data of different types of bearings, such as circular bearing
two oil grooves, tilting-pad bearing and two-lobe bearing, were collected. The bearing
characteristics were measured by means of eight different test rigs. The tests were ca
out for both static and dynamic loading.
in 1989 and 1990. The state variable filter method of the parameter identification was
used. In their experiments, the free bearing was excited with random signals with a
frequency range from 16 to 60 Hz. Beside 8 bearing force coefficients, four fluid mass
coefficients were also be estimated. The experimental results showed good trend
although differed from the theoretical prediction.
determining the bearing coefficients by optimally fitting the amplitude of the theore
Zhang et al have also developed a least-square method which utilise both amplitudes an
phases of the transfer functions. They found the amplitude fitting method is more rel
when the phase error is significant.
Most recently, Zheng & Xu (1992) proposed a similar unbalance method as Zhang
29
et al (1987). Their computer simulation proved that the unbalance method is a promising
method although they have not tested the method by practical experiments.
This thesis will extend the existing harmonic and impact excitation methods to
identify 16 coefficients of two asymmetric bearings. For the unbalance method, this
thesis attempts to simplify the coefficient calculation by developing an explicit formula
and will firstly use the synchronous unbalance responses directly measured from
experimental sensors. Experimental procedures, data processing techniques, measured
dynamic coefficients of two cylindrical bearings are all presented for three different
experimental methods.
Bearing dynamics is a wide subject with many "hot" topics still being studied by
m a n y researchers around the world. It is impossible to list all literature herein. Only the
literature which is most related to the study in this thesis is listed here. The publications
in s o m e other topics, such as the thermal hydrodynamics or thermo-elastohydrodynamics, lubricant inertia effect (turbulentflow),fluidcompressibility effect and
the oil-film cavitation, are not listed in this thesis although these factor also affect the
bearing characteristics to some extent.
30
cimraiiR 3
Abstract
This chapter describes the calculation methods of all characteristics of the
circular journal bearings. Three pieces of software have been developed to
calculate all bearing characteristics by different numerical methods for
different bearing
geometries
The bearing
characteristics are presented and compared with the data available in the
31
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Since Reynolds derived his well-known Reynolds equation in 1886, great
efforts have been m a d e to solve the equation by the researchers around the world, but
no exact analytical solution has been found for practical finite bearings so far. T h e
most accurate solution of the Reynolds equation is achieved by numerical methods on
digital computer. Although there are still some incomplete understandings about the
oil film cavitation, the Reynolds boundary condition is most widely accepted today.
T o compare with the literature, numerical methods, such as finite element method and
finite difference method, and Reynolds boundary condition are also used in this thesis.
T h e bearing characteristics are normally classified as static or steady
characteristics and dynamic characteristics. The static characteristics herein include
the Sommerfeld number, attitude angle, side flow and friction force. The dynamic
characteristics normally m e a n eight oil-film force coefficients and stability threshold.
M a n y static (or steady) and dynamic characteristics have been published for bearings
with s o m e goemetries, but there are still some problems, such as the effects of
perturbation amplitude on the linear force coefficients, the misalignment effect on the
bearing characteristics, which have not been solved satisfactorily.
The coefficients of oil film are main dynamic characteristics of journal bearing.
They dominate the dynamic behaviour of the rotor-bearing system. T o determine these
force coefficients, researchers around the world have proposed a few theoretical and
experimental methods. There are two theoretical methods to calculate the coefficients.
O n e is the infinitesimal perturbation method (IFP) ( Lund & Thomson, 1978; Zhang,
1979; Someya, 1989), which use the partial derivatives of the bearing forces with
respect to the displacements and velocities to calculate the coefficients. The other is
thefiniteperturbation method (FP) (Sternlicht, 1959; W a n g & Tieu, 1989; Someya,
1989; C h o y et al, 1992a), which perturbs the journal position and velocity to a small
increment and calculates the coefficients from the finite force difference with respect to
32
33
3.2
(3-1)
where
H = 1 + ecos($ -ty0)~H0 + Axsinty + Aycosty
6/zi R
dP
The Reynolds boundary condition P=0 and = 0 can be achieved by satisfying:
o<|>
(i)
P(<>,0) = P(<j>,L/R) = 0
34
(3-3)
(ii)
(iii)
P (<|>, Z ) = P s
at the grooves
Starting boundary .
(3-4)
n+1
i-l-t-
(jk>IQi
i-1/2
j-l
10
+7j-1/2
j+l
^*r
J+l/2' j
i+1/2
i'
Nodes for the half-step
end boundary ^ finite difference method
35
2)
T h e bearing forces in both horizontal and vertical directions are directly obtained
by numerically integrating the pressure in the two directions.
3)
4)
For the stability study, the fixed coordinate system simplifies the equations of
motion for the rotor. T h e analysis can be readily extended to more complex
multi-bearing system.
The Reynolds equation (3-2) has not been solved analytically except in the
cases where the bearing is assumed to be infinitely long or infinitely short (assuming
riP
dZ
r)P
or
d<p
bearings, the approximate analytical solution will incur s o m e error. With the
development of computer technology, the numerical methods to solve the Reynolds
equation are widely used by today's researchers. The finite difference and the finite
element methods are two most commonly used methods. Both methods divide the oil
film to a finite number of small elements (see Fig.3.1) and the nodal pressures P y are
obtained by numerical approximation. All bearing characteristics are calculated
according to the pressures determined from the Reynolds equation.
(3-5)
Fy=Fy(x,y,x,y)
Once the pressure P in oil film is determined, the bearing forces can be obtained
by integrating the pressure in both horizontal and vertical directions :
36
sin<f>
r*2fi
J
sin<})
^.Jo
* 0 J o ^ coscj)
cos 6
#^Z
(3-6)
COS(j)
W = FX + Fy
(3-7)
tan
= 0
dtf-ttn-1!*
(3-8)
t
* "'"<*j-*rw.-*ri>
(3-9)
*J|-
<h
1
(3-10)
37
dfy dZ
(m2-ml)/2
(m2-ml)/2
CAdjAZT
(m2-ml)/2
{.mi^ni)i
(m2-ml)/2
C-l
nil
nil
(3-13)
38
(3-14)
The side flow from the bearing can be calculated by (Lund & Thomsen, 1978):
two sides ^
2 _/_ 3Z
two sides
f*2 Tr3"
c&, t r^rjsdPo
9o
R2c ClAfy f
2
~
dZ
>, . f2
4>2 TT%Oro
3^Po
t^.iA.
ay-ry
leftside
,.
OZ ri.Ut.iA.
right side
2AZ
(3-16)
The dimensionless flow is defined as:
39
'-- J K, dzdW)
(3-18)
rt=h
< o
Starting boundary
n+1 j
2n
(p=<t>(po
Fy = W
>!
3Vi
=H
t
tj=h
>]
dp
2^*"-"^
'L
Jn=h
(3-19)
_ flfl h dp
~ P h 2R d(/>
Substituting (3-19) into (3-18) and performing the coordinate transformation
<f> = <f>0 + <p obtain:
F, = 2/)[A^JW
= F,1
h
2Rd(p
+ F,2 (3.20)
0 0
where
IxL
2
0 0
finite
=jH9
00
00
40
fl>,
(3-21)
and
F tj
q> (<p2 < q> < 2K) is approximately . This flow should be equal to the flow at
. . LehU LhJJ ... . . _ \.
boundary <p2 i.e.:
- = ,
2
2
which results m :
Le=L
h
dP
= 0 according to the
(There is no pressure induced flow at fa because
dp kp=<p2
Reynolds boundary condition)
Substituting Ze= z L./L and Le =L
h
yields:
IxL ,
litL j
2L ,
<h 0
q>2 0
(p2 0
h2 and q>2 are (ktermined during the solution of the Reynolds equation.
The pressure induced friction force Ft2 can be found according to the torque
balance on the total fluid film in the bearing. Referring to (3-18), (3-19) and (3friction force on the bearing surface is :
'*=-1 K ^m)-\\\h%dzd^Fa
*. o
n=o
* oo
41
Neglecting the speed induced friction Fn in the determination of Ft2, both journal and
bearing surfaces exert a friction force F't2 on the fluid as shown in Fig.3.2. The torque
balance equation around the bearing centre is:
W esinh =2-Ft2R
from it, the pressure induced friction force is determined:
^ _We&in<l>0
t
ti - *it
J^
(3-23)
The negative sign of the friction F't2 has been considered in the Fig.3.2 by indicating it
with the opposite direction of Ft2 .
Substituting (3-22), (3-21) and (3-23) into (3-20) obtains the total friction force:
P2^ 1 2rcL
(3-24)
<p20
For the parallel bearing, H has no relation with Z, i.e. H^H^, j=l,2,...,n+l. Thus
the friction coefficients can be calculated by:
i<2*L (3-27)
i=W2+l "',/i/2
42
Fx=kxxx
-dF*
dx '
~
b =9F*
"
dx *
-dF*
xy
~ dy'
F
bJ *
^
dy '
k
yx
h
yx
-dFy
dx '
-dFy
dx '
*. -dFy]
^~
dy
dFy
43
The infinitesimal perturbation method uses the partial derivatives of the bear
forces with respect to the displacements and velocities to calculate the coeff
From (3-6), the coefficients are:
xx
xy
*yx
Kyy
~*FX~
Tasini})
^x
PySin(|)
dFy
dx
Pxcos
5 -CA:X
PyCOStj)
2 f MR
h
D
xx
dFx
dx
dFx
dtydZ
Px sin <j)
Py sin
xy
fy
(3-29)
dFy
yx
.yy.
Px cos (j)
~2F
dFy
Py COS <J>
[fy\
dP
Where Px=- , Pv
x
y
dX
pressures.
dP
,
dY
= dP
P1x=3x~
dP
* Py~ IT" are ca&G& as perturbing
an(
(3-2) yields four new partial derivative equations for Px, Py, Px, andPy, plus
equation (3-2) at static condition ( X - Y = 0) there are 5 equations:
44
{Fi'v+iPi"
dH
forP. = P0
r)
riP
d_ 2
dPo
) P. = PX
cos$ - 3^-(H2sin<l>^)
3^-{H
sin(,
dZ
3Z
80
30
d '*r2^jdPo\
3 {Hco
3 Hcos
d tTj2^jdPo-
^- ^ ^w- ^ ^w
(3-30)
p =p
*>
2sin(f>
2cos<f>
P
= Px
P*=P,
Ax, Ay, Ax and Ay values from its steady equilibrium position, and uses the force
finite difference with respect to Ax, Ay, Ac and Ay to approximate the force
coefficients. To increase the accuracy, perturbation is normally performed in both
positive and negative directions. Then the partial derivative can be calculated by
averaging the partial differences in both directions. For example, at the equilibriu
dF
position (x< y 0 ) the partial derivative ^ (force coefficient k M ) can be calculated by:
dx
dFr
1 Fx(xa + Ax, y Q , x0, y Q ) - Fx(xQ, yQ , x0, y p )
^=-^T[
dx~2
Ax
, Fx(xn, y 0 , xa, y0)-Fx(xn-Ax,
y 0 , x0, yQ)^
Ax
_ Fx(x0 + Ax, yp , xa, yo)-Fx(x0 -Ax,yQ, x0, y Q )
2Ac
45
kxx
_ BFX
dx
(3-31)
(3-32)
**
dx
2Ac
Fxix0, y0 , 0, Ay) - Fx(x0, y0 , 0,-Ay)
fe = BFX
"
dy
2Ay
, _ dFy
dy
(3-33)
This finite perturbation method need only to calculate the bearing forces at 8
perturbed positions: (x0 - Ax, y0 ,0 , 0), {x0 + Ax, y0 ,0 , 0), (x0, y0 - Ay ,0 , 0),
(x0, y0 + Ay ,0, 0),
and
46
In order to compare with the literature, the coefficients are transformed to the
following dimensionless expressions:
C
ii
ki =
ij~W' J 'C^
i, j = x or y respectively
(3-34)
n -cLh -h.
v ~ w D*~ Cb
33
The finite difference method is normally chosen to solve the Reynolds equation
because of its convenience in both understanding and programming. This section will
describe the details of the finite difference method which uses the infinitesimal
perturbation to calculate the eight dynamic coefficients.
**/-H.ft/
'dZ'
'
(3_36)
P
(2!J\w m
(3 35)
A0 *
iJ+
-P
)i i i H
AZ
(3-37)
Since
47
Pi + l,j-Pi.
A0
(3-38)
-JH
Pi,j-Pi-l,j
'-&
A(j)
thus
Ar// 3 dPl
[Hd P
r3
[ff3dP,
rzJ
^-A0 V*
d'^
(3-39)
A0'
Similarly:
^ rw3
^ I
^ K ^ ^ + ^ ^-X^ - ^ ^ '</***
K + H'jft
u-H'
v
2
AZ
~ w
(3-40)
d/V _AI;-
^-[^sin^-l^
J,,;
d0
<fy
^ rrr2 dPo
A02
SU10,- A p
(3-41)
^H\^^{ff'COS0-],
; 2^
d
rrr 7
a^P'i
COS0, ,,
^[// cos0],,-^A,
Where:
(3-42)
Substituting (3-41) into (3-30) to obtain the Reynolds equation in difference form:
48
Where:
AL-H*
AI-H*
(3-44)
A
'.'- 0 AZ ) '-'-*
+
A^cosifc - 3 A y
Ay =
for P* = P
for P. = P*
for P * = P i
2A$2cofo
for P = Pj
_ A;A+U+AL^-u + AL^i+AtA;-i - AL
;
~
Ae-
(3-46)
which can be solved by repeating the iteration node by node. To accelerate the
convergence, the over-relaxation method is used:
p- J. A
J**-0 + A c pp-v + A
P*-* A f
(3-47)
J\ij
^ T ^
(3-48)
*&
49
for all
according to (3-8). If the variation of the attitude angle d<j>k (k=l atfirst)does not
satisfy (3-10), change the attitude angle 0* according to (3-9) and repeat all the above
calculations until (3-10) is satisfied.
50
Once (3-10) being satisfied, the attitude angle is found (0 O = </>*), and the P 0 at
the last iteration is the static pressure. The film terminating boundary fa is determined
according to the edge beyond which the pressure becomes zero. The nodal numbers
corresponding to the boundaries are recorded and then used as the boundaries in the
calculation of the perturbing pressure Px, Py, Px and Py, which are used to calculate
the dynamic coefficients.
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
Calculate A *
Iterate (3-47) until all pressures satisfy (3-48). During the iteration, if P < 0, set
P=0.
vii)
51
-ei
Solve P. by (3-47)
Calculate A i j forPo
by (3-44), (3-45)
sups. = a, b, c, d, e, f
-e-e-
Calculate A y for P*
subs. * = x, y, x and y
Calculate Po by (3-47)
"<3
"*3
I
x o
-e-
Calculate Fx, Fy
d^k0=tan'lF
II
Yes
52
3.4
C O M P U T A T I O N B Y FINITE E L E M E N T M E T H O D
in which:
> -it
9
P =^
z
dZ
~dv
dZ dPz
dP
If set:
F =
dq>
2 dZ
d<p
then:
53
dF
= H3
dP
H
d<p
dF
dP
= tf
dPz
dZ
dF
-2H
dP =
3
dP
dipdZ
H^-+ 2HP
dq>
tf
= \\
dz}
(3-52)
According to the variation principle, the stationary solution of (3-2) can be found only
when I(P) attains a minimum. That is:
dl(P) _ n
dP " U
(3-53)
-JJ*
Ar '
3Ttr Sv -v^'
,dp} dcpdZ
Dnr
dP\i J
54
n
k
2(n+l)+l
Circulated number is
local node number
Cooordinates transform
end boundary
In the interior of an element as shown in Fig.3.5, the pressure and oil film thickness at
(q>, Z ) are expressed by the interpolation polynomials:
p(9,z)=x^;
ff(p,Z) = 2>.ff.
4
(3-55)
;'=i
If the nodes are locally numbered counter clockwise as Fig.3.5, the double-linear
interpolation functions are:
AT1 = iV1(|,r?) -1
= i-(l-|-r ? + ^ )
N2=N2(l;yTi)
= \(\ + l;-r]-i;r})
(3-56)
^3=^3(l^)=ia+l+n+^)
N4 = N^,T}) = l(l-^-T}-^)
and:
55
(3-57)
*&.= la+n^
i&-in + ^
^ - 4 (i+m , -35*a+)
d 4^ x * ^"4( * *}
For the coordinate transform, the Jacobian matrix is:
^, dNj
'dq> dZ~
[J]=
' dN,,
(3-58)
+ dNj +dN.
_dt] drj
and:
'dNj '
'dN}'
dq>
=[/]"1
; = 1,2,3,4
dNj
dNj
(3-59)
Idzl
From (3-55):
dtp pxdq>
dz pdz
dH
(3-60)
^dNJn
dip %d(p
and:
d dP dN.x
dP; d<p dip
,dP)=dN{
d
(
dP' dZ}
dZ
dP
dp:
(3-61)
= N
56
dl(P) _
dM1 Ar \ M
7=1
\
dydZ
y
7=1
(3-62)
=0
Therefore:
+*LTBLP
dtp p dip
Ar \ 7=1
-\\
^LT^Lp
dz%dz
dtpdZ
Jy
(3-63)
dN4
dtpdZ
Ar\a(P
;=1
;=i
i = 1,2,3 a/u* 4
This is the numerical form of Reynolds equation, which governs the nodal pressure in
each element In terms of the factor of PJ, Eq (3-63) can be written in matrix f
ArPr = Br
(3-64)
24
-T ~T ~T ~T
<H\
-J
Lfl41
32
r
fl
42
33
_r
fl
43
[VI
rv
a[A
, Pr =
, 5r =
*2r
(3-65)
34
_r
fl
44j
kJ
and
J^ ^
4 = JJ|d>W
_ay{ a/v;
IN
<fy d p
dZ dZ
<fy> d p
<?Z <?Z Jy
dipdZ
Ar \ J-l
1 1A 4
-i-iV ;
2
=1
= ^ ( y ^ . )
^ * ^ ^
\J\dtd7]
\J\W\W\
(3-66)
S=i/V3
IJ=1/V3"
57
-li(?j;W-"',A dtpdZ
Ar
1 \(
dN>4r
|7|#rff|
-1-1V a
2
>=1
i-i
axr
(3-67)
J
4
=11
|/|wjw; I=l/V3
IJ=1/V3
Set up n t xn t and n , x l null matrices (all zero entries) for A and B of the
system equation which is expressed as:
A P
L L* L
(3 68)
where P = [PltP2,
subscript
A and B are global matrices.
2)
3)
- Pr
where Node(r,i)-l, 2,
O
k
nr
Node(rJt)
(3-69)
58
No*ir,i),NoJ*(r.k) ~
2^
lire
all related j
Cln.
Node(j,i)*No<U(rj)
Nodt(j,k)=NoJe(r,k)
(3-70)
l>No*(r,i) ~ i, ?,allrelatedj
(3-71)
Node(j,i)=Node(r,i)
a>=^-A(i,i.).J>,
A(i o ,0 = 0
A(/,/e) = 0
i = l, 2,
,nt
(3-72)
A(i.,i.) = 1
where i0 is the global number of the boundary node
Since matrix A is symmetric with a narrow non-zero element band, the GaussSeidel iteration (Kreyszig, 1993) on only the non-zero element band is employed to
solve (3-68). During the iteration if there is a negative pressure, the pressure is set to
zero.
For the infinitesimal perturbation method as described in Section 3.3, the
perturbed pressures are m u c h smaller than the static pressure, thus the boundaries will
not change for the perturbed pressures. For the finite perturbation method, the
boundaries at the perturbed positions could be different from those of the static
position. Therefore, the boundaries at the perturbed positions have to be determined in
the same w a y as at the static position.
59
3.4.6 Program by F E M
The computer program in FORTRAN developed based on the above method
mainly includes following steps:
i)
ii)
Divide the bearing surface to n x m elements, number the nodes both locally
and globally.
iii)
Assume the initial attitude angle <pl0 and ending angle fa.
iv)
v)
dN.
dN.
vi)
vii)
Employ the Gauss integration to calculate arik and b\ by (3-66) and (3-67).
viii)
ix)
x)
xi)
xii)
p
Check if tan"1 -*| < 8 . If not, modify the attitude angle by (3-9). Then go to
f
',
-1
step 4. This iteration will continue until satisfy: tan ^- <S4.
F?y *
60
xv)
F=
ff._ p
_p
,3P
dPv
,3P dP^
2
y
costy P,=Py
J
[3H ^l]-^-+
89
3<p 3H az az
2
p*=px
p.=py
(3-73)
all of which satisfy the Euler-Lagrange equation (3-50). Their corresponding variation
is:
61
(3-74)
d/>* = 0 and treating the variables as in Section 3.4 yield the nodal pressure
Setting
dq>dZ
dqtdZ
ft>rP*=P0
(3-75)
-2Jjf cos<(> | ^ 1 <Ap <Z
P, =PX
(3-76)
&P "
dtpdZ
P.=P0
- u(*)*^
P*=Pi
2jjfsin<t> aw/
^\dydZ
d9
P*=P<,
62
\J\WM
rTi
for P=P
5=i/-^
IJ=1/V3
_ttU^-l)M+ 3//^^
sm0|7|WjW^
az az
=1
SSL
2
^
cos^-r-4-
3H
az dzcos^|7|W|W^ {-W?
7=1/V3
P*~Py
|7|w;w
"! |=1/V3
P.=P*
rj=W3
f=l J = 1
sin0
P*~Px
-all
2
|=lA/3
=1 J=1
<9^
|/|wjwi 5=1/V3
P. = P*
(3-77)
In which:
i=l,2,3and4.
4
J=I
(3-78)
az <?z *
*- and L are calculated according to (3-59)
dtp
dZ
The global matrices are assembled in the same way as in Section 3.4. The
pressures Po, Px, Py, Pi, and Py are solved, all dynamic coefficients can b
according to (3-29). Fig. 3.6 shows the flow chart of the computation progra
63
A ro
Bo
Employ Gauss-Seidel
iteration method to solve P
-e-
-eII
Employ Gauss-Seidel
iteration method to solve Po
p(k)
Calculate Fx, Fy
Calculate S, Qs, Ft etc.
Record the nodal numbers
related to boundaries
Yes
No
64
dynamic characteristics reach converged values. Further reducing the element to its half
size ( A 0 > 1, A Z = (L/R)/16), the variation on the static characteristics is less than
0.1%, and the m a x i m u m variation on the dynamic force coefficients is less than 0.2%.
These variations are negligible in the application of the bearing's characteristics .
Therefore the element size At/) = 2, A Z = (L/R)/16is suitable in the calculation of the
bearing characteristics by the aforementioned numerical methods. Under this element
size ( A 0 = 2, A Z = (L/R)/16), the calculated Sommerfeld number agrees very well
with that calculated by Lund and Thomsen (1978) as shown in Fig.3.7.
All bearing characteristics are calculated from the oil film pressures. Figs.3.8(a)
to 3.8(d) show the static pressures of the aforementioned bearing at different eccentricity
ratios.
T h e calculation
method
is F D M - I F P
with
element
size
Atj> = 2, A Z = (L / R ) /16. With this element size, the static pressures for the three
methods (FDM-IFP, F E M - I F P and F E M - F P ) are nearly the same (variation <0.2%).
65
T h e pressures are transformed into dimensional terms using the following bearing
parameters:
Q = 3 0 0 0 r p m , c/R=0.15%, H=8.45xl0- 3 N.s/m*, p s =0.
From Fig.3.8 the oil film starts (reforms) before the upstream groove although the
pressure before the groove is m u c h smaller compared with the m a x i m u m pressure. The
oil film ends (cavitation starts) just before the downstream groove. T o compare the
circumferential distributions at different eccentricities, Fig.3.9 shows the pressures in the
bearing mid plane. At higher eccentricities, increasing the eccentricity will increase the
pressure m u c h more significantly than that at low eccentricities according to Fig.3.9.
i 1 ' 1 1 1 1
Method
FDM
FDM
1.2
FEM
FEM
mxn
12x2
90x14
12x2
90x14
FEM
180x16
FDM by Lund (1978)
0.8
0.4
1 L. . 1 1 1 1 ^T HI
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
66
1.0
p(bar)
- 6
-4
upstream groove
27C
downstream groove
360
ATX
downstream groove
67
p(bar)
f 40
30
t 20
180
10
upstream groove
0
270
downstream groove
36
(j)(o)
<t0=42.7o, <j>2 =244 (at bearing mid plane), p max =35.6 bar
Fig.3.8(c) Pressure distribution at =0.6
upstream groove
downstream groove
,/x
68
p(bar)
'
4
4 4
120
=0.1
=02
=0.3
=0.4
=0.5
E =0.6 -"
=0.7
100
80
60
=0.8
/V
40
/
/
groove
. \
groove
20
iiimlmi
60
120
180
240
3.6.2
69
among three methods is 0.5% for eccentricities from 0.1 to 0.9. There are small
discrepancies among the dynamic coefficients from different numerical methods. The
m a x i m u m discrepancy between the F D M and F E M (B^y at E =0.1 in Tables 3.1 and 3.2)
is 3 % , and the m a x i m u m combined damping variation (defined later by equation (3-75))
is 0.5%. The difference between F P and IFP depends on the perturbation amplitudes,
which will be discussed in detail in Section 3.7.
For A x = A y = 0 . 0 1 c and
Ax = Ay = 0.01 cft,the combined variation between the IFP and F P (see Table 3.2
and 3.3) is less than 0.1%. All these variations are insignificant and acceptable for
engineering application.
<M) Q S
ft
0.10 1.512
76.5
0.066 28.78
1.50
-3.10 10.44
1.53
6.32
1.53
1.53 20.94
0.20 0.721
65.7
0.121 13.49
1.54
-1.71
5.80
1.60
3.66
1.66
1.66 11.72
0.30 0.443
57.9
0.165
8.35
1.60
-1.30
4.42
1.71
2.95
1.85
1.85
9.02
0.40 0.294
52.3
0.201
5.75
1.61
-1.04
3.82
1.91
2.58 2.00
2.00
7.87
0.50 0.200
47.3
0.230
4.11
1.52
-0.67
3.46
2.38
2.00
1.84
1.84
7.14
0.60 0.134
42.3
0.251
2.98
1.47
-0.37
3.34
3.00
1.61
1.77
1.77
6.89
0.70
.0845
37.1
0.265
2.14
1.44
-0.08
3.41
3.99
1.29
1.71
1.71
7.00
0.80
.0474
31.2
0.272
1.48
1.46
0.29
3.79
5.87
1.04
1.72
1.72
7.67
0.90
.0195
23.5
0.272
0.89
1.56
0.99
5.05 11.27
0.80
1.85
1.85
9.83
70
<J>o()
Qs
ft
Kxx
Kxv Kyx K v v
Bxx
Bxv B V x B v v
0.066 28.74
1.48
6.31
1.48
1.48 20.89
0.122
13.47
1.53
-1.71
5.79
1.61
3.65
1.63
1.63 11.69
1.60
-1.30
4.42
1.71
2.96
1.85
1.85
9.01
0.200
5.72
1.54
-0.93
3.77
2.00
2.37
1.83
1.83
7.73
0.231
4.11
1.52
-0.67
3.46
2.39
2.00
1.85
1.85
7.16
0.250
2.99
1.47
-0.38
3.34
3.01
1.61
1.77
1.77
6.91
0.268
2.14
1.45
-0.09
3.42
3.98
1.31
1.74
1.74
7.04
0.275
1.47
1.46
0.28
3.80
5.87
1.04
1.73
1.73
7.69
1.00
5.03
11.34 0.79
1.81
1.81 | 9.76
<M)
Qs
ft
Kxx
0.066 28.74
1.49
-3.10 10.42
1.54
6.31
1.48
1.48 20.90
0.122
13.47
1.53
-1.72
5.79
1.61
3.65
1.63
1.63 11.69
0.164
8.33
1.60
-1.31
4.42
1.71
2.96
1.84
1.84
9.01
0.200
5.72
1.54
-0.95
3.77
2.00
2.37
1.83
1.83
7.73
0.231
4.11
1.52
-0.67
3.46
2.39
2.00
1.85
1.85
7.16
0.250
2.99
1.47
-0.38
3.34
3.01
1.61
1.77
1.77
6.91
0.268
2.14
1.45
-0.09
3.42
3.98
1.31
1.73
1.74
7.04
0.275
1.47
1.46
0.28
3.80
5.87
1.04
1.72
1.73
7.66
0.274 0.885
1.55
1.00
5.03
11.36
0.79
1.80
1.83
9.72
71
<l>o()
Qs
ft
0.10 1.442
77.5
0.070 27.45
1.64
-3.69 10.41
1.42
7.52
1.68
1.68 20.86
0.20 0.690
67.3
0.130 12.92
1.68
-2.04
5.75
1.48
4.34
1.81
1.81 11.59
0.30 0.425
60.0
0.180
8.04
1.71
-1.51
4.35
1.59
3.44
1.99
1.99
8.85
0.40 0.284
54.3
0.221
5.55
1.65
-1.09
3.71
1.86
2.75
1.98
1.98
7.59
0.50 0.194
48.9
0.255
3.99
1.57
-0.70
3.39
2.31
2.13
1.86
1.86
6.93
0.60 0.130
43.7
0.281
2.91
1.51
-0.38
3.28
2.94
1.69
1.77
1.77
6.68
0.70
.0827
38.1
0.300
2.11
1.49
-0.07
3.38
3.91
1.36
1.73
1.73
6.84
0.80
.0467
31.9
0.311
1.46
1.51
0.31
3.79
5.76
1.10
1.76
1.76
7.56
0.316
0.88
1.60
1.05
1.87
1.87
9.68
3.6.3
distinguish them graphically, only the results of F D M - I F P are compared with those from
the literature. T o compare with theresultsof Someya(1989), Table 3.4 presents the
results of a circular bearing with two full length, 10 axial grooves. Item by item
comparison is described in the following sections.
72
-i
2tT
y?
2.0
1.5
R2
I*
&
B
9
s
E
o
0.5
0.0
1.0
o.o
80
60
u
5 50
32
<
40
30
20
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
73
1.0
i<r
0=10
y?
2.0
1.5 -
This work(FDM-IFP)
By Someya(1989)
B
9
1.0
o 0.5
(73
0.0
0.4
o.o
80
0.6
1.0
60 -
This work(FDM-IFP)
By Someya(1989)
BO
w
50
40 -
30 -
20
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
74
1.0
3.6.3.1
Fig.3.10 shows the Sommerfeld number S and the attitude angle fa at different
eccentricity ratios and compared with theresultsof Lund(1978). Fig.3.11 shows the
Sommerfeld number S and the attitude angle <j>0 at different eccentricity ratios and
compared very well with the results of Someya(1989). From the curves in both figures,
the calculated Sommerfeld number S and the attitude anglefaagree perfectly with the
literature. This means the methods and programs developed by this work can be
employed to calculate the bearing characteristics with sufficient accuracy.
3.6.3.2
Static F l o w
The side flow is the flow supplied to the bearing by two grooves. It should be
determined before designing the bearing lubrication system. Fig.3.12 and 3.13 show the
calculated dimensionless side flows of two bearings with different groove geometry and
the comparison with the literature.
03
'"
'
D/L=l
Ps=0
9 = 20
A<J> = 1
n =20
. 8+ =0.0005 5c = lE-8
q
Q,=
RcQL
0.2
o.i
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
75
1.0
0.4
'
D/L=l
A$ = l
&> =0.0005
ft=0
9 = 10
n =20
8c=lE-8
03
RcQL
*A
VJ
y^
0.2
\ \
ay -
0.1 -
This work(FDM-IFP)
B y Someya(1989)
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
3.6.3.4
Dynamic Coefficients
Fig.3.16 and 3.17 show the calculated dimensionless stiffness and damping
coefficients of the cylindrical bearing as mentioned in Section 3.6.1, and compared with
the literature. All characteristics agree very well with those of Lund(1978). They also
agree very well with those of S o m e y a except K x y at low eccentricities. This m a y be
caused by the different element size, perturbation method and convergence accuracy used
by Someya(1989) in the calculation of the coefficients.
16
Ft
W (c/ R )
10
0.0
0.2
0.4
This work(FDM-IFP)
B y Someya(1989)
0.6
0.8
1.0
77
P=0
n =20
8c=lE-8
9 = 20
20
-10
0.0
30
0.2
0.4
1 |
0.6
1 f i
0.8
1.0
Bxx
* Bxy=Byx j By Lund(1978)
A
Byy
1.0
78
0=10
25
(a) Dimensionless stiffness coefficients
15 -
Kyy
30
(b) Dimensionless damping coefficients
79
3.6.4
<M) Qs
ft
K xx
0.10 4.486
78.7
0.085 85.26
1.88
9.65
1.92
1.92 20.76
0.20 2.101
69.3
0.161 39.10
1.92
-2.56
5.81
1.64
5.44
2.05
2.05 11.46
0.30 1.257
62.1
0.228 23.40
1.92
-1.78
4.47
1.83
4.06
2.16
2.16
8.70
0.40 0.806
55.7
0.287 15.24
1.80
-1.13
3.89
2.26
2.93
2.01
2.01
7.44
0.50 0.520
49.7
0.339 10.23
1.71
-0.68
3.66
2.82
2.22
1.90
1.90
6.89
0.60 0.325
43.7
0.383
6.84
1.63
-0.31
3.64
3.61
1.71
1.81
1.81
6.76
0.70 0.187
37.5
0.419
4.42
1.60
0.01
3.84
4.85
1.35
1.78
1.78
7.07
0.80 0.093
30.7
0.450
2.64
1.57
0.41
4.33
7.19
1.05
1.77
1.77
7.93
0.90 0.031
22.4
0.474
1.30
1.60
1.09
1.84
1.84 10.32
80
<j>o()
Qs
ft
*x
Kxv
Kyx
Kyy
Bxx BXv B V X
Byy
0.10 2.284
77.6
0.075 43.42
1.65
-3.74 10.43
1.57
7.62
1.68
1.68 20.85
0.20 1.078
67.3
0.141 20.13
1.70
-2.05
5.80
1.64
4.37
1.82
1.82 11.60
0.30 0.653
59.8
0.195 12.24
1.75
-1.52
4.45
1.77
3.46
2.01
2.01
8.89
0.40 0.427
53.9
0.242
8.21
1.69
-1.07
3.84
2.09
2.73
1.99
1.99
7.63
0.50 0.283
48.4
0.280
5.71
1.61
-0.67
3.54
2.59
2.11
1.87
1.87
7.01
0.60 0.184
43.0
0.310
3.99
1.55
-0.35
3.46
3.28
1.67
1.79
1.79
6.81
0.70 0.112
37.3
0.332
2.75
1.51
-0.04
3.59
4.35
1.34
1.76
1.76
7.02
0.80
.0595
31.0
0.346
1.79
1.52
0.34
4.01
6.37
1.06
1.77
1.77
7.79
0.90
.0228
23.1
0.353
1.00
1.58
1.03
5.25 12.09
0.79
1.84
1.84
9.99
fa()Os
ft
Kxx
KXv
Kyx
Kyy
0.10 1.155
75.5
0.057 22.06
1.40
-2.70 10.47
1.47
5.50
1.43
1.43 21.04
0.20 0.556
64.4
0.103 10.47
1.44
-1.50
5.81
1.54
3.21
1.55
1.55 11.84
0.30 0.346
56.5
0.139
6.58
1.49
-1.15
4.41
1.64
2.61
1.73
1.73
9.15
0.40 0.233
51.0
0.167
4.61
1.52
-0.96
3.78
1.81
2.34
1.90
1.90
8.00
0.50 0.161
46.4
0.190
3.38
1.45
-0.67
3.40
2.21
1.90
1.82
1.82
7.28
0.60 0.110
41.8
0.206
2.51
1.39
-0.38
3.24
2.82
1.53
1.72
1.72
6.94
0.70
.0715
36.9
0.215
1.85
1.38
-0.1.1 3.29
3.75
1.25
1.68
1.68
7.02
0.80
.0415
31.3
0.221
1.32
1.40
0.25
3.65
5.55
1.01
1.68
1.68
7.62
0.90
.0178
23.7
0.217
0.83
1.52
0.98
4.88 10.86
0.78
1.78
1.78
9.62
81
0.10
.9596
0.20
0.30
.2927
55.5
0.40
.1998
0.50
Kxx
Kxv Kyx K v v
Bxx BXv
BVX
1.34
4.97
1.37
1.37 21.11
8.77
1.38
-1.39
5.83
1.47
2.96
1.49
1.49 11.94
0.118
5.57
1.43
-1.08
4.40
1.56
2.43
1.67
1.67
9.24
50.1
0.141
3.96
1.47
-0.92
3.76
1.71
2.23
1.87
1.87
8.09
.1400
45.8
0.159
2.95
1.43
-0.68
3.37
2.07
1.89
1.84
1.84
7.37
0.60
.0972
41.5
0.173
2.24
1.37
-0.40
3.19
2.66
1.52
1.72
1.72
6.98
0.70
.0644
36.8
0.179
1.69
1.36
-0.12
3.22
3.57
1.25
1.68
1.68
7.01
0.80
.0382
31.3
0.182
1.24
1.40
0.23
3.59
5.33
1.03
1.70
1.70
7.60
0.90
.0169
23.9
0.179
0.80
1.54
0.96
4.84 10.53
0.81
1.83
1.83
9.64
fa<?) Qs
74.7
ft
0.050 18.28
Byy
fa()
Qs
ft
0.10 4.301
81.8
0.094 81.94
2.36
2.42 20.55
0.20 2.020
75.2
0.189 37.72
2.26
-4.02
5.64
1.46
8.54
2.25
2.25 10.93
0.30 1.213
68.5
0.283 22.58
2.21
-2.42
4.28
1.70
5.59
2.20
2.20
8.03
0.40
.7813
61.8
0.377 14.80
2.16
-1.53
3.77
2.04
4.07
2.18
2.18
6.84
0.50
.5067
55.0
0.472 10.00
2.09
-0.90
3.62
2.56
3.07
2.15
2.15
6.38
0.60
.3177
48.1
0.565
6.72
2.01
-0.39
3.69
3.33
2.34
2.10
2.10
6.37
0.70
.1842
40.8
0.659
4.37
1.92
0.07
3.95
4.58
1.77
2.05
2.05
6.75
0.80
.0913
32.9
0.755
2.62
1.84
0.55
4.50
6.95
1.30
2.01
2.01
7.70
0.90
.0311
23.6
0.850
1.29
1.77
1.30
5.83 13.40
0.87
1.99
1.99 10.13
82
fan Q S
ft
0.10 2.099
80.8
0.088 40.12
2.33
-7.74 10.36
0.20
.9921
74.7
0.176 18.65
2.13
-3.76
0.30
.6034
68.6
0.263 11.37
2.06
0.40
.3967
62.4
0.351
7.66
0.50
.2651
56.1
0.437
0.60
.1733
49.4
0.70
.1065
0.80
0.90
2.54 20.68
5.58
1.35
7.99
2.18
2.18 10.97
-2.31
4.15
1.58
5.32
2.09
2.09
7.98
2.02
-1.51
3.58
1.86
3.96
2.07
2.07
6.72
5.37
1.97
-0.91
3.38
2.29
3.02
2.04
2.04
6.19
0.522
3.81
1.92
-0.44
3.40
2.93
2.37
2.03
2.03
6.12
42.5
0.609
2.65
1.88
0.00
3.62
3.96
1.86
2.03
2.03
6.45
.0574
34.7
0.694
1.76
1.85
0.49
4.14
5.96
1.42
2.05
2.05
7.34
.0223
25.2
0.783
1.00
1.84
1.32
5.49 11.67
0.99
2.10
2.10
9.67
fan Qs
ft
0.10 1.322
79.5
0.081 25.35
2.32
0.20
.6279
74.1
0.161 11.90
2.03
-3.56
5.53
1.20
7.55
2.15
2.15 11.01
0.30
.3865
68.5
0.240
7.39
1.94
-2.22
4.04
1.43
5.09
2.00
2.00
7.96
0.40
.2592
62.7
0.317
5.10
1.89
-1.46
3.42
1.68
3.79
1.96
1.96
6.64
0.50
.1778
56.8
0.395
3.70
1.86
-0.92
3.17
2.04
2.96
1.94
1.94
6.05
0.60
.1205
50.5
0.467
2.74
1.84
-0.48
3.15
2.58
2.37
1.95
1.95
5.91
0.70
.0775
43.9
0.544
2.02
1.83
-0.04
3.35
3.49
1.90
1.97
1.97
6.17
0.80
.0444
36.3
0.621
1.43
1.84
0.46
3.87
5.28
1.50
2.04
2.04
7.01
0.90
.0188
26.5
0.697
.88
1.91
1.35
5.31 10.63
1.08
2.16
2.16
9.32
83
2.71 20.84
fan Qs
J^
0.10
.9559
78.5
0.074 18.39
2.32
2.85 20.99
0.20
.4574
73.4
0.146
8.73
1.95
-3.40
5.49
1.05
7.20
2.15
2.15 11.08
0.30
.2849
68.2
0.216
5.51
1.83
-2.13
3.96
1.28
4.86
1.95
1.95
7.96
0.40
.1941
62.8
0.285
3.89
1.78
-1.42
3.29
1.52
3.65
1.87
1.87
6.58
0.50
.1361
57.4
0.353
2.90
1.76
-0.93
3.01
1.83
2.91
1.86
1.86
5.94
0.60
.0949
51.4
0.417
2.22
1.77
-0.51
2.97
2.30
2.39
1.90
1.90
5.77
0.70
.0633
45.0
0.481
1.70
1.79
-0.09
3.16
3.12
1.95
1.95
1.95
5.98
0.80
.0379
37.4
0.546
1.26
1.84
0.43
3.70
4.80
1.57
2.05
2.05
6.78
0.90
.0169
27.5
0.610
.821
1.95
1.40
5.19
9.99
1.14
2.19
2.19
9.02
ft
Kxx
Kyx Kyy
fan Qs
0.10
.7558
77.4
0.067 14.58
0.20
.3636
72.5
0.132
0.30
.2291
67.7
0.40
.1581
0.50
ft
Kxx
Kxy
Kyx Kyy
2.35
3.02 21.16
6.98
1.89
-3.28
5.46
0.90
6.93
2.15
2.15 11.16
0.193
4.47
1.76
-2.06
3.89
1.13
4.67
1.92
1.92
7.99
62.8
0.254
3.21
1.70
-1.39
3.20
1.36
3.54
1.82
1.82
6.55
.1129
57.7
0.312
2.46
1.68
-0.92
2.89
1.65
2.85
1.81
1.81
5.88
0.60
.0804
52.2
0.371
1.93
1.70
-0.52
2.83
2.09
2.36
1.83
1.83
5.64
0.70
.0550
45.7
0.422
1.52
1.75
-0.11
3.02
2.85
1.97
1.91
1.91
5.84
0.80
.0340
38.3
0.478
1.16
1.83
0.43
3.57
4.47
1.60
2.02
2.02
6.58
0.90
.0158
28.2
0.531
.786
1.99
1.43
5.11
9.53
1.19
2.21
2.21
8.81
84
AMPLITUDE
ON
^"""2
2 Ax
To describe the accuracy of the coefficients, two variation (or accuracy) criteria
are defined as:
i,j=x,y i,h*,y
where subscript 0 indicates the values calculated from the infinitesimal perturbation
method.
85
Variation
=0.2
to 0.4
e=0.6
to 0.8
Eb ,Ek
M a x Ax, Ay
M a x Ax, Ay
M a x AJC, Ay
M a x Ax, Ay
0.001
0.05 c
0.03Qc
0.02 c
0.02Qc
0.01
0.07 c
0.04 O c
0.03 c
0.03Oc
0.025
0.11c
0.05Qc
0.05 c
0.04 O c
0.10
0.16 c
0.10 O c
0.08 c
0.09Oc
For e= 0.8, to keep stiffness coefficient variation within 2.5% (E^ ^2.5%), the
perturbation displacement amplitude should be less than 0.05c as shown in Fig.3.18(c);
to keep damping coefficient variation within 2.5% (Eb <2.5%), the perturbation velocity
amplitude should be less than 0.04Oc (Fig. 19(c)). From Fig.3.18(c), when the
displacement perturbation amplitude is 0.1c, the stiffness coefficient variation is 15%;
referring to Fig.3.19(c), when the perturbation amplitude is O.lOc, the damping
coefficient variation is 10%.
At lower eccentricity the maximum displacement perturbation amplitude for the
same coefficient accuracy is larger. For example, at =0.2 as shown in Fig.3.18(a),
under the same stiffness coefficient variation of 2.5%, the m a x i m u m displacement
perturbation amplitude is 0.11c which is considerably larger than that at =0.6. This is
because at low eccentricity, the bearing forces do not change as dramatically as those at
higher eccentricity. The effect of the eccentricity on the damping coefficient variation is
not significant according to Fig.3.19(a), (b) and (c). Generally, for e=0.2 to 0.8, the
relationship between the coefficient variations and the maximum perturbation amplitudes
is listed in Table 3.14.
86
I I I III
iii|
11
(a) =0.2
Kyx
>
- + --^
o Kxx
+ &y
'281
Kyx
A Kyy
Kij. Ax,Ay--0,by IFP
Kxx
Kxy
-2
r- - t
* - -- - t
-4L
.0001
.001
'
87
10
i^rm n|
(c) =0.8
o Kxx
+
o
A
Kxy
Kyx
Kyy
Kyy
Kyx
Kxx
e
- a/
1
1
Kxy
t'
>
i l
oooi
"
.ooi
14
.
(a) =0.2
12 -
Byy
10
6 -
Bxx
Bxy
Byx
Byy
Bij Ax , Ay-> 0,by IFP
Bxx
^"**"*^
Bxy
2-
Byx
^^t*
1
.0001
_J
1 1 1 1 II 1
.001 Ax/Oc,Ay/Oc
-1
88
14
I I TTTFT]
' I f 'T^TFTT|
I I I I
(b) =0.6
12
ffl
Bxx
Bxy
Byx
Byy
Bij Ax, Ay-
0,by IFP
Bxx
Bxy
Byx
Bxx
'
.0001
.001
-1
Ax/Oc,Ay/Oc
14
TTT
- i
r
{
Vy .
(c) =0.8
12
(E=
^\
Bxx
Bxy
Byx
Byy
Bij Ax, Ay-- 0,by IFP
&
'
8 ~*
Byy
-
6 -
Byx
i
i
i
i
Bxy
Bxx
....i
.0001
ooi
Ax/Oc, Ay/Oc
89
1) The characteristics of journal bearing are calculated according to the relation of the
bearing film forces with the journal positions. Both Finite Difference Method and
Finite Element Method are adopted to solve the Reynolds equation. T h e
calculated static characteristics, such as Sommerfeld number, attitude angle, flow
and friction force, for both circular bearings with different horizontal grooves,
agree very well with Lund(1978) and Someya(1988).
2) The FDM is easier in programming and takes smaller computer memory size and
shorter computation time. The F E M can deal with more complicated boundary
condition but requires more computer m e m o r y space and longer computation
time.
3)
90
91
eiEiAipraiR 4
STABILITY OF ROTOR-BEARING SYSTEMS
Abstract
This chapter studies the stability of rotor bearing systems. The stability
contour and oil whirl frequency of a rigid rotor in two symmetric journal
bearings is derived from the linear theory and confirmed by the nonlinear
simulation, where the bearing forces are directly obtained from the pressure
distribution around the bearing at each journal position. The transient whirl
frequency is expressed by an explicit mathematical formula. The relationship
between stability contour determined from the nonlinear simulation and mat from
the linear theory is investigated Typical whirling trajectories under impact
excitation, position perturbation, synchronous unbalance excitation and harmonic
excitation are simulated and presented to explain the stable, critical and unstable
phenomena.
compare with those determined from the linear stability analysis. The whirl
displacement signals are also transformed to the frequency domain, and their
whirlingfrequenciesare analysed according to theirfrequencycharacteristics.
Besides, the effect of rotor flexibility on the stability is also analysed
92
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The oil whirl of hydrodynamic journal bearings is one of the main reasons which
causes the instability of high speed rotating machinery. Linear theory is widely used to
predict the stability and trajectories of rotor in bearing system because of its
simplicity(Sternlicht & Lewis, 1968; Singh et al, 1976; Lund & Thomsen, 1978 and
1987; Abdul-wahed et al 1982; Jakeman & Parkins, 1986; etc.). Since the linear
stability analysis neglects the dynamic load and approximates the bearing forces by linear
approximations of displacements and velocities using the eight force coefficients, there is
no indication h o w these simplifications will affect the system performance; significant
discrepancies exist between the experimental motion trajectories and those simulated with
linear bearing forces when the whirl amplitudes are large. T o avoid the error caused by
linear theory, some researchers employed more sophisticated bearing force model in
predicting the journal trajectory. They simulated whirling trajectories at different trial
speeds, taking into account nonlinear bearing forces which was obtained directly from
the bearing pressure at each journal position, and determined the critical stable speed
according to the convergence of the whirling trajectories. This trial-and-error method
requires long computation time. T o save the computation time, the short bearing theory
was adopted in some publications(Holmes, 1960 & 1966; Mitchell et al, 1965; Hahn,
1975 & 1979; Kirk & Gunter, 1976; Barrett et al, 1976; Hashimoto et al ,1987 & 1988;
Capone & Russo,1990), but the short bearing theory introduces significant error when
the bearing slenderness ratio is larger than 0.5 (Kirk, 1976). The Taylor expansion
bearing force's model is used by other researchers. Bannister (1976) used the 2nd order
force model with 28 nonlinear coefficients to approximate the forces of a 120 partial
bearing and found a good agreement between the simulated and the experimental journal
trajectories; C h o y et al (1991,1992) used only odd power(3rd, 5th, 7th) model to
approximate the bearing forces; since these nonlinear force coefficients are very sensitive
to the perturbation values, their calculation and application are m u c h more difficult than
the linear coefficients. Akers et al(1971) used the nonlinear bearing forces obtained
93
directly from the bearing pressure in simulating the journal trajectories to predict the
stability contour, but they did not mention the relationship between their nonlinear results
and those from the linear theory.
Many researchers(Mitchell et al, 1965; Kirk et al, 1976) have investigated the oil
whirl phenomena both theoretically and experimentally but the transient whirl frequency
and h o w the whirl frequency related to the stability have not been reported in all
aforementioned literatures.
experimentally and tried to express the oil whirl phenomena by an identified system
model, but she has not calculated the whirl frequency theoretically. Lund(1978) derived
the whirl frequency ratio with the linear theory and related the whirl frequency with the
stability, but h o w the more accurate nonlinear bearing force and dynamic load will affect
the whirl frequency have not been mentioned.
This chapter derived the stability contour of a rigid rotor in two symmetric
journal bearings according to the linear theory and the nonlinear simulation, where the
bearing forces are obtained directly from the pressure distribution around the bearing
solved from the Reynolds equation at each journal position.
The transient whirl frequency is expressed by an explicit mathematical formula.
The trajectories with the nonlinear bearing forces are simulated under different dynamic
loads and speeds. T h e relationship between stability contour determined from the
nonlinear simulation and that from the linear theory is investigated. The critical stable
speeds according to convergence of the trajectories are analysed and compared with
those from the linear theory.
The average whirl frequency and critical whirl frequency under nonlinear bearing
forces are calculated to compare with the values predicted by the linear theory. Typical
whirling trajectories under impact excitation, position perturbation, synchronous
unbalance excitations, and harmonic excitation are presented to explain the stable, critical
and unstable phenomena. The whirl displacement signals are also transformed to the
94
frequency domain, where their whirling frequencies are analysed according to their
frequency characteristics. Moreover, the effect of rotor flexibility on the stability is also
analysed.
Bearing 2
95
(4-1)
^tf-
*-
l 7 n
x 2 2 s m r )
=i[^-^-^sinr]
(4-2)
f=i[^-F,+i-Jtco>r]
4.2.1
Oc(Xo, Yo)
P = tan
Y-Yn
P dt dT (X-X0)2 + (Y-Y0)2
The frequency whirling ratio is:
X=A (Y-Y0)X-(X-X0)Y
Q (X-Xof+fY-Yr,)2
(4-4)
96
A = Y'X'-X'Y'
2
2
(4-5)
X' +Y'
4.2.2
and velocities:
F
x = kxxx
kxyy + bxxx +
bxyy
(4-6)
The eight force coefficients are calculated by the infinitesimal perturbation method as
described in Section 3.3 to avoid the difficulty in selecting the proper perturbation
amplitudes which can affect the coefficients.
4.2.3
The nonlinear bearing forces in this work are obtained by integrating the pressure
solved from the Reynolds equation:
f
d(p
+ -z-\H
dZ\
dH
dP
2(Xsin<p + Ycosil>)
dZ J dip
(4-7)
The attitude anglefa,H, X and Y are determined according to the journal position at
the last time step. Equation (3-47) can be modified to solve the pressure:
A(j = M(Hi+1/2J
(4-8)
The bearing surface is divided into a 90x14 mesh in the nonlinear simulation to save
computation. This mesh results in less than 1 % variation in bearing forces with that of
97
finer mesh (360x20) in the calculation of the eight linear force coefficients for
eccentricity up to 0.8 (see Fig.3.7). The bearing forces can be found according to
equations (3-11) and (3-12).
(4-9)
(4-10)
eq =
m(
.2
(4-11)
'
Then:
98
(4-12)
-UO)byX
+kyX)XQ
+(keq-kyy+JG)byy)yo=0
-JCQbxy-kxy
=0
(4-13)
The real and imaginary parts of the determinant (4-13) should equal zero respectively,
i.e.:
Oyy \kgq
K^ ) 4 >; \Keq
(keq ~ kxxMeq
' ^ ^ ^xx^yy
+ ^xybyx
~ kxykyx =
(4-14)
(4"15)
From Eq(4-14):
k b +k b -k
b -k
b
u
IK,
u
u
v
"-yx uxy
eq _ *-xx yy _ yy xx ^xy yx
byy+bn
(4-16)
From Eq(4-9):
2 _ ^eg
*xx)\*eq
b
yy'^yy
xy ^yx
(4-17)
yybxx ~ xy yx
-8F-
*crit
_fi)_
Byy xx ~ xy
yx
Krit
~n~
"yy"xx
(4-18)
(4-19)
"xy "yx
B +B
yy
xx
99
(4-20)
4.3.2
Critical Speed
For a spring mass system with mass m and stiffness keq, w h e n keQ = m(D or
to = Jkeqjm, the system is in its critical condition; if co< Jk^Jm the system is stabl
if co > Jkeqfm the system is unstable. Substituting co = Jkeqfm in the first equation o
(4 -19) yields the critical speed:
1
Gent =
TX1crit
" J"*
V m=
KeaW
T-^Al-^
A c W r V(4-21)
mc
Therefore if Q < Clcrit or X > Xcrit, the rotor-bearing system is stable. Once CI >
or X < Xcrit, the system will be unstable.
The dimensionless critical stable speed is defined as:
"Cnr=^V^W=^ (4"22)
A
crit
Equation (4-22) relates the critical whirl frequency with the critical speed. From
Eq(4-22), smaller whirl ratio A,CTit or higher critical speed Qcrit will result in a m
stable rotor-bearing system. In stability calculation, if Keq <0, the system is absol
unstable. If X^i <0, the system is definitely stable.
The square of the dimensionless critical speed is the critical journal mass as define
Lund(1978), i.e.:
A^=^-=F^ (4-23)
W
Acrit
If the bearing force is due only to the gravity of the rotor, i.e. W = m g, then:
100
4.3.3
Substituting the dynamic coefficients in Tables 3.1, 3.5 to 3.12 into (4-19) and
(4-22) results in critical whirling ratios and speeds of different circular bearings as
shown in Figs.4.3 and 4.4. The grooved bearing takes two-20-axial grooves at right
angle to the vertical load; the ungrooved bearing is supplied with lubricant on the top
groove in the load direction. The stability contour of the grooved bearing agrees very
well with that of Lund(1978) according to Figs.4.4(a) and (b). The stability contour of
the ungrooved bearing also agrees with that of Akers(1971), w h o employed the
nonlinear simulation and trial-and-error method in determining the stability contour. The
whirl ratios for normal eccentricities are around 0.5, this explained w h y the practical
rotors alway whirl at half of the rotation speed. Referring to Fig.4.3 and 4.4 the shorter
bearing is more stable for both grooved and ungrooved configurations.
If c=0.15 mm, and the bearing load is due only to the gravity of the rotor, the
dimensionless critical speed contours for different bearing slenderness are shown in
Fig.4.5. It can be seen from Fig.4.5 that for grooved bearings, the bearing system will
always be stable w h e n eccentricity is larger than 0.8 for the ungrooved bearings
(L/D<1.5); for the ungrooved bearings, the bearing system will always be stable when
eccentricity is larger than 0.75.
101
0.1
0.3
0.5
0.7
0.9
Fig. 4.3(a) The critical whirl ratios of grooved bearings(two 20- axial grooves)
102
0.3
0.5
0.7
+
*
UD=0.5
IVD=0.75
IJD=1
Lfl>=1.25
Unstable j
L/D=1.5
L/D=l Akers(1971)
6
-A-
Stable
11
o.i
0.3
0.5
0.7
103
0.9
10000
8000 -
4000
0.1
03
0.5
0.7
0.9
104
4.3.4
Bearing 2
eq
K X
(4-25)
-mco
~ Acrit &crit
Substituting it into Eq(4-25) yields the critical stable speed of the flexible rotor bearing
system:
** X^lm
Xcritp + klkeJm
X^p + k/k,^'
(4-26)
Where cor - -Jkl m is the natural frequency (or critical speed) of the rotor.
From eq.(4-26), the critical speed of the rotor-bearing system is dependant not
only on the rotor's critical speed, but also on the oil film properties"Kentand keq. At
critical condition A ^ t "0.5. If the rotor is very flexible, i.e. k keq, then from (4-26):
105
Q* = -2 J
r "
"J
r = 2COr
KruV + Mke,
0.5V1+0 '
This explains w h y the oil whip occurs at approximately double the critical speed of the
rotor as reported by Newkirk & Taylor(1925) and by Pinkus(1953). In fact, the oil
whirl is a resonance property of oil film which appears at a frequency close to 1/2
rotation speed. W h e n the oil whirl frequency coincides with the rotor's critical speed,
the serious vibration (or whip) normally occurs.
If the rotor is much stiffer than the bearing film, such as k >3 keq, the critical
speed of the system will be lower than the critical speed of the rotor according to (4-26).
This agrees with the conclusion of Poritsky(1953).
Re-write (4-26) as dimensionless form:
^^V^^J^Z (4-27)
The critical mass for the flexible rotor is:
^f^-it^h*
(4 28)
Clcrit
= OC f , Jcfg- = J ^ / _ _
n
" "' le* Vl + WK^/ck
(4-29)
Referring to (4-27) to (4-29), the stiffness of the shaft decreases the critical
speed. T h e stiffer the rotor, the higher is the critical speed, the more stable the system
becomes. Therefore in designing the rotor-bearing system, the rotor's flexibility should
be considered if its stiffness is not m u c h greater than the equivalent stiffness of the
bearing film.
106
Input parameters of
rotor/bearing system
Input initial journal
position (x,y)
JL
Calculate the external forces
t=t+At
Solve X , Y , X a n d Y
by Runge-Kutta method
output t, x,y, X
I
I
Perform F F T on X, Y
Stop
external forces can be compared with the aforementioned linear analysis. This is don
by solving the motion equation (4-2) by a 6th-order Runge-Kutta method (Jackson,
1985), which can automatically select the step size to satisfy a given accuracy. For
accuracy of 10"6 in this work, the average step size is between 0.2 to 0.6 radian
dependent on the distance of the journal center to the equilibrium point. The minimu
107
step size could be as small as lxlO*4 radian at the beginning of the simulation. The
nonlinear bearing forces are directly obtained from the pressure distribution around the
bearing solved from the Reynolds equation at each time step. The equilibrium position is
determined according to the static force balance condition. The simulated bearing is an
ungrooved sleeve bearing with the following parameters:
L/D=l, c/R=0.15%, W = m g
Fig.4.7 shows the flow chart of the non-linear simulation program.
108
between that used by Akers(1971) and that in this work. Akers used a 20x20 mesh size
in calculating the pressure and a 4th order Runge-Kutta method with fixed step size of
0.25 radian initially.
4.4.1
Impact Excitation
A pulse consisting of signals with a wide range of frequencies is usually used to
test the system stability. If the rotor is hit with an impact hammer, a bell shape impulse
force as shown in Fig.4.9(d) is exerted on the rotor. T h e trajectory of the journal motion
responding to the pulse force can reflect the stability of the rotor system. Fig.4.9 depicts
the simulated trajectories for different speeds due to the impact forces with the same
amplitude. T h e solid lines are the trajectories of the nonlinear bearing forces and the
dash lines are those of linear bearing forces.
109
0.2
0.4
0.6
02--
0.4 --
0.6 --
110
Unload bearing:
.: A
-^aja-^f
-/
L
~
Fex =0 and
' i ' i ^
T-i2t(o)
i
180
' i i i
360
540
ey
eyo c
eyo c
unstable. At the critical speed the whirling amplitudes in both x and y directions rem
constant as shown in Fig.4.9(c). To save trial time, the critical speed according to th
linear theory is used as an input in the computer, the simulated steady journal trajec
is an oval as shown in Fig.4.9(c). The journal vibration amplitudes in the x and y
directions are constant for both nonlinear and linear bearing forces, which means the
system is at the critical stability state, although the oval shape with the nonlinear
forces is not the same as that with linear bearing forces. Therefore both nonlinear and
linear systems possess the same critical speed, and the linear theory can accurately
predict the stability contour of journal bearing system.
The trajectories are quite close for both linear and nonlinear bearing forces if the
radius of journal center to the equilibrium point is less than 0.1c, but significant
discrepancy exists when the radius becomes larger than 0.1c. This means the predicted
trajectory by the linear theory will have some error if the whirl amplitudes are large
0.1 c.
Ill
4.4.2
Position Perturbation
Assuming the steady journal eccentricity is e (depending on the static load),
moving the journal to the bearing center then releasing it, the trajectory of the journal
motion after this perturbation can also reflect its stability (Kirk, 1976; Akers, 1971).
Since the journal centre is assumed to m o v e to the bearing center to start the dynamic
procedure, it is classified as position perturbation herein. Inputting the same bearing
parameters as mentioned in Fig.4.9 in the program but with the initial journal coordinates
at the origin point and external force as zero, the simulated motion trajectories are
depicted in Fig.4.10. Referring to Fig.4.4, at e=0.6 the critical whirl ratio is 0.45 and
the critical speed is Cl^ = 2.69 . From the convergence of the trajectory the stability
can also be determined. At a speed below the critical speed, the journal center will also
return to its equilibrium position after the position perturbation as shown in Fig.4.10(a),
the average whirl ratio for this stable system is 0.72 (see Fig.4.10(d)), which is higher
than the critical ratio 0.45. W h e n Q > Clcrit, the locus moves around the equilibrium
point and moves away from it until the journal touches the bearing wall for both linear
and nonlinear bearing forces as shown in Fig.4.10(c), thus the system is unstable. The
average whirl ratio (=0.42 as shown in Fig.4.10(d)) for the unstable system is lower
than the critical whirl ratio. From Fig.4.10(c), the locus in the case of nonlinear bearing
forces takes m u c h longer time to reach the clearance circle than that of the linear bearing
forces. At the critical speed, both loci of nonlinear and linear bearing forces are
converged to different oval orbits as shown in Fig.4.10(b). With the linear forces, the
oval is symmetrical to the equilibrium point; whereas with the nonlinear forces, the oval
is not symmetrical and is closer to the bearing centre. Under the position perturbation,
the critical speed of the nonlinear bearing forces is also exactly the same as that predicted
by the linear theory. H o w e v e r the nonlinear bearing forces produce more accurate
journal trajectory as confirmed experimentally by Bannister (1976).
112
Q =2.69 =Qcrit
0.6
113
Q =3.28 >Qcrit
clearance circle
linear forces
Y
25
Q, =1.23 X.avg=0.72
Q =2.69 X.avg=0.46
II
0.72
0.46
- 0.42
G =3.28 X.avg=0.42
T=Qt
0
360
720
1080
1440
114
4.4.3
Unbalance Excitation
Unbalance forces are inevitably exerted on the rotor and affect the dynamic
performance of the rotor-bearing system. Substituting different R,, values in (4-2) can
obtain the unbalance responses. T o simplify the analysis of the whirl frequencies,
displacement X is transferred to the frequency domain as shown in Fig.4.11(b) and (d)
by performing the following FFT(see Section 6.3.3):
2_ i,t,,v .at J
2
Yx(kAT)e-JAkAr
|X(jA)| = ^-|j
0 "X(T)e^^r| = -|
N
(4-30)
k=0
115
0.1
0.3
0.5
0.7
0.1
a
=1.23
Ru = 0.2
0.3 --
0.5"
equilibrium
position
Nonlinear bearing forces
Linear bearing forces
0.7
Fig.4.11 (a) Trajectory due to synchronous unbalance forcestable system
0.4
02
0.2
"T"
0.6
I
Q=Qcrit=2.69
Ru = 0.2
0.4-
equilibrium
point
0.61
Fig.4.11 (b) Trajectory due to synchronous unbalance forceat critical status
(nonlinear bearing forces)
116
02
0.2-
Q =3.28 >Ocrit
Ru=0.2
0.4--
^--'
0.6-1-
Q =1.23 Xavg=0.98
0.0
I''
N/
\ -7 \/
-~-
Q =2.69\^/Xvg =0.47
Xavg=0.43
Q. =3.28
T=Qt
05
0
360
.720
1080
1440
117
03
' i
l i
i i
j
xa^=^|I;x(r)e^/r
T I 0
X
0.2 -
0.1
\=<o/n
0.0
0.0
05
1.0
15
2.0
2.5
(4-31)
is exerted on the rotor, the motion trajectory can also be simulated. Fig.4.12(a) depicts
the whirl trajectory of the stable system. For the linear bearing force, the trajectory is
converged to an oval; for the nonlinear bearing force the trajectory converged to an
enclosed curve. W h e n the speed is higher than the critical speed, the trajectory will also
diverge. Figs.4.12(b) and (c) depict the whirl trajectories of the critical and unstable
systems. Fig.4.12(d) shows the whirl ratios at different speeds, the average whirl ratios
agree with the linear theory as shown in Fig.4.4(a). Fig.4.12(e) indicates that the power
of vibration signal of stable system under harmonic excitation is concentrated at the
excitation frequency (=0.5). At the critical speed, the power of vibration signal is also
concentrated approximately at the excitation frequency. If the system is unstable, the
power of vibration signal is concentrated at a frequency lower than the critical ratio.
118
02
0.4
0.2
0.6
-i
Harmonic excitation:
F^- 02 c o s ( T > )
co=0.5
Q =1.23
0.4--
equilibrium
position
0.4
0.2
-i
0.6
-i
Harmonic excitation:
Fey=
0.2 cos("co T ;
co =0.2
fl=Qcrit=2.69
0.4 --
equilibrium
position
0.6 -L
119
0.6
0.8
equilibrium
position
0.6-
Harmonic excitation:
~F = 0.2 cos(T;
ey
0.8
'
=0.5 Q =3-28
Nonlinear bearing forces
-0.5
720"
1440
2160
120
03
Harmonic excitation:
F^= 0.2 cos(W T;
=0.5
Q =1.23 stable
Q =2.69 critical
^2 =3.28 unstable
X=ffl/Q
^MBig*"
0.0
05
1.0
^'^' v
15
2.0
25
Q = Sic* = 2 6 9
Harmonic excitation:
0.2
0.1
v..
0.0
"co =0.47=>.crit
lb =0.5
r^^K
0.0
co=0.2
0.5
Q=--.r,
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
excitation frequency is equal to the critical whirl frequency the whirl amplitud
the maximum. In practical bearing application, if the rotor has to withstand the
121
load, separating the frequency of the dynamic load far from being the critical whirl
frequency of the rotor bearing system m a y prevent catastrophic vibration.
4.4.5 Discussion
Table 4.1 presents the average whirl ratios under different excitations according
to the nonlinear simulation. Although whirl ratios for stable or unstable systems are
different for different excitations, the critical whirl frequencies are very close (within 5%
error) to the value (=0.45 at E = 0 . 6 ) predicted according to the linear theory. W h e n the
speed is higher than the critical speed, the average whirl ratio is lower than the critical
whirl ratio. If the speed is lower than the critical speed, the average whirl ratio is higher
than the critical whirl ratio. The higher the average whirl ratio, the more stable the rotorbearing system. These conclusions are also confirmed by the nonlinear simulations at
the eccentricities e=0.2 and 0.8.
Table 4.1 Average whirl ratios under different excitations (e=0.6)
Q
linear analysis
impact
position
unbalance
harmonic
1.23
>0.45
0.63
0.72
0.98
2.69
0.45
0.45
0.46
0.47
0.47
3.28
<0.45
0.33
0.42
0.43
0.37
According to Figs.4.9(a), 4.9(c) and 4.11(a), the trajectories are quite close for
both linear and nonlinear bearing forces if the radius of journal orbit to the equilibrium
point is less than 0.15c, (the amplitude differences between the linear and nonlinear
bearing forces in the x and y directions are less than 5%) but significant discrepancy
exists when the radius becoming larger than 0.2c (see Fig.4.9(b) in unstable case). To
employ the linear model with reasonable accuracy ( 5 % amplitude variation with the
nonlinear model), the journal vibration amplitude should be smaller than 0.15c at e= 0.6.
122
This can be achieved by mamtaining the amplitude of the periodical excitation force to be
lower than 1 5 % of the static load ( R\ 0.15, or F ^ 0 < 0.15). Simulations at e= 0.2
and 0.8 also show that if ^ < 0.15, or F^ <, 0.15, the variation between the vibration
amplitudes of linear and nonlinear models is less than 5%. The lower the eccentricity,
the smaller the variation between the trajectories from the linear and nonlinear bearing
forces. This conclusion can be used to guide the design of the experiments to measure
the linear force coefficients as described in Chapters 6 through 9.
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
1.0
0.0
Q =1.23
02 --
0.4
--
0.6
--
Ru=0.2
Equilibrium point
o
1.0
Fig.4.14 Steady motion trajectories under different unbalance forces
T o show the effect of the force amplitude on the motion trajectories, Fig.4.14
plots the motion trajectories under different unbalance forces. From Fig.4.14, at
R u =0.1 the vibration amplitude in x direction is 0.07c, the trajectory difference
between the nonlinear and linear bearing forces is less than 1%. If R u = 0.2 the
vibration amplitude in x direction is about 0.14c, the trajectory variation of the linear
bearing forces is within 5% that of non linear bearing forces. W h e n R u = 0.4 the
vibration amplitude in x direction is about 0.28c, the trajectory of the linear bearing
123
forces is considerably different (about 2 0 % ) from that of non linear bearing forces.
These phenomena agree well with the effect of perturbation amplitude on linear force
coefficient (see Section 3.6), where the perturbation amplitude is limited to 0.1c if the
acceptable coefficient accuracy is 1 0 % . Comparing the loci of the unstable system under
different excitations(Figs.4.9(b), 4.10(b) and 4.11(c)), the vibration amplitudes under
the unbalance force are smaller than other excitations for the same time period; the time
for the journal to reach the clearance circle (contacting the bearing wall) is also longer.
This is because the unbalance force at the rotation speed could suppress partly the
whirling whose frequency is lower than a half of the rotation speed. This unbalance
effect has also been reported by Barrett et al (1976)
According to the trajectories under different dynamic excitations, the critical
speed under the nonlinear bearing forces is the same as predicted by the linear theory.
This is true for the bearings at different equilibrium positions with different perturbation
amplitudes. T h e nonlinear bearing forces can predict more accurately the journal
trajectory in the bearing; but it is time consuming. Although using high order nonlinear
force coefficients can save some computation time and improve the simulation accuracy
at s o m e cases, the sensitivity of these nonlinear force coefficients to the perturbation
values makes them difficult in calculations and restrictive in actual applications. There is
no convenient w a y so far to predict system stability from these nonlinear force
coefficients except the time domain simulation, which is m u c h more time-consuming
than the linear theory. T h e eight linear bearing forces can be conveniently used to predict
the system stability with acceptable accuracy. However, the infinitesimal perturbation
method should be used in the coefficients calculation because the linear coefficients are
also sensitive to the perturbation values if the finite perturbation technique is used.
Although the traditional linear stability analysis can predict the stability threshold,
it can not predict the whirl trajectories under different dynamic excitations. The works in
this chapter correlate the average whirl ratios with the stability statues and it is helpful in
the stability analysis from the monitored journal vibrations. For example, if the main
124
whirl frequency from the F F T analysis is considerably higher than that predicted from
the linear analysis, the system is well stable. Otherwise, if the whirl frequency is close
to the critical value, the system is dangerous and measures should be adoptedtoimprove
the stability.
Simulations with nonlinear bearing forces and different dynamic loads verify that
the linear theory can predict the stability contour of arigidrotor supported in two
symmetric journal bearings as accurately as the nonlinear simulation. The critical
speeds accordingtothe trajectories of nonlinear bearing forces are nearly same as
those predicted by the linear theory although the whirl loci under large dynamic
excitations are significantly different from those of the linear bearing forces. The
different forms of dynamic excitations, such as impact force, position
perturbation, unbalance force and harmonic force, will not change the critical
speed of the rotor-bearing system.
3)
Although the oil whirl frequency under nonlinear bearing forces is a complicated
function of time, the average whirl ratios are closely related with the stability
status. For a stable system, the average whirl ratio is higher than a critical whirl
ratio; the average whirl ratio of an unstable system is always lower than the
125
critical ratio. This property can be used to analyse the stability of the rotorbearing system from the frequency characteristics of journal vibration signals.
4) The critical whirl frequency works as a resonance frequency of rotor-bearing
system. W h e n the excitation frequency is close to the critical whirl frequency, the
whirl amplitude will increase significantly.
5) At the critical speed, the average whirl frequencies from nonlinear simulation are
very close (within 5 % error) to the value predicted by the linear theory. The
forms of the dynamic excitations, such as position perturbation, unbalance forces
and harmonic excitation, will not significantly change the critical whirl frequency
of the rotor bearing system.
6) The predicted trajectories by the linear theory agree well with that of the nonlinear
bearing forces (amplitude variation < 5 % ) if the whirl amplitudes are smaller than
1 0 % c for the eccentricity up to 0.8. T h e lower the eccentricity, the smaller the
variation. T o determine the force coefficients of the linear model, the excitation
force amplitude should be less than 1 5 % of the static load. For an unstable
system, the trajectory of nonlinear bearing force takes longer time to touch the
bearing wall than that of the linear bearing forces.
126
Abstract
This chapter analyses the effects of bearing misalignment on all
bearing characteristics. The Reynolds equation is solved by the finite
difference method in a fixed coordinate system with the static load acted in
the vertical direction. Under different eccentricity and misalignment
conditions, the static and dynamic characteristics (including load capacity,
attitude angle, side flow, friction force, misaligned moments and eight
linear force coefficients) of a horizontally grooved bearing and an
ungrooved bearing are calculated and compared with available experimental
data. The effects of misalignment on all these bearing characteristics and
on the stability of the rotor-bearing system are analysed.
127
5.1 INTRODUCTION
D u e to manufacturing tolerances, deflection of journal and bearing support,
asymmetric bearing load, etc., journal bearings normally operate at the misaligned
condition. T h e effects of misalignment on some static characteristics, such as torque,
load capacity and attitude angle of the journal bearings with some definite geometry have
already been studied.
Dubois et al(1955, 1957) have experimentally investigated the misaligning
couples and eccentricity at the ends of misaligned plain bearings. Rice(1965) has
calculated the misalignment torque of gas-lubricated bearings. Asanabe et al(1972)
investigated the m i n i m u m oil film thickness and friction force of misaligned journal
bearings.
Pinkus and Bupara(1979) published considerable theoretical data of different
grooved bearings, but they used the eccentricity e and the angle between the centre line
and the vertical coordinate as independent variables. T h e load direction is a variable
dependent on eccentricity and the misalignment ratio. The misalignment in their vertical
coordinate does not m e a n that the journal axis is tilted in the plane parallel with the load,
and the 'horizontal' grooves are not in the plane perpendicular to the load. This variable
load direction m a k e s their data's application and comparison inconvenient.
Vijayaraghavan and Keith(1989, 1990) modified the method of Pinkus and Bupara by
considering the mass continuity at both start and end edges of oil film and published
considerable data on static characteristics of the grooved and ungrooved bearings.
Dceuchi et al(1985) fixed the load direction and solved the attitude angles at
different eccentricities for a circumferentially grooved bearing. Unfortunately, Dceuchi
only presented the misalignment effects on the load capacity and attitude angle.
Buckholz and Lin(1986) only studied the misalignment effect on load.
128
The effects of the misalignment on all static characteristics, such as load capacity,
attitude angle, side flow, friction force and misaligned moment for the normal vertically
loaded and horizontally grooved bearings have not been reported.
The effects of misalignment on the dynamic characteristics have been studied
recently. Choy et al (1992) have depicted the misalignment effect on one stiffness
coefficient Kxx and critical mass of an ungrooved bearing at one set of misalignment
parameters under some load conditions, the effects on other dynamic coefficients and the
effects of different misalignments and different loads have not been reported. Bannister
(1976) presented the misalignment influence on the unbalance trajectories of a partial
bearing, unfortunately he did not show the effects on the eight linear bearing force
coefficients. However he reported that the misalignment in vertical plane suppressed the
unbalance whirl trajectory significantly. The effects of misalignment on the dynamic
coefficients of hydrostatic or hybrid bearings have been systematically studied by San
Andres(1993) and Bou-Said(1992), but the misalignment effects on the dynamic
characteristic of normal hydrodynamic bearing has not been reported.
This chapter adopts a fixed coordinate system and assumes the static loads all
acting in the vertical direction. All static and dynamic characteristics (including load
capacity, attitude angle, side flow, friction force, misaligned moments and eight linear
force coefficients) under different misalignments and different eccentricities are plott
against the static load and compared with available experimental data. The effects of
misalignment on all these bearing characteristics and stability are analysed.
the parallel line Oc0Oc at the bearing end. The oil film thickness at arbitrary angle (j
129
071?
h = c + e cos(0-0o)+ ( 1 )
OoOc0cos({j)-Y)
2ZR
H = l + e cos(#-0o) + (
where x = - =
C
1) Tcos(0-y)
(5-1)
L/R
k\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\^
Midplane
y w
OOOL
130
e0=^OOc2+Oc002-200cOc00cos(7-(j>0)
= -y/(ec)2 + (xcf - 2 E T C 2 COS(Y-(j)0)
(5-2)
(5-3)
All methods and programs in Chapter 3 can consider the misalignment effect.
With different misalignment parameters T and y, the programs can calculate all the
bearing characteristics. The following sections describe the calculated results taking into
account the misalignment effect.
For normal application, the bearing static load is constant. To compare the
bearing characteristics, w e can assume that the bearing withstands the same load.
Therefore it is better to plot the bearing characteristics against the load than against the
eccentricity, which is varied under different misalignments. Since the inverse factor of
the Sommerfeld number 1/S is proportional to the load:
ys=7t(c/Rlw
131
from the aligned bearing case; the actual eccentricities under misalignment are slightly
different from the eccentricity scale.
The bearing discussed in this chapter is the circular bearing with L/D=l. The
grooved bearing (9=20) takes two 20-horizontal grooves extending over the full
bearing width as used by L u n d (1978). T h e ungrooved bearing has no horizontal
grooves, and the lubricant is supplied from the top groove. The supply pressure for both
grooved and ungrooved bearings is zero.
132
4 p (bar)
loo-1 = 0.4, y=iU2, =0.6, (t>o=32.8
1/S = 8.52
Pmax=57.3bar.
Hmin =0.117
60
40
oil film
reformation
2(Tupstream groove
downstream groove
20 360
133
w h e n the journal centre (Oc) is very close to the bearing centre. For example, w h e n e=
0, e 0 = e L = x > e. A t 1/S~ 0.75 in Fig.5.3(a), y=0, <t>0 =n/2 (see Fig.5.4(a)), thus
[y- 0 O | = n 12, so eo = e L according to equation (5-2) and (5-3). Therefore both eo and
e L curves cross at 1/S 0.75.
For an oil film bearing, the maximum load capacity of a journal bearing is
normally determined by the tolerable m i n i m u m oil film thickness (determined by the
surface roughness and the bearing structure) or the m a x i m u m eccentricity which is
necessary to prevent the solid contact. If Hmin = 0.1 ( m a x i m u m bearing eccentricity
134
equals 0.9), the load capacity for parallel grooved bearing (x =0) is 51.3 according to
Fig.5.3(a). With misalignment, the load capacity is limited by the worse (higher)
eccentricity curve i.e. 8 L as shown in Fig.5.3 because the metal contact will firstly occur
at this end. For x = 0.2 and 0.4 in vertical direction(y=0), their load capacities at
L =0.9 are 17 and 8.4 respectively (see Fig.5.3(a)), the load capacities decrease to 3 3 %
and 1 6 % respectively. The bearing has the highest load capacity under aligned condition.
The horizontal misalignment also decreases the load capacity but not as m u c h as the
vertical misalignment. F r o m the curves in Fig.5.3(b) the misalignment in the horizontal
direction decreases the load capacities to 4 2 % and 1 9 % for x ~ 0.2 and 0.4 respectively.
The vertical misalignments affect the load capacity more significantly. This is because at
the normal working eccentricity e>0.6 (1/S>7.5), the attitude angle (cp0<:450) is closer to
the vertical direction than to the horizontal direction, vertical misalignment reduces the
m i n i m u m oil film thickness more than the horizontal misalignment. Fig.5.2 shows that
at T=0.4, Hmin =0.063 for the vertical misalignment and H ^ n =0.117 for the horizontal
misalignment. The misalignment in the vertical direction produces smaller Hmin that
results in higher pressures. Therefore the m a x i m u m pressure (p m ax=105 bar) for the
vertical misalignment is higher than that of the horizontal misalignment (pmax=57.3 bar).
Actually the misalignment effect is worst w h e n the journal is tilted along the centre line,
i.e.: y ^ o * which directly reduces the m i n i m u m oil film thickness.
The misalignment effect on the load capacity of ungrooved bearing is similar to
that of the grooved bearing as shown in Figs.5.3(c) and 5.3(d).
To verify the program, the eccentricities of the circumferentially grooved bearing
tested by Ikeuchi et al(1985) are calculated as shown in Fig.5.3(e). The results from this
thesis agree well with those of Ikeuchi. T h e slight discrepancy could be caused by
reading the data from the small graphs in their paper.
135
.1
1/S
100
10
1.0
I I 1
I T
1 I J
6
0.6 -
0.4 -
0.2
10
| 21.5
51.3 |
0.0
.1
1/S
io
100
136
1.0
i 1 1 1 1
i i
0.0
11
usJ&J&w
Hn
liCIRL
0.6
. 0.4
0.4
0.6
Y=0
E, T=0
o
0.2
eo, T=O.2
0.8
L, T=0.2
* eo, x=o.4
* eL, T=0.4
0.0
. .
.1
'
10
'
1/S
ioo
1.0
-i
i i 11
- i i
i i
0.0
11
HQRL
Hn
e
-
0.6 -
Y =90
e, T = 0
0.4 -
o eo, x=o.2
6L, 1=0.2
A eo, x=o.4
* eL, x=0.4
0.2
0.0
.1
1 1 1 1
1/S
10
0.4
-I -6
J 08
ioo
137
1.0
e-
40
0.6
;>
0.4
0.2
.1
'
< i
by Dceuchi(1985)
o Co, x=0.2
eL, T=O.2
Eo, t=0.4
eL, x=o.4
a a ,-,
This work
o eo, x=o.2
A
0.0
1/S
, |
10
L, T=0.2
eo, T=O.4
EL, T=0.4
-IJ
'
100
5.3.2
Attitude Angle
The effect of misalignment on the attitude angle (in the bearing midplane) is
shown in Fig.5.4. Referring to the graphs, for the grooved bearing, the vertical
misalignments increase the attitude angle, but the horizontal misalignments decrease the
attitude angle, especially under lighter loads; for the ungrooved bearing, the effect of
vertical misalignment on the attitude angle is insignificant for normal bearing loads, but
the horizontal misalignments decrease the attitude angle significantly. This conclusion
was also obtained experimentally by Ikeuchi et al (1985) as shown in Fig 5.4(c) although
their experimental bearing has a circumferential oil groove. F r o m Fig.5.4(c), the results
calculated herein are closer to the experimental results of Ikeuchi et al than their
theoretical results.
Comparing the attitude angles of misalignment T=0.4 with y=0 in Fig.5.4(a) and
(b), the misalignment effect varies significantly by the grooves at low eccentricities.
Since at low eccentricities, the m i n i m u m oil film occurs at the area very close to the
138
horizontal grooves, misalignment could change the oil film thickness distribution
significantly or even move the minimum oil film point out of or into the grooves. This
will change the pressure distribution considerably, so that the attitude angle will vary
significantly. Without the horizontal grooves, the oil film thickness is not as sensitive
the misalignment as the grooved bearing does. Therefore at low eccentricities, the
misalignment effect on the attitude angle of ungrooved bearing is not as great as that of
the grooved bearing.
1UU
'
0
0
80
x=0.4, Y = 0
o \o
/s
o\
T=0.2, Y = rc/2
x=0.4, Y = TC/2
T=0, by Lund(1978)-
e-
40
f 2ovv
20
- \2y
0.5
0.1
1
e (i=0)
'
.1
0.9
1/S
i
i
J-IJ
10
1 i i
i i i
ioo
139
100
i "i
i i i [
'
r -
60
<|)0, T=0
x=0.2, Y = 0
40
x=0.4, Y = 0
x=0.2, Y = TC/2
z=0A,y=n/2
20
0.1
h1
.1
'
'
0.5
E(T=0)
L
0.9
1/S
10
100
o.3
0.5
Fig. 5.4(c) Attitude angles of the experimental bearing with circumferential groove
140
0.3
I"1
T "
I I |
I " I
I I 1
=F
Qs = Re Q L
0.2
/
o.i
0.5
1I
1
0.1
J
1
_i
o.o.i
Qs,t=0
x=0.2, Y = 0
x=0.4, Y = 0
x=0.2, Y=TC/2
x=0.4, Y = 7t/2
t=0, by Lund(1978)
e ( T =0)
0.9
1
I I I '
io
1/S
ioo
0.8
-I
1 I I
I |
1 I
I '
a =Re
0.6
en
o
0.4
QL
Qs,t=0
x=0.2, Y = 0
x=0.4, Y = 0
t=0.2, Y=rc/2
t=0.4, y=n/2
0.2
0.0
.1
1/S
10
141
40
"
-i
1 ^ ^ ^
i [ -'
'
i "
i i
|'
T "rr
F,
/,="
30
W(c/R)
0.5
20
10
T=0
x=0.2, Y = 0
x=0.4, Y = 0
t=0.2, Y = TE/2
x=0.4, Y = TC/2
e (x=0)
-I
1/S
^s.
0
.1
0.9
II
10
ioo
30
- i i i i 1 1 1
11
T-
Iri
W(c!R)
20
e (t=o)
10
.1
T=0
T=0.2, Y = 0
x=0.4, Y = 0
T=0.2, y=7t/2
x=0.4, y=n/2
1
1/S
10
0.9
100
142
5.3.3
Side Flow
Fig.5.5. shows the side flows of the parallel and misaligned bearings. For the
grooved bearing, at light load and low misalignment, the side flow does not change
significantly. Only under heavy load, large horizontal misalignment (x =0.4) can
decrease the flow u p to 1 0 % . For the ungrooved bearing, the misalignments in both
directions do not change the side flow significantly.
5.3.4
Friction Force
The misalignment effect on the friction coefficient ft of the circular bearing is
insignificant as s h o w n in Fig.5.6.
Asanabe(1972).
5.3.5
Misaligned M o m e n t s
Under misalignment, the bearing pressure is not symmetric to its midplane and it
will produce some misaligned moments to act on the journal. T h e misaligned moments
around both axes can be calculated by the following equation:
COSij)
rln rL/2
fZff
rut
JO J-L/2 *
sinij)
dtydz'
,2 2;rL/2R
7 J JPZ'
c J
(5-5)
COSij)
d{j)dr
sinij)
0-L/2R
K
M
l yj
2n(c/R)2
Cl^tRL2
6KR
2 2;rL/2R
pz
1l'
0-L/2R
143
COSij)
sinij)
d(j)dZ'
(5-6)
Fig.5.7 presents the calculated misaligned moments under different misalignments and
comparison with the experimental results by Dubois et al (1957). At high eccentricity or
high load, the misalignment will result in large m o m e n t on the journal to reduce the
misalignment. The m o m e n t around the horizontal axis (Mx) is larger than the torque
around the vertical axis (My) and is independent of the misalignment direction.
2.5
"'T
I ' I
II'
S
a
Y=0
i
Mx
My
Mx
My
T=0.2
T=0.2
T=0.4
1=0.4
0.5
0.0
-0.5
.1
i i
'i
11
1/S
'
MI
io
11
L_1_L
ioo
144
2.5
I i j1-'
" I
>'
i i
i y
II
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.5
o.i
-0.5
.1
1
'
10
e (T=0)
u
o.9
100
2
3
W
Oi
Mx
My
Mx
My
Y=0
x=0.2
x=0.2
x=0.4
T=0.4
0.5
0.0 -
-0.5
l/s
io
ioo
145
2.5
- i i i i i
11
06
:
y=n/2
M x x=0.2
M y 1=0.2
M x 1=0.4
M y T=0.4
a
m
0.5
0.0
0.5
0.1
J
_i
-0.5
'
e (T=0)
1
1i
0.9
' ' i i
.1
i/s
ioo
io
i 'i
i r
IS
+
N
|S
1.0
o
A
A.
1=0.2, Y = 0 \
This work
1=0.4, Y = 0 ^
1=0.2 exp.\
by Dubois(1957)
1=0.4 exp.^
0.5
0.0
-0.5
1/S
'
11
10
u _
100
146
These
147
is negligible as shown in
I I
Kxx, i=0
1=0.2, Y = 0
1=0.4, Y = 0
1=0.2, Y = K/2
1=0.4, Y = n/2
.-
0.5
0.1
In
o .o
I
.
I
1 1
e (i=0)
I
I
i/s
0.9
-I
L_1_L
ioo
io
" i "
i i
"T
' ' I
1"
Kxx i=0
o
1=0.2, Y = 0
1=0.4, Y = 0
1=0.2, Y = 7t/2
x=0.4, Y = n/2
0.5
0.1
J
-I
.1
1l
e (T=0)_
(i=>
1
0.9
1/S
io
ioo
148
11
o
A
Kxy, 1=0
1=0.2, Y=0
1=0.4, Y = 0
1=0.2, Y = TC/2
1=0.4, Y = n/2
A$P'
-1
-3
0-5
1
' 'I
(i=0)
1
_d_
.1
l/s
0.9
1
-J
io
ioo
i i
Kxy, 1=0
i=0.2, Y = 0
1=0.4, Y=0
1=0.2, Y=7t/2
1=0.4, Y = TC/2
-2
-4 -
-6 0.1 [
149
12
"'I
I"1I
I 1 |
'
10
&
o
A
Kyx, 1=0
1=0.2, Y=0
1=0.4, Y = 0
1=0.2, Y = rc/2
1=0.4, y = n/2
0-5
H
'
0.1
_i
1 1 1
i _ i
i i i
(i=0)
1
0.9
1
_ i i
1 1 1
100
10
1/S
1 1
12
- i
T -
i 'r i )
i 'i
10
Kyx, 1=0 AV
1=0.2, Y = 0
\ .
1=0.4,
Y= 0
:=0.4,Y=U
1=0.2, Y=rc/2
1=0.4, Y=7i/2
* Nft*
X
A
^a*-8-
0.1
0.5
i
-i
.1
1-
^9
^1
-i
i i
i/s
io
i i
'
100
150
14
"i
<-
Kyy, 1=0
1=0.2, Y = 0
x=0.4, Y = 0
1=0.2, Y = TC/2
10
0
1=0.4, Y=TC/2
0.5
0.1
e (i=0)
J
0.9
1
-2
1/S
10
100
12
-i
1 i r - 1
i -i |
Kyy, 1=0
1=0.2, Y = 0
1=0.4,7=0
1=0.2, 7= K/2
1=0.4, Y = TC/2
100
.1
151
"I
I I I I
.1
l/S
io
ioo
152
" I
1 1 1 |
I ' I
1 1 "|
Bxy, 1=0
o 1=0.2, Y = 0
A
X
II
X
1=0.4, Y = 0
1=0.2, Y = TC/2
1=0.4, Y = TC/2
%
A
0.5
0.1
.1
e (t=0)
o.9
J 1 1 L
1/S
10
100
x
> 2
X
pa
o
Bxy ,1=0
1=0.2, Y=0
T=0.4, Y = 0
1=0.2, Y =7t/2
1=0.4, Y=TC/2
0.5
0.1
J
-2
.1
1
I
1 I
I
i/s
e (i=0)
1
I I I I I
io
0.9
1
L.
ioo
153
30
-i
1i
i i r
1i!'
20
Byy, 1=0
1=0.2, Y = 0
i=0.4, Y = 0
1=0.2,7=71/2
1=0.4, Y=7i/2
10
0.1
|
JJ-J-UjJ
-5
1|
1
'
e(t=0)
1
1
0.9
1
I
1L -X-JL
100
10
1/S
30
^y---TT-TTm
10 -
l~a>'
0.5
0.1
i
.1
i i
11
i/s
e (1=0)
1
j i
i1_
1
j
io
0.9
1
'
1
'
ioo
154
155
Fig.5.8(a). Since pressure increase brings on the increase of F y as well, thus the
misalignment effect on stiffness coefficient kyx AFy/Ax is similar with that on kxx as
shown in Fig.5.9(a).
h+mi
+min
cmin
y t
156
157
usually lower than 0.5, one possible reason is that the journal is misaligned with the
bearing to some extent.
0.6
c)
"ft?
<W
i \
Stable
0.4
Unstable
o \
o\
Xcrit, 1=0
1=0.2, Y = 0
3
n
i=0.4, Y = 0
1=0.2, Y=7C/2
1=0.4, Y = TI/2
1=0, by Lund(1978)
"
\
k
(....A
0.1
I1
0.0
.1
'
0.5
' i1
'
e (1=0)
i
10
1/S
0.9
ioo
"T"
i i i ) i )
irr
I T
I T
Stable
0.4
Unstable
c
u
o
o
Xcrit, 1 = 0
CJ
3
- o
1=0.2, Y = 0
. A
i=0.4, Y = 0
1=0.2, y=7t/2
1=0.4, Y=7t/2
0.5
0.1
J
0.0
_J
i_i_
e (i=0)
1 i i i
'
I_J
1/S
ii_
0.9
1
1
10
10
158
i=0.4, Y = 0
1=0.2, Y = T C / 2
1=0.4, Y = TI/2
i,\jf uy
^X
i_,UHU^l .7 1 O)
/
/+
CD/
Unstable
/+
!> /
*-
0.5
0.1
1
1.
1
_
Stable
*&**
J*
i
I
1
.1
e (i=0)
l1 l '
'
i/s
0.9
l
1
io
ioo
1-
1- T 1 X I
1 I 1 1 |
i-O
1=0.2, Y = 0
T = o,4 ) y = o
- *
1=0.2, Y = TC/2
1=0.4, Y = 7i/2
O:
o
o
Unstable
|4
3-
Q:
^i4- f>^
Stable
0.1
0.5
r
I
.1
(t=0)
0.9
1
, 1
1 _|
i/s
i
1
1 1 1 1
io
1 1 L - L J -
ioo
159
5.6 CONCLUSION
The effects of the misalignment on the bearing characteristics can be concluded as
following:
1) Misalignments reduce the load capacities considerably. The aligned bearing has
the highest load capacity. The vertical misalignment (in the static load direction)
affects the load capacity more than the horizontal misalignment for both grooved
and ungrooved bearings.
2) The vertical misalignments increase the attitude angle of the grooved bearing, the
horizontal misalignments decrease the attitude angles of both grooved and
ungrooved bearings, especially at low eccentricity.
3) At low eccentricity and small misalignment, the side flow does not change
significantly. Only at high eccentricity, the high horizontal misalignment
(T=0.4)
160
161
CIHAIPTrilR (5
IDENTIFICATION OF ALL DYNAMIC
COEFFICIENTS OF TWO JOURNAL BEARINGS
BY THE HARMONIC EXCITATION METHOD
One is the
162
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The dynamic coefficients of linearised oil-film forces dominate the dynamic
performance of a rotor-bearing system and are essential in predicting the stability of
system (Lund, 1978). Since there are still incomplete understandings on the fluid film
bearing theory, such as the boundary conditions, cavitation and whirl phenomena, it is
difficult to calculate the dynamic coefficients accurately. Researchers around the worl
have made much effort to measure these dynamic coefficients. A few well-designed
methods, such as the external harmonic excitation, pseudo-random-binary-sequence
perturbation, pulse impact, and non-synchronous inertial force perturbation etc, have
been proposed and/or tried to estimate these coefficients experimentally. In all these
methods the rotor or bearing is excited dynamically and the responses measured. The
dynamic coefficients are then determined from the relationship between the excitation a
its responses. Among these methods, the harmonic excitation method is the most widely
used. The experiments of previous harmonic method are normally performed on a rig
where the tested bearing floats on a rigid rotor. One or two harmonic excitation forces
are exerted on the bearing case. From the relationship between the excitation forces and
the amplitudes and phases of the bearing case displacement, eight dynamic coefficients
are determined. However, the method to measure all the force coefficients of two
different journal bearings, which support a rotor as in normal bearing applications, has
not been reported.
This research extends the previous harmonic excitation method to determine all
the dynamic coefficients of two different bearings. Two excitation forces and their
corresponding displacement responses are transferred to frequency domain. Based on
these frequency characteristics eight complex and linear equations are derived. All 16
bearing force coefficients can be obtained by solving these simultaneous linear equatio
Two different excitation procedures are proposed. One is the traditional harmonic
excitation method which needs to excite the rotor-bearing system twice. Another method
excites the system only once with two different harmonic forces at different frequencie
163
Bearing 2
L2
Lif
probe
location
L2f
M
S>
xi
"nT
-X2
Fix
~X2
_| Gravity
Xlp
yip
Si
&
yi
R,
-S2-
-4*
y2
R2
Fby
pbx
fi=f,
Fby] 2 W
Fby
164
is its gravity center and Cf is the acting point of the excitation force. For general
= \x x 2 + 1 2 x,
yc = (Li Y2 + U y i) /L = li Y2 + li yi
zc = constant
cos6 =
^ / L 2 + ( x 2 - x 1 ) 2 + (y 2 -yi) 2
_iy2-yi
cp = tan
T
2 "X l
Xc = li x2 +1 2 x,
165
(6-1)
(^ =Q =
(ay=q) sinG ~
cOj = - Q + (p cos6
y (IXQ)X + IyC02 ) = |ip [ (x2 - Xl)2 + (y2 - yi)2]
T=2 [ (m if + it) x\+ 2 (m lj 12 - it) x, x2 + (m 1?+ it) x22
= | qTMq + Tz
(6-2)
Where:
9 = t xi Yi > x2 y2 ] T
1
2 1
z = 2 ^ z = 2 Iz( Q " 9 C O S 0 }'
= - I z ( Q 2 - 2 Q ( p cos9 )
LL
Q2-2fl
(generally 9
Q)
s-th bearings, 6xs and 8ys(s =1,2) represent the virtual displacements, the virtual
work done by the elastic restoring force of the oil film in two bearings is:
Ws = [l4 x, +l4y y, ] 5xt + [k!yx xt + kyyy, ] 8y,
+ [k^ x2 + k^y y2 ] 8x2+ [k2yx x2 + k2yy y2] 5y2
166
= 5q T Kq
(6-4)
Where:
(6-5)
Wb = 8qT B q
(6-6)
W f = 8qT F
(6-7)
dt^-^
as
(6-8)
= F Bq Kq
- -
dT 3T7
3q 3q
d ,9T. A K ' ' ^ .3TZ.
(6-9)
d?3? = M + d?3?
substimting Tzin (6-9) and (6-8) yields the linearised lateral movement equation of the
rotor:
Mq + (QG+B)q +Kq =F
(6-10)
Where:
M=
ml%+it
0
ml^2-it
0
0
ml^+if
0
m^-it
mlj^-if
0
mlf+if
0
0
ml^ -it
0
m\ +it
167
G=
0 -ip 0 ip '
ip 0 -ip 0
0 ip 0 -ip
L-ip h
(6-11)
k1
k1 0
*-xx
1
^-xy
1
"yx
*-yy
0 k2
K=
0 0
B=
k2
*-xx
2
*-xy
2
*-yx
Kyy
xx
xy
yx
byy
byx
xx
xy
byy
(6-12)
Equation (6-10) can be used as a general mathematical model for the lateral
motion of a rotor supported by two journal bearings. The positions of two bearings can
be interchanged but the x-y coordinates must be related to the rotational direction as
shown in Fig.6.1(a).
To derive the force matrix F for different excitation methods, assume 8xSf and
8ysf to be the virtual displacements at the acting point of the excitation force fs (s =1,2).
The force matrix F then can be found according to the virtual-work-theorem.
Syl
Sx2
-l2f sin !
-l2f sin a2
5y2] /i
+
ft
\j cos a2
\j cos cxl
-^f sin ax
Sq [flCfl+f2Cf2]
168
-lyj sin a2
(6-13)
(6-14)
If only one force is exerted at one run as done in the separated excitation procedure in
Sections 6.3 and 6.4.2, the force matrix is:
* = Fe = fkCJk
k=l,2
(6-14)'
fk = fkosin(C0kt + ^k)
k=l,2
(6-15)
Where
l2fcosax
l2fCOSOL2
-Lfsina,
C
*~/2
\fCOSQLx
-l2fsina2
lyfCOS^
(6-16)
-^ 1/ 5ina 2
(6-17)
n=x,y
If the impact force are exerted in horizontal and vertical directions, i.e. ai = 0 and
a2 = In 12, thus according to (6-16) the force factor matrices in (6-17) are:
V
C
f* =
hf
c
fi=
(6-18)
0
Expressions (6-17) and (6-18) are used as the excitation force matrices in the impact
excitation method in Chapter 8.
169
6.2.3
Unbalanced Excitation
If two unbalance masses mi and m 2 are attached on the rotor as shown in
i=l,2
(6-19)
i=l,2
(6-20)
= -&
2 s:T
<5q
= 5q T F
Therefore the force matrix for the unbalance excitation method is:
170
(6-21)
= Fk = -&
(6-22)
un
."21
"22 J
U =
iPi(^2+ri)
iPi('i->i)
nhPi(h-ri)
(6-23)
"hPiih+ri)
The displacement measurement points are normally off the bearing mid-center
because of the limited space. Suppose the displacements at the measurement points are
xip, yip, X2p and y2p, then the displacements at the bearing center can be calculated as:
X
\P ~ x2p
- x
\p
Sl+S2
m-so
(6-24)
5^+52
^(s2+ll)xlp+(sl-ll)x2p
sx + s2
Other displacements yi, X2 and y2 can also be calculated in a similar way. Combining
them yields the following relationship:
[ x i yi 1 _
(6-25)
6.3 COEFFICIENTS
ESTIMATION
METHOD
FROM
H A R M O N I C RESPONSES
6.3.1
Dimensionless Model
As derived in Section 6.2.1 the dimensional model of the rotor-bearing system
171
Mq + (&G+B)q + Kq = Fe
(6-26)
where:
C/kfk
Fe =
k-1,2
C/1/1 + C/2/2
Since the definition of the dimensionless coefficients K-j and Bfj in the previous
chapters involved the static load W of each bearing, this load is different if the rotor
bearing system is not symmetric, and it changes with the bearing eccentricity. They can
not be directly used in the dimensionless model if two bearings withstand different static
loads. If we define the following dimensionless terms:
uj
.;
Bf' =B*/S
u
i.}
i,j
' = -\iLl
~Cck
n(c/R)3blj _ br
cQbij
=
=
\LL
Cb
w
l J
K , = K ,/? =
(6-28)
w s
The dimensionless coefficients are linearly related with the dimensional coefficients
~
I
,
\
LtL
U Lf D
Cb WS/cQ = -^jf
and
C
=
WS/c
=
^ ^ and Ckk = WS/c = -^- j are constant for each bearing
k
K (c/R)3
n (c/R)
at different eccentricities, thus they can simplify the simulation for the system of two
If
if
AA
(6-29)
172
6.3.2
Estimation Method
Performing Fourier transform at co=CDk on E q (6-50) yields the system model in
frequency domain:
rt
QU%)= f
T) e-j
uT
(6-34)
u=Q
frq(t)e"^^
tN
2
N 1
~ v -1 2 T C U I / N
J
* Zq(uT)e
N =o
2 ^r1 -jcofcuT
= Iq(uT)eJ
N M =o
(O^NT
2%
(6-35)
The additional factor 2/tN to the normal FFT expression makes the frequency
characteristics of a harmonic wave assume the same amplitude as that in the time domain
173
if the integration time duration tN is the multiple integral period of the periodical signal
(see section 6.3.4).
Substituting Q(jcok) to E q (6-31) and separating real and imaginary parts:
(6-37)
Ak Z = Dk
(6-38)
AZ = D
(6-39)
where
A =
z=
A'
A.
Kxx
yx
D =
Kxy
yy
v2
A-xx
v-2
yx
(6-40)
IA
v2
nl
&xy &xx
V-2 nl
^yy
yx
nl
xy
nl
"yy
^xx
Bxy
nl
D2
yy
yx
(6-41)
and
Q-^i,*CkY[,k
At =
-cokCbXlk-c
CkXlkCkYlk
0
0 0)kCbXlk
0
0
0 CkXlkCkY^k
0
0 CkXitkCkY2,k
0
'bY[,k
0
0
(OkCbYlk
0
0
0
-cokCbX2<k-Q)kCbY2,k
0
{okCbH^k (OkCbYrXk
174
(6-42)
Prk(X)
Dk=
P[(2)
no) m)
r
k=land 2
(6-43)
P k(3) P k(4)
Pk(3) Pk(4)
^*0)> P'kU) 0 = 1.2,3 and 4) are calculated from the second equation of Eq (6-36) and
Eq (6-37)
The unique solution of equation (6-39) requires matrix A to be nonsingular,
which means the rank of matrix A is 8. Since A is combined from Ak, if:
(i) Ak is independent on each other (k=l,2), and
(ii) the rank of Ak is 4
then the rank of A is 8 and A is nonsingular.
Condition (i) can be satisfied by changing the frequency or direction. Condition
(ii) requires (see Eq (6-42)):
(X\\ Y]^ -X^Y^XX-^Y^ -X2JJ Y2Jc)?i0
This condition is normally satisfied. Extensive numerical experiments with
e = 0.1 to 0.9 have been performed on computer, and matrix A has been found to be
non-singular in all these cases.
If A is nonsingular, the coefficients can be calculated by the following matrix
operation:
Z=A~lD
(6-44)
obtained through the Fourier transform from which matrices A and D in equation (6-39
175
176
W h e n the excitation force F e is exerted on the rotor, the vibration vectors Q(j) should
also satisfy:
k=l or 2
177
F(Acos2KG)kt)\
= A
(6-48)
fcco&(2mQkt)eJi0>tdt
which is the same as the continuous Fourier transform. Thus accurate frequency
characteristic can be found by the FFT.
For the combined excitations, two harmonic forces are exerted on the rotor, each
force with different frequency. Assume the frequencies of two excitation forces are i
and 2 , their periodical times are ti and t2 respectively; if two integers Ni and N 2 can
be found to satisfy :
Ni ti = N 2 1 2
(6-49)
then the responses will be periodical waves. The periodical time is:
Ni ti =Ni /i
Therefore the frequencies of the combined excitation procedure should be
carefully selected to satisfy (6-49). However in some engineering application, the
excitation frequency can not be exactly controlled, that is equation (6-49) can not be
satisfied. Thus the frequency characteristics at exact excitation frequencies can not be
obtained by the discrete FFT. In this case, two excitation frequencies should be
separated as far as possible. However, both excitation frequencies should be close to the
rotation frequency of the journal to reduce the sensitivity of the estimation coefficients to
the experimental errors ( see Section 6.5). Normally, 5< lco2-coil <10 H z is reasonable.
Simulation has shown that if the sample duration is:
tN = ,
NQ is a positive integer
(6-50)
| C 0 2"" G > l|
the estimation results are better than those of other arbitrary sample duration. The
a), - co, I
frequency resolution of F F T under sample duration (6-50) is - L , two excitation
frequencies are separated just an integer intervals, which makes the frequency alias
178
smaller than those separated with a non-integer intervals. In fact, N 0 is the output points
of FFT between two excitation frequencies. The larger the N0 value, the smaller the al
effect between two frequencies, the more accurate the estimation results. However,
larger N0 requires more sample data which is also limited by computer memory.
Normally N0 >5 can produce reasonable results.
The sample interval T for the FFT can be determined from the sample duration.
For the separated excitation, the sample interval T is calculated by:
T = N0tN/N = ^- k = lor2 (6-51)
GSkN
For the combined excitations, all the sample interval T in this thesis is given by:
T = N0tN/N= N (6-32)
] 2 -l|/V
In practical application, the signals are sampled by a digital computer with an A/D
converter. Since the computer and the A/D converter need some time to convert and
store the data, the sample interval T0 can not be set arbitrarily, so that the sample
T0 can not be exactly set to T as in (6-51) or (6-52). To solve this problem, the quadr
Lagrangian interpolation (Section 18.3, Kreyszig, 1993) is employed to re-sample the
signals with the exact interval T. Computer simulation shows that the variation betwe
the frequency characteristics from the re-sampled signal and from the exact signal is
than 0.1% if the sample frequencies (1/T0 or 1/T) are higher than 5 times of the signa
frequency.
of the proposed estimation method. To simulate the real experiment, the numerical tes
179
includes:
(i)
Input the data of rotor-bearing system and theoretical coefficients calculated at the
10 ,=1 ;=1
(6-53)
Z00',y)
180
q(uTo)
Z= A1 D
Fig.6.3 The flow chart of the simulation program
c=0.15,
L=400mm,
m=171 kg,
Q = 50 Hz
Excitations:
cci = 30 ,
i = 30 Hz,
a 2 = 150
2 =40 H z
*i=0,
<E>2= 7C/4
FFT:
N=512,
T = 1.95313E-04 s
T 0 = 2 E - 4 s,
181
N/m/s
6.4.2
Separated Excitation
Q(j30)=
0.022841 + j 0.075095
-0.024942 - j 0.022887
0.022841 + j 0.075095
-0.024942 + j -0.022887
Q(j40)=
Fl(j30)=(-4.59617E-03-j 1.00005)
(6-54)
A =
0.1220 -0.1332
0.4011 -0.1222
-0.2406 0.0733
0.0732 -0.0799
0.1220 -0.1332
0.4011 -0.1222
-0.2406 0.0733
0.0732 -0.0799
0.2562 0.0311
0.3416 -0.2710
-0.4270 0.3388
0.2050 0.0249
0.2562 0.0311
0.3416 -0.2710
-0.4270 0.3388
0.2050 0.0249
182
10'
1=30 Hz
(fl2 = 40 H z
<D1=0
fl, 30 Hz
<D2=7t/4
o.;
0.00
0.05
t(s)
0.10
.. . i
Exciting twice:
0)2 = 40 Hz
(oi=30 Hz <E>1=0
Q=50Hz
0.2 -
1=2=0.6
A
yl=y2.1
xl=x2.2
yl=y2.2
(\/h
iYKM V*
yfobf
0.0'3 u r
xl=x2.1
Uo=0
02=71/4
cr \
j5
/VTA
.r7
0.00
0.05
t(s)
0.10
183
Cases
tation
Given
Bearing N o
Kxx
Byy
Zo#l
Zo#2
Separ-
0 % noise
Z#l
ated
e=3.10E-04
Z#2
0 % noise
Z#l
e=5.96E-04
Z#2
10-15% noise
Z#l
e=4.02E-02
Z#2
20-30% noise
Z#l
e=7.71E-02
Z#2
30-45% noise
Z#l
e=0.111
Z#2
U0=fi{)/2
Z#l
e=1.07E-03
Z#2
* Although the dimensionless coefficients K{j = Ktj I S and B^ = Btj IS are used in the simulation,
they are transformed to Kij and Bij here for consistency with the previous chapters.
** The given coefficients, which are input to the simulated bearing model, are theoretical coefficients of
a circular bearing with two 10-axial-grooves calculated by Someya (1989).
184
D=
0.0335
0.0077
5.7966
3.3265
0.0335
0.0077
5.7966
3.3265
4.1028 -2.3507
10'
(6-55)
-4.1313 2.3945
4.1028 -2.3507
-4.1313 2.3945
6.4.3
Combined Excitation
6.4.3.1
Symmetric Bearings
For the same parameters of the rotor-bearing system, the same two harmonic
forces as shown in Fig.6.4(a) are exerted on the rotor simultaneously. Fig.6.5 presents
the time-domain responses and their frequency characteristics from FFT. Since two
excitation signals satisfy equation (6-49) (3/30 = 4/40), their responses are periodical
signals with a period of 3/30=0.1 s. F r o m the re-sampled signals, the frequency
responses are only two lines at two excitation frequencies as shown in Fig.6.5(b).
Normal frequency analyser can not achieve this because its sample interval can not be
arbitrarily adjusted. The frequency responses are written as:
185
Q(j30)=
0.023398 + j 0.075052
-0.025145 - j 0.022754
0.023398 + j 0.075052
-0.025145 + j -0.022754
Q(j40)=
0.046887 - j 0.080736
0.006748 + j 0.063425
0.046887 - j 0.080736
0.006748 + j 0.063425
(6-56)
F2(;'40) = 0.695860-;0.718182
A=
0.1248 -0.1341
-0.2402
0.0728
0.4003 -0.1214
0.0749
-0.0805
0
0
0
0
-0.2402
0.0728
0.0749
-0.0805
0
0
3.1248 -0.1341
14003 -0.1214
0.0360
0.3445 -0.2706
-0.4306 0.3383
0.2001
0.0288
0.2501
0.0360
0
0
0
0
0.2501
0
0
"0.0739
D =
0
0
0
0
-0.4306 0.3383
10'
0.3445 -0.2706
0.2001
0.0288
0.0325"
5.7972
3.3257
0.0739
0.0325
5.7972
3.3257
4.0429
-2.3159
-4.1885
2.4291
4.0429
-2.3159
^1.1885
2.4291
107
(6-57)
Substituting A and D in E q (6-44) results in all the coefficients as presented in Table 6.1.
The estimated coefficients are also nearly the same as their true values (input in the
simulation) for the noise free case.
186
1 ,
, _
o yl=y2, 3 0 % noise
xl=x2, 2 0 % noise
0.2
R
-
T *\
O*
0.0
'1 \ J^j \
>
to
; *
*r
i^
f\ \
'*v V
y\.
3
NSo^V
\ I J
7
-0?,
0.00
0.05
(a)
0.10
t(s)
o.oio
ts
3
O
col=30 Hz
oo2 =40 Hz
Q=50 Hz
Uo=0
No=l
O xl=x2
0.005
+
yl=y2
fl/100
2/100
0) (Hz) -
< i r *@- 1 - J @- J (8
)-*
20
40
60
80
187
are zero at all frequencies except at the excitation frequency, but they are not zero in
practical cases because of various errors. In the simulation, although the double
precision is used in the dynamic simulation, the amplitudes at the frequencies other than
the excitation frequency is normally less than 2.5% of that at the excitation frequency.
This can be seen from (3-56), where IFi(j40)l < 0 . 0 3 % IFiG30)l ( IFi(j30)l=l at the
excitation frequency 30 H z ) and IF2(j30)l<2.3% 1F20"40)I( IF2(j40)l=l). Since the
responses are periodical waves (t N =3/30=4/40=0.1 s), the F F T outputs the frequency
characteristics at the exact excitation frequencies, this power leakage does not affect the
coefficient estimation significantly according to the estimation results as shown in Table
6.1.
188
0.10
T"
r - 1
ei=o.6
62=0.5
3
O
col=30
0.01 -
Uo=fl0/2
0
0
"
0
0
+
o.ooi.1 1 1
20
co2=40
n=50
0
+
40
xl
+ yl
A
x2
o y2
W(Hz)
4i-oifi
60
80
189
Kyy
Bxx
Bxy
Byx
Byy
1.770 -0.553
3.060
3.190
1.740
1.820
1.820
6.690
Zo#2
1.890 -1.000
3.090
2.670
2.310
2.000
2.000
6.990
0 % noise
Z#l
1.770 -0.552
3.061
3.193
1.740
1.820
1.817
6.687
e=5.62E-04
Z#2
1.890 -1.000
3.091
2.673
2.310
2.000
1.997
6.987
10-20% noise
Z#l
1.735 -0.612
2.938
2.925
1.759
1.796
1.964
6.713
e=3.22E-02
Z#2
1.869 -1.024
3.021
2.537
2.311
1.970
2.071
6.972
20-30% noise
Z#l
1.703 -0.665
2.821
2.681
1.772
1.769
2.088
6.717
e=6.20E-02
Z#2
1.848 -1.047
2.953
2.409
2.311
1.940
2.138
6.951
30-40% noise
Z#l
1.672 -0.713
2.710
2.458
1.782
1.739
2.193
6.703
e=8.92E-02
Z#2
1.829 -1.069
2.887
2.288
2.310
1.909
2.198
6.925
U o =f i0 /2
Z#l
1.891 -0.550
3.061
3.193
1.738
1.819
1.818
6.688
Ee=1.24E-03
Z#2
1.771 -0.996
3.091
2.673
2.308
1.999
1.997
6.988
cases
Bearing N o
Given (input)
Zo#l
(Someya, 1989 )
Kxx
Kxy
* The given coefficients, which are input to the simulated bearing model, are theoretical coefficients of a
circular bearing with two 10-axial-grooves calculated by Someya (1989).
signals after being multiplied by a constant that adjusts the noise level. Fig.6.5(a)
the contaminated displacement signals, where the noise level is 0.034 , which is 20%
the maximum peak of signal xi(or x2) and 30% of the peak of y i(or y2). To determine
190
the amplitudes and phases from these noise signals in the time domain is quite difficult
and inaccurate. After transformed to frequency-domain, they are easy to distinguish
from the noise. Since the power of the simulated noise is distributed in all frequency
range, its effect at frequencies i and 2 is negligible compared to the responses, i.e. the
signal/noise levels at these frequencies are very high (>100); so the noise effect on the
harmonic excitation method is not so serious after transforming the responses into the
frequency domain.
191
001=30 Hz
co2=40Hz
Q=50Hz
0.2
0.0
Uo=fl0/2
y 1= y 2
V
A A: \ A A t
/ Y / k : * ! \ A
- 0
xi=x2
/ \
- s
2 %-
V A
! : 7 :\ V / \
\S\ j \J\ : \ r-:W
\J
\V':V\;
0.00
1
;0.05
\J
t(s)
o.io
col=30 Hz
co2 =40 Hz
Q=50 Hz
0.010
3
3
O
Uo=fl0/2
O xl=x2.ul0
+ yl=y2.ul0
0.005
0.000
20
40
60
80
192
193
Bearing No
Given (input)
Zo#l
J^ Someya, 19891
Kyx
Kyy
Bxx
Bxy
Byx
Byy
1.770 -0.553
3.060
3.190
1.740
1.820
1.820
6.690
Zo#2
1.770 -0.553
3.060
3.190
1.740
1.820
1.820
6.690
Noisefree,No=2
Z#l
1.622 -0.774
3.199
3.399
1.774
1.696
1.787
6.805
e=8.95E-02
Z#2
1.622 -0.774
3.199
3.399
1.774
1.696
1.787
6.805
Noisefree,No=10
Z#l
1.766 -0.561
3.097
3.263
1.745
1.822
1.776
6.676
e=9.21E-03
Z#2
1.766 -0.561
3.097
3.263
1.745
1.822
1.776
6.676
2 0 % noise, No=10
Z#l
1.795 -0.533
3.209
3.335
1.794
1.851
1.967
6.894
e=4.36E-02
Z#2
1.763 -0.572
3.103
3.209
1.838
1.913
2.163
7.046
Kxx
Kxy
* The given coefficients, which are input to the simulated bearing model, are theoretical coefficients of a
circular bearing with two 10-axial-grooves calculated by S o m e y a (1989).
194
001=30 Hz
002 =40 Hz
2=50 Hz
Uo=0
10
Kyy
-10
0.0
Kxx.10%
Kxy. 10%
Kyx. 10%
Kyy. 10%
a Kxx.20%
+ Kxy.20%
Kyx.20%
x Kyy.20%
0.5
1.0
(01=30 Hz
C02=40Hz
Q=50Hz
Uo=0
20
Bxx. 10%
Bxy. 10%
Byx. 10%
Byy.10%
a
+
o
x
Bxx.20%
Bxy.20%
Byx.20%
Byy.20%
x
10
Bxx
$S^T-3^4^:
0.0
0.5
1.0
Suffix : 10% or 20% means the simulated responses are contaminated by the white no
with a level of 10% or 20% of the maximum displacement amplitude
Fig.6.8 Estimated results of full bearing from simulated noisy displacement responses
195
necessary to analyse its sensitivity to the experimental error. For the linear sys
AZ = D
(6-39)
if matrices A and D incur errors 3Ae and 3D e respectively, the estimated coefficients will
be a function of the error scale Z(3), which satisfy:
(A+?>Ae)Z(l) = D+i>De
(6-58)
A,Z(D) + (A+3Ae)Z(i) = De
(6-59)
Thus, the Taylor series expansion for Z(3) at its true value Z(0) has the form:
Z ( 3 ) Z ( 0 ) + 3 Z'(0)
or:
-1
Z(3) - Z(0) = 3 Z' (0) = 3 A-l,
(De-Ae
Z(0))
According to the norm property (Section 19.4, Kreyszig, 1993) the following relat
for triangle inequality holds:
|Z(0))||
<3
1-1
< \D.\
|Z(0))|
196
or
\\dZ\\<K(A)[\\SD\\
\\SA\\]
(6-60)
_ |ZO) - Z(0)I
sn
11
|Z(0))||
5A|I = 3 1^,i
'
\\M
5D\\ = 3 J
(6-61)
i
>
K(A) = A
(6-62)
M-J114
(6-63)
;=1i=\
197
6.5.1
Theoretically, exciting the rotor twice in one direction with two different
frequencies forces can also obtain enough equations to solve the coefficients. This can
be confirmed by simulation. For the same parameters as mentioned in Figs.6.3 and 6.5
but oci=a2 =30 , the estimated coefficients from the simulated responses excited at one
direction with two harmonic forces are presented in Table 6.4. For the noise-free case,
the estimation error is e e = 3.06E-2, this accuracy is as high as those excited in two
directions. However, with the noise level increasing to 1 0 % of the m a x i m u m vibration
amplitude, although the error in A and D are very small:
INI = 3 ^ =4.12,10-3
m-ft
= 6.97 x 10-3
the estimated coefficients as presented in Table 6.4 are dramatically different from the
given values (input into the system model). The estimation error increase to e = 0.89,
which is unacceptable. This is because the condition number is very large:
K(A) = 3129 (coi=30Hz, co2=40Hz)
which greatly amplify the error caused by the simulated noise.
For the one direction excitation method, although increasing the excitation
frequencies ( coi and co2 300 H z ) can decrease the K ( A ) significantly, K ( A ) is still
larger than 1000. Fig.6.9(a) shows the condition number of the single direction
excitation method for the full bearing(D/L=l) at different eccentricities. K ( A ) is larger
than 10000 as shown in Fig.6.9(a). This means the linear system E q (6-39) is very illconditioned (Section 19.4, Kreyszig, 1993), a small error in measurement will result in
large error in the estimated Z. Normally, the measurement error of available
displacement transducer is about 4 % , and the noise level in the displacement signals
198
could be as high as 1 0 % of the vibration amplitude. With these experimental errors, the
condition number of matrix A in E q (6-39) should be less than 100 to produce acceptable
estimation (with error or uncertainty less than 2 5 % ) of the bearing coefficients according
to computer simulation. T o reduce the uncertainty to 1 0 % , the condition number should
be smaller than 45. The single direction excitation method will not yield the satisfactory
estimation of the bearing coefficients because its condition number is m u c h higher than
100.
Table 6.4 Given and estimated coefficients estimated from the simulated
responses excited in one direction
(i= 0.6 , 2 =0.6, S i = S 2 =0.131)
cases
Bearing No
Given (input)
Zo#l
(Someya, 1989 )
Kyx
Kyy
Bxx
Bxy
Byx
Byy
1.770 -0.553
3.060
3.190
1.740
1.820
1.820
6.690
Zo#2
1.770 -0.553
3.060
3.190
1.740
1.820
1.820
6.690
0 % noise
Z#l
1.811 -0.483
3.044
3.163
1.756
1.933
1.814
6.646
8e=3.06E-02
Z#2
1.811 -0.483
3.044
3.163
1.756
1.933
1.814
6.646
10-15% noise
Z#l
1.211 -1.499
0.713 -1.158
e=o.89
Z#2
1.530 0.438
0.724 -1.090
6.5.2
Kxx
Kxy
directions, the condition number is m u c h smaller than that in one-direction. Fig.6.9 (a)
also shows the condition numbers in the conditions as described in Fig.6.6. Since the
condition number is not very high ( less than 100 for normal eccentricities), the
coefficients for the noisy cases are estimated with reasonable accuracy as presented in
Fig.6.6. Changing the excitation angles can improve the condition number further, but
this is normally limited by the structure of the bearing application. In the bearing test rig
199
described in Chapter 7, two exciters are installed at ai=30 and 0:2 = 150 . Simulation
shows that the condition number is dependent on the rotor mass and the excitation
frequencies. If the gravity of the rotor is less than the static load of the bearing,
increasing the rotor mass or the excitationfrequenciescan reduce the condition number.
The condition number is also dependent on the bearing eccentricity and the excitation
frequency. Fig.6.9(b) describes the relation between the condition number and the
excitation frequency utilising the rotor-bearing parameters as given in Section 6.4.1. For
the eccentricities up to 0.6, selecting the excitation frequency ratio co/Q to be 1 to 1.4 is
acceptable as it produces m i n i m u m condition number. For higher eccentricities, such as
e=0.8, the excitation frequency ratio co/Q should be 0.5 to 1 to minimise the condition
number.
120
<
-|
le+5
1=35 Hz
2 =40 Hz
Q=50Hz
e=o.2
E=0.6
e=o.4
e=o.8
o 1
80
o o
o o o
6e+4
00
C02=001+5Hz
40 -
2e+4
o o o o o o o o
40
20
0.0
1 | 1 1 1 1 1 |
<
k(A).d
k(A).s
120
"=50 Hz
0e+0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.4
1.0
10
(0/Q
1.6
200
6.6
(1) This chapter proposes a harmonic excitation method to determine all 16 dynamic
coefficients of two asymmetric journal bearings. T w o excitation forces and their
corresponding displacement responses are transferred to frequency domain.
Based on these frequency characteristics eight complex and linear equations are
derived. All 16 bearing force coefficients can be obtained by solving these
simultaneous linear equations.
(2) Two different excitation procedures are proposed. One is the traditional harmonic
excitation method which needs to excite the rotor-bearing system twice. Another
procedure needs only to excite the system once but with two harmonic forces of
differentfrequencies.If the excitation frequencies can be controlled exactiy, both
excitation methods produce the same level of coefficient estimation. Otherwise,
the responses of the combined excitations could be non periodical waves, normal
F F T can not obtain the frequency characteristics at exact t w o excitation
frequencies. This will affect the estimation accuracy of the combined excitation
procedure. It this case, larger sample duration (increase the frequency resolution)
can increase the estimation accuracy. Normally the frequency resolution should
be smaller than 0.2 H z . In practical application if the running conditions do not
change significantly, the separated excitation method is preferred because less data
is required to get accurate frequency characteristics. If the bearing running
conditions can not be controlled accurately, the combined excitation method is
better because all data are acquired in one run.
(3) The re-sampling technique can effectively increase the accuracy of frequency
characteristics by the F F T without increasing too m u c h sample data.
(4) If the initial unbalance vibration is significant, they can be subtracted from the
201
(5) The experimental noise level should be controlled to less than 20 % of the
response amplitudes.
(6) To keep the coefficient estimation error or uncertainty within 25% or 10%, the
condition number of matrix A in E q (6-39) should be less than 100 or 45
respectively. Exciting the rotor in only one direction will not yield satisfactory
estimation of the bearing coefficients because of the ill-condition of the estimation
equation. Exciting the rotor in two directions should yield better estimation
because the condition number of the estimation equation is smaller than 100 for
bearing eccentricity up to 0.8.
(7) To reduce the sensitivity of the estimated results to the experimental errors, the
excitation frequencies should be 1 to 1.4 times of rotation speed for bearing
eccentricities up to 0.6; for the eccentricities higher than 0.7, the excitation
frequencies should be 0.5 to 0.9 times of rotation speed.
202
CIHAIPTTIEIR 1
Abstract
An existing journal bearing test rig with free journal configuration is modified
to investigate the static and dynamic characteristics of two journal bearings. The
eccentric-mass vibrators arefirstlyused to excite the rotor-bearing system in the
bearing coefficient identification. The configurations of the test rig, bearings,
journal, and the instrumental system in the test rig are mentioned in this chapter.
The experimental method proposed
The force coefficients of two circular journal bearings with two axial
grooves each are estimated and correlated well with the theory.
203
7.1 INTRODUCTION
T o investigate the characteristics of journal bearings experimentally, two basic
configurations are used in the bearing test rigs. O n e is the free-bush configuration as
shown in Fig.7.1(a). The tested bearing is suspended on arigidjournal, the bearing load
is directly applied to the bearing case. The main advantages of this configuration are:
i) Simple in assembling, alignment setting and eccentricity measurement
ii) Small static load and excitation forces (half of those in the free journal
configuration).
The free bush configuration has been widely used in studying the static and dynamic
characteristics of various journal bearings (Mitchell et al, 1965-66; Glienicke, 1966-67;
Morton, 1971; Parkins, 1979; Someya, 1989 and Kostrzewsky, 1990). However, this
free-bush configuration has also the following disadvantages:
i) The journal movement affects the dynamic measurement In the slave (supporting)
bearings there are clearances comparable to the gap of the tested bearing no matter
h o w accurate the support bearings are. The journal will vibrate to some extent
when the bearing case is applied with dynamic load.
ii) The configuration is different from the bearing application, some dynamic
characteristics, such as the whirl and stability of rotor, can not be studied on the
rigAnother normally used bearing test rig configuration is the free journal
configuration as shown Fig.7.1(b). The design of the free journal configuration is more
simple than that of the free bush configuration. The free journal configuration is more
similar to the practical bearing application. Most of the dynamic properties, such as the
oil film force coefficients, oil whirl and rotor instability, can be studied on the test rig.
M a n y researchers (such as H a g g and Sankey, 1956 & 1958; Newkirk & Lewis, 1956;
Mitchell et al, 1965; Makdissy, 1980 and N o r d m a n & Schollhorn, 1980) have
204
successfully used this free journal configuration in their bearing testrigsto investigate the
dynamic properties of journal bearings.
To simulate the practical bearing application in the industrial turbine machines,
two bearing testrigsin this thesis all adopt the free-journal configuration. The purpose
of the experiments in this thesis is mainly to confirm the estimation methods of the force
coefficients of the oil-film bearings proposed in Chapter 6, Chapter 8 and Chapter 9.
tested bearings
VH
^3
EZ2
Z77Z\
sza ra
T\
Load applying
bearing
tested bearing
static load
static load
205
Suyfdnoo
fBSJ9AIUn B 7~
O) pgjodiraoo
206
static load to the journal via a lever and a roller bearing. T w o plain journal bearings each
with two axial grooves are tested simultaneously. The testrigis supported on 6 rubber
springs, the natural frequency of the testrigis 5.5 H z . Since normal dynamic signal in
the dynamic experiments is considerably higher than this frequency, the effect of this
natural frequency can be neglected.
Fig.7.3 shows the general view of the test rig with part of its lubrication and
instrument systems. At the left-up corner is the oil tank, and in the trolley atrighthand
side are part of instruments used in the experiments.
207
7.2.2
Tested bearings
7.2.3
Tested journal
Fig. 7.5 shows the dimension of the tested journal. With a natural frequency of
208
7.2.4
Fig. 7.6 shows the loading and excitation system of the test rig. Two 0.125 HP
eccentric mass vibrators ( E N G L I S H E L E C T R I C ) are used to generate the dynamic
forces. The force amplitude can be varied by adjusting the angle between two eccentric
mass. The frequencies of the dynamic forces are controlled by two M S C - M 3 frequency
controllers ( Z E N E R ) . Straingauge load cells (APPLIED I N S T R U M E N T ) were inserted
in the connect rods to measure the dynamic forces. Static load is applied by an air
bellows through a lever which amplifies the force by 10 times. The static load is set by
controlling the pneumatic pressure supplied into the air bellows through a pressurereducing valve. The stiffness of the air bellow is very low (< lxlO5 N / m ) compared with
209
the stiffness of the oilfilmbearings (>2.5xl0 7 N / m ) , thus the variation of static load due
to the journal vibration is small (<0.2% in the experiments to determine the bearing
dynamic coefficients). Static load is measured by a set of straingauges on the lever beam.
eccentric-mass
vibrator
roller bearing
eccentric-mass
vibrator
Frequency controllers
Compressed
air source
Fig.7.6 Loading and excitation system
7.2.5
Lubrication system
The lubrication system is shown in Fig.7.7. T h e big oil tank w a s designed to
maintain oil temperature constant during the experiments. The oil temperature can be
controlled within 0.2C by a 6 kW electric heater. One gear pump, with a maximum
210
flow of 400 L/min and m a x i m u m pressure of 10 bar, is used to supply the lubrication oil
to the tested bearings. A W E B S T E R turbine flow transducer with flow and temperature
digital read-out is used to measure the total flow of two tested bearings. Another piston
p u m p with pressure compensation is employed to lubricate the roller bearing and supply
static pressure to lift the shaft at the start-up. O n c e the rotor being started, the oil
supplied to the bottom holes of the bearings is cut off by the ball valve. The return oil
goes to a reservoir and is pumped to the higher tank after filtration. T w o pressure gauges
are connected to pumps' outlets to monitor the supply pressures. T w o vacuum pressure
gauges are connected to the top of bearing #1 at an angle of 45 to the vertical line to
monitor the pressure in the diverging area.
vacuum gauges
Fig.7.7
Lubrication system
211
7.2.6
D=200 m m
Bearing width
D=200 m m
Bearing clearances
Journal speed
1344 H z
Testrignatural frequency
5.5 H z
Bearing span
Probe distances
Si=289.8 m m , S 2 = 89.2 m m
Lif=L2f=200 m m
Lubricant
CALTEXIS015
dynamic viscosity =14 Cst at 40 C and 5 Cst at 80 C
ii = 0.ouMe-* 02574 ^- 40 ) Ns/m 2 , T in C
Lubricant viscosity
Driving end
Bearing 1
Non-driving end
Bearing 2
T
i-2
Li
Lif
xl
L2f
Xip
X2 P
6>
yip
Si
~L
S2
rpr-l^y
3V2P
vf
2W
Fby
\. Fbx
\X?
212
7.2.7
Instrument system
The test rig has a sophisticated instrument system. Eight BENTLY NEVADA
3300 and 7200 series proximity probes are used to measure the journal vibration and
bearing oil film thickness. Four capacitance elements were installed in the journal to
monitor the bearing clearance. Six K U L I T E pressure transducers in the journal are used
to measure the pressure around the bearings. Three straingauge force cells are employed
to measure static and dynamic forces. The pulse signals from two optical cells provide
the phase reference and are employed to calculate the rotation speed. There are 51 T-type
thermocouples around bearings and shaft Fig.7.9 shows the locations of most of these
sensors. Table 7.1 lists some sensors and their purposes. T h e details (brands and
models) of these transducers and their calibrations are described in Appendix C.
213
Table 7.1 Sensors in the journal bearing testrig(see Appendix C for details)
Sensors
Quantity
proximity probe
Where
Purpose
4 in journal,
4 on bearing sleeve
capacitance element
in journal
pressure transducer
in journal
optical cell
load cell
T-type thermocouple
pressure gauge
2 at oil inlets
vacuum gauge
turbine flowmeter
2 in #1 bearing
at oil inlets
Proximity probes
iiiiiiinIIIIIIIIH-
nnnni
Optical cells
Macitosh
II
Mac ADIOs
[ZZI
A/D
converter
Pressure transduces
M a c A D I O s 488s
Bus controller
3ZZ
H P 3497A
Data acquisition/
control unit
force cells
Thermocouples
fflr=n
214
Signals from displacement, pressure, force and speed sensors are connected to a
M a c II computer through a M a c A D I O s with an 833 k H z A / D converter as shown in
Fig.7.10. All thermocouple signals are also sampled by the computer via a H P 3497A
data acquisition/control unit and a M a c A D I O s 488s bus controller.
7.3 T H E
STATIC
CHARACTERISTICS
OF
THE
E X P E R I M E N T A L J O U R N A L BEARINGS
7.3.1 Determination of hot bearing centres
To measure the eccentricities of a journal in the bearings at hot running condition,
the first step is to determine the centre of the hot bearing. D u e to the thermal-expansion
of the bearing, journal and the probe cases, it is difficult to predict the bearing centre in
advance. T o investigate the thermal effect on the proximity probes, the probes were
calibrated at different temperatures from 20 to 65 C (see Appendix C). Since the relative
displacements are employed to calculate the eccentricities, the zero shift of the probe and
expansion of the probe case will not affect the results. Only the gains (scalers) of the
transducers are important in the experiments. According to Appendix C, for a gap from
0.15 to 1 m m , the gain of four proximity probes at the temperatures from 20 to 65 C do
not change significantly(<0.2%). In the data processing, the gains calibrated at the
temperature close to the experiment operating temperature were used.
The bearing centre is determined by a similar way as used by Kostrzewsky
(1990). After warming up the oil and running journal to the normal operating
temperature, stop the journal and shut off the oil supply. Then push the journal against
the bearing surface by a screw jack at four extreme points in two crossing lines as shown
in Fig.7.11. Assuming the bearing surface is a circle and the journal are solid contact
with the bearing, then both lines will cross at the bearing centre. The average of the
215
probe output voltages at the four extreme contact points is the voltage related to the centre
of clearance circle and is used as the reference voltage U0 in the calculation of the
eccentricity.
clearance circle.
"-
x2p original
x2p after pre-processing
SO um
40 nm -
_i
60
120
180
240
300
216
7.3.2
Data pre-processing
Since there are five frequency transformers (for the speed control of 2 exciters
and 3 pumps) in the electric system of the bearing testrig,the magnetic interference to the
displacement signals w a s serious. T h e
217
X2p
-i
-.
Q=402 rpm
S= 0.045
=0.751
1.4E-4 ( m )
'
5.2E-5
9.E-5
'
9.5E-5 -
1 1
5.7E-5
62E-5
' 1 1 1 1 1 1
N>^
6.3 n m
(5.716E-5, 9.417E-5)
-
1.0E-
magnified
1.4E-41
7.3.3
displacements and eccentricity of the journal in the bearing can be determined according
to the output voltages of the probes installed on the bearing sleeves (xip, yip, x2p and y2 P
in Fig.7.8 or in Fig.7.9). D u e to surface roughness, roundness and the initial unbalance
of the shaft, the journal centre does not stay at one point. Fig.7.13 shows the locus
measured by probes X2 P and y2 P . At the running conditions as shown in Fig.7.13, the
initial vibration amplitudes is about 6.3 |i.m (0.04 c) in the x-direction , and about 4.2
H m in the y-direction. The eccentricity at the probe plane is calculated by subtracting the
voltage at the bearing centre from the average of the voltages correlated to the journal
trajectory as shown in Fig.7.13. T h e eccentricities measured at two probe planes
(determined by xi p , yi p and by X2 P and y2 P respectively) are then transferred to the
218
bearing centres by equation (6 - 25). T h e eccentricities mentioned in this thesis are the
eccentricities at the bearing centres calculated in this way. Fig.7.14 shows the measured
relations between the Sommerfeld number and eccentricity, and Fig.7.15 shows the
experimental attitude angle at different loads. The solid lines are calculated results of a
parallel bearing and the dash lines are results of a misaligned bearing. The measured
bearing clearance, grooves, speed, supply pressure and viscosity (according to the
average temperature around the bearing) are used in the calculation. The misalignment
parameters are assumed according to the static pressure as shown in Fig.7.17(b). The
F D M - I F P method (see Section 3.3) are employed to calculate the theoretical Sommerfeld
number and attitude angles.
Since the journal centre does not stay at one point as shown in Fig.7.13, strictly
the steady bearing eccentricity can not be measured directly. The eccentricity measured in
the above w a y is only an average eccentricity of the journal steady locus. Referring to
Fig.7.14, the theoretical Sommerfeld numbers of both bearings agree well with the
experimental results especially w h e n some misalignment is considered in the theoretical
calculation. T h e theoretical attitude angle of the parallel bearing is 5 to 10 higher than
the experimental value. If a misalignment of x=0.l8 with Y = - 3 5 (see Fig.5.1 for
definition) is considered, the experimental values are only 5 apart the theoretical attitude
angles. In the calculation of static bearing characteristics, such as Sommerfeld number
and attitude angle, the journal is assumed to stay at its equilibrium position. This is not
true in the tested rotor-bearing system whose rotor vibrates to some extent at the steady
condition. The variation in theoretical assumption will produce some difference between
the theoretical results and the experimental measurements.
219
1.0
W c
Si bearing 1
S2 bearing 2
Theoretical-T=0
-- Theoretical-x=0.18,Y=-35e
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
3
o
s
N.
60
40
<]>01 bearing 1
(|)02 bearing 2
20
\
i ^ ^ ^
Theoretical~x=0
Tbeoretical--T=0.18, y=-35
0
.1
10
1/S
ioo
220
fitting the clearance curves. Fig.7.16 shows the experimental clearance curve in bearing
2 and its fitting curve. For a misaligned circular bearing, its theoretical oil film t
in the mid plane can also be expressed by (set Z=L/2R in Eq(5-1)):
H = 1 + COS(<|>-(|>0)
(3-3)
T o find e and <J0 accurately from the noisy signal as shown in Fig.7.16, a nonlinear
curve-fitting technique should be used. In this thesis, the simplex optimal method (Li
al, 1980) is employed to fit the eccentricity e and the attitude angle <|>0 by minimis
residual:
F(e, 4>0 ) = I [Ht - (1 + e cos^,- - $0))]
(7-1)
H2
thermocouples
Fitted
Measured
0
60
120
180
240
300
360
from that of the white bearing metal, the proximity probe generates a discontinuity at
221
head of each thermocouple as shown in Fig.7.16. Before the curvefitting,the data at the
grooves and thermocouples are deleted from the experimental data. This curve fitting
method is effective only w h e n the eccentricity is m u c h larger than the initial vibration
amplitude. Otherwise, e andtyQin (7-1) can not be considered as constant for different
4>i.
222
p
(kpa)
2000 -
H
1000 -
-1000
0
60
120
180
240
300
360
3000
' i
-1
''
bearing #2
p4 ps p6
. T=0.18, 7=-34.6 *
A*=-0.039Qc, AJr=0.12Qc
2000
$y
n
1000
p4.fit
p4.exP
p4.exp
p4.exP
J
-1000
0
60
p5.fit
p6.fit
I
120
180
*
240
223
Fig.7.17 (c)
224
slightly which changed its misalignment ratio with the shaft. At the light load, the
bearings' positions in their cases could be significantly changed because of different
deformations of the elastic adhesive at different axial positions. At heavier load, both
bearings were pressed to the bottoms of their cases. Since the bearing cases are more
carefully aligned with each other, the misalignment ratio is low at heavier load when two
bearings are pressed to the bottoms of their cases. This is w h y the misalignment ratio at
heavy load is lower than that at light load. Another reason is that misalignment at heavier
load produces m u c h bigger m o m e n t to force the journal or bearing to deflect (especially at
elastic adhesive in the bearing case clearance) to reduce the misalignment ratio (see
Fig.5.7 in Chapter 5).
-i
P
(kpa)
4000
S=0.025, Q = 4 0 2 r p m
1
=0.84,
p4
ps
<Jto=22.1
P6
H
3000
upstream groove
ps=400kpa
downstream groove
2000
H
2
ps=400 kpa
1000
m*
'Hmin
-1000
0
60
120
J d.
180
240
$(o)
J u
300
360
225
-ii
p(kpa)
r-
"-
Fitted parameters:
1=0.034, 7=-l0.8*
Ax=-0.015Qc, Ay=0.083Qc
S=0.023, <|>=21.3*
4000
bearing #2
p4 ps p6
3000
2000
1000
-1000
-i
60
120
180
240
300
7.3.5
Supply
flow
Fig.7.19 shows the measured dimensionless supply flow. It is the average flow
to two bearings. Referring to Fig.7.19, the experimental flow is not as sensitive to the
load as the theoretical flow to the load. At light loads, the predicted flow is smaller than
the experimental flow. At higher loads, the theoretical flow of aligned bearing is larger
than the experimental values. If the misalignment is considered, the difference between
the theory and experiment is smaller than that of the parallel bearing especially at
moderate loads.
226
1.0
i i
11
' 'l
Q =
RciiL
0.6
0.4
0.2
Qs. experimental
Theoretical-T=0
Theoretical-x=0.18, y=-35
0.0
10
1/S
100
7.3.6
Temperature Distribution
The temperature distribution is measured by 48 T-type thermocouples around the
two bearings. Fig.7.20 shows typical temperature distribution around two bearings.
From Fig.7.20 (a) and (b), at high operating load(S=0.091), the temperature reaches the
highest points at d o w n stream of the m i n i m u m oil-film thickness. The temperature at the
upstream supply groove is the lowest point in all the bearing surface.
The average temperature around two bearings in Fig.7.20 (a) and (b) is 60.5 C,
which is 2.8 C higher than that of the supply oil (57.7 C). T h e m a x i m u m temperature
difference a m o n g all measurement points is 9 C.
When the load is light (the eccentricity is small), the temperature rise (from the
inlet temperature) and the temperature difference a m o n g all measurement points are
smaller than those at heavy load. For S=3.8 (no load except the gravity of the shaft) as
s h o w n in Fig.7.20(c) and (d), the average temperature is 60.4 C and the inlet
227
Axially, the temperature at the mid plane is lower than those near two sides. This
is because the colder supply oil reaches the mid planefirstand cools the bearing surface.
t
C
ti t2 U
t4 t5 t6
I
_4
downstream groove
55
upstream groove
50
90
-I
t
c
50
180
r-
65
tl
---*--
t3
i__l_
90
t
c
-i
180
i_
270
65
l: ,.
60 ; L ^ r r * * ^ - - * ^
"A
-a*
downstream groove .
downstream groove
55
55
upstream groove
upstream groove
<l>(o)
50
90
.i
180
-i
<|>(o) -
270
50
360
90
i__i_
180
270
228
360
7.4 T H E
ESTIMATION
OF
THE
BEARING
FORCE
COEFFICIENTS
7.4.1 Experimental procedures
T h e experiments were performed o n the bearing testrigaccording to the
following procedures:
(i)
Running the rotor until the speed, flow and temperature became steady. T h e
variations of speed, flow and temperature were maintained within 0.5 rpm,
0.1 L / min and 0.2 C respectively.
(ii)
(iii) Turn the vibrator 1 on and sample the force fi(t) and response qi(t)
(iv) Turn the vibrator 2 on and sample the force f2(t) and response q2(t)
(v)
Turn the vibrators 1 and 2 on and sample the forces fi(t) and f2(t) and response
q(t)
From fi(t), f2(t), qi(t), q2(t) and q(t), all bearing coefficients can be determined
by both separated and combined excitation methods. Changing the static load and
repeating step (i) to (v) can obtain the coefficients at different loads or eccentricities.
R e m o v e outliers and other unreasonable data from the sampled data (see Section
7.3.2 and Appendix D ) .
(ii)
(iii) Find the accurate excitation frequencies according to fi(t) and f2(t)
(iv) Calculate the re-sample interval T according to (6-51) or (6-52) dependent on the
excitation methods.
229
(v)
(vi) Perform F F T on the time-domain signals F ^ u T ) and qk(uT) to obtain Fe(jCDk) and
Q(j&\) in frequency domain.
(vii) Subtract the initial vibration Q o 0<k)fromQ(jfflk)
(viii) Carry out coordinate transformation according to (6-25)
(ix) Construct matrices A and D in E q (6-39)
(x)
(7-2)
where:
ZX1(M)= tan-1^
A
k=l,2
i,*
From Fig.7.21, these recovered signals (in solid lines) are very close to the
experimental data, which means:
(i) the responses are principally harmonic,
230
20000
10000
g
s
-10000
0.0
0.1
231
0.2
t(s)
fl
30000
-15000
f2 29.58 H z
f2 recovered from F2(ja)2)
-30000
0.0
o.i
t(s)
0.2
0.2
-o.i
xi
xi recovered from Xl(ji)
-0.2
o.o
o.i
t (s)
232
0.2
0.2
-0.1
-0.2 i
yi
yi
L.
o.o
o.i
t(s)
0.2
-o.i
X2
o.o
o.i
t(s)
233
0.2
0.2
0.0^
-0.1
y2
y2
-0.2
o.i
0.0
t(s)
0.2
The frequency characteristics are written as vectors including both real and
imaginary parts. For example, the frequency characteristics of the displacement signals
as shown in Fig.7.21 are:
0.03883-j 0.04634
-0.001663+ J0.04467
234
0.04201-7 0.04693
-0.005420+ ; 0.04307
&(M) =
0.05341-j 0.04904
_ -0.01890 + j0.03735
Substituting these frequency characteristics at the bearing centres and the frequency
characteristics of excitation force into E q (6-42) and Eq (6-43) yields one set of complex
equations E q (6-38). From the frequency characteristics at CO2 obtain another set of the
equations. Combining them produces E q (6-39), from which all 16 bearing coefficients
are obtained. Table 7.2 presents the estimated coefficients according to the signals in
Fig.7.21. The coefficient factors here are:
k =
f ? L =2.569x10?
N / m , and
* n(clRy
/
Cb=
*f * =1.746x103
N.S/m
niclRy
Multiplying these factors with the estimated coefficients in Table 7.2 yields the
dimensional coefficients. M o r e experimental results at different loads are presented in
Tables 7.3 and 7.4.
Bearing N o
Kxx
Kxy
Kyx
Kyy
Bxx
Bxy
Byx
Byy
separated
Z#l
9.76
-4.21
1.73
11.7
19.5
10.5
11.4
35.0
excitation
Z#2
10.3
-4.59
17.7
15.1
15.5
10.4
6.06
34.0
combined
Z#l
9.47
-4.24
17.3
11.4
19.4
10.5
11.1
34.7
excitation
Z#2
10.4
-4.88
17.5
14.8
15.5
10.3
6.56
33.7
235
15000
>-
3
fa
f1
24.13 Hz
f2
2938 Hz
10000
29.58 Hz
24.13 Hz
5000
0) (Hz)
0 ocooofeiooe<cio4ttticl$6&
0
20
40
60
80
o.io
"-
-i
0.05
o
Xl(j<0)
Y1(JG))
X2(jffi)
Y2(jC0)
&
0) (Hz)
0.00
9
20
40
60
236
80
0.10
<
'
'
- i |
1-
8
O
xi(ja)
o Yi(jco)
* X2(jfi>)
A Y2(JC0)
0.05
CO (Hz)
A
0.00
20
40
60
80
7.4.2.2
Combined
excitation
Exciting the rotor simultaneously with two forces as shown in Figs.7.21(a) and
(b), the measured responses are plotted in Fig.7.23. The amplitudes and frequencies of
the excitation forces are the same as those shown in Fig.7.21 (a) and (b), but the initial
phases are different Since the sampling program is triggered off by the optical signal at a
definite shaft rotation angle, the initial phases of the excitation forces are different for
different runs because the exciters and shaft are driven by different electric motors. In
Fig.7.23 the solid lines are drawn according to the frequency characteristics at two
excitation frequencies. For example, the solid line for xi is drawn according to the
following function:
*i(0 HW^cosPrccv-^(yc^H^^
where:
k=l,2
237
0.2
'
-0.1
xi
-0.2
o.o
o.i
0.2
t (s)
03
0.2
8 5
Io o3 %
o.o
6
#
6
o
P
s
6
s
6
e
o
b
b
o 6
\86
p
-o.i
o yi
yi recovered from Yi (jcoi)+Yi (jo)2)
-0.2
o.o
o.i
0.2
t (s)
0.3
238
0.2
-0.1
o.i
i (s)
0.2
0.3
0.2
(d) Diplacement responses y 2 in time d o m a i n
under d y n a m i c forces fl and f2
-o.i
A
y2
o.o
0.1
0.2
t (S)
0.3
239
15000
3
fa
24.17 H z
10000
29.69 H z
+
fl
24.17 Hz
f2
29.69 Hz
5000
+
o
1> ! * -t*ntftft* rhfrtoftft*+Ofcft* *<>* l ) ( H f t | D | % c
0
40
80
120 ^ QJz)
160
Fig.7.24 (a) Frequency characteristics of excitation forces fi and f^
o.io
0.05
xi(j)
Yi(jco)
X2(jco)
Y2(JGD)
coi= 24.30 H z
0)2=29.82 H z
I I
I. J -
6
0.00
20
40
CO CHz)
60
frequency characteristics as shown in Fig.7.24. After the FFT, all noises except at
240
excitation frequencies are filtered. Transforming these frequency responses into the
bearing centres and substituting them into E q (6-39) solve all 16 bearing coefficients.
Table 7.2 also presents the estimated coefficients according to this combined excitation
method. T h e results are very close to those from the separated excitation method. Both
methods can be used to estimate the bearing coefficients.
241
Kxx
Kxy
Kyx
Kyy
Bxx
Bxy
Byx
Byy
0.916
0.172
-0.724
-2.81
9.40
2.25
12.2
0.423
1.51
19.2
0.286
0.363
5.00
-2.86
11.2
5.50
14.7
6.85
6.19
21.8
0.176
0.499
9.76
-4.21
1.73
11.7
19.5
10.5
11.4
35.0
0.176*
0.499
9.47
-424
17.3
11.4
19.4
10.5
11.1
34.7
0.135
0.578
12.3
-4.11
19.0
15.5
20.6
13.9
12.8
40.8
0.113
0.600
16.8
-3.54
24.5
22.1
24.5
20.0
17.7
53.2
0.091
0.635
22.1
-4.61
34.4
25.5
27.9
23.7
23.7
69.4
Superscript * indicates the case that the combined excitation procedure is used;
otherwise, the separated excitation procedure is used.
Table 7.4 Estimated coefficients of bearing 2
( Q = 1 4 0 4 rpm, C k =2.569xlO?N/m, C b =1.746xl0 5 N.s/m)
Kxx
Kxy
Kyx
Kyy
Bxx
Bxy
Byx
Byy
0.954
0.108
2.04
-2.28
7.69
2.67
13.2
-0.311
-2.67
19.5
0.298
0.290
4.67
-1.77
11.4
3.34
14.3
3.39
4.57
16.1
0.184
0.432
10.3
-4.59
17.7
15.1
15.5
10.4
6.06
34.0
0.184*
0.432
10.4
-4.88
17.5
14.8
15.5
10.3
6.56
33.7
0.141
0.550
13.1
-3.79
19.3
16.8
16.8
13.7
11.8
42.4
0.118
0.585
12.9
-5.45
16.7
19.2
17.4
16.2
18.1
52.1
0.095
0.621
19.6
-1.82
38.3
30.3
20.2
17.6
25.2
64.1
* Superscript * indicates the case that the combined excitation procedure is used;
otherwise, the separated excitation procedure is used.
242
80
i
Kxx
111
1 1 1 1
60
kij
Kij =-
[lQL
40
Kxx
Kxx
Theoretical~T=0
-- Theoretical-T=0.18,y=-35e
20
~*L
A
O
-20
I I I I I
.1
L.
i
Kij=kij/Ck,
io
i/s
ioo
Q=2.569xl 0 7 N / m
80
i
I l-T
Kxy
T"
III
I T T I
o
A
40
Kxy
Kxy
Theoretical-x=0
Theoretical~T=0.18, y =-35
20 I-
-:
-20
.1
4^ TT^TP
io
yS
243
ioo
80
Kyx
60
Kyx
Kyx
40
Theoretical-T=0
Theoretical-x=0.18, y=-35
20
-20 I
'
1-
.1
_i
-i
io
i/s
ioo
80
Kyy
l l 1"f
f T I
60 -
40 -
Kyy
Kyy
Theoretical-x=0
Theoretical~T=0.18, y =-35
20 -
0 -
-20
_i_L
.1
= ktj IQ,
io
C*=2.569xl0 7
1/S
ioo
N/m
244
100 r-
11
i i
11
Bxx
JC(c/R)?
,
BH=-
bij
ilL
60
'
Bxx
Bxx
Theoretical--x=0
40
Theoretical--x=0.18,y=-35
20
.1
4=V
*>
io
1/S
Cb=1.746xl05 N.S/m
80
i i
11
Byx
o
o
Bxy
Byx
40
Bxy
Byx
Theoretical-x=0
i 60
Theoretical--x=0.18,y=-35
20
0 -
-t
-20
10
1/S
100
245
80
I I I
II
60
. njdRf
Dij =
DIJ
40
20
Byy
Byy
Theoretical-x=0
- - Theoretical-x=0.18, y =-35'
-20
10
Be=b9/Cb,
C b =1.746xl05
1/S
10
N.S/m
7.4.5
Critical speeds
Employing the estimated bearing coefficients, the critical stable speeds at different
246
20
^"
*M '^
15 _
o
A
a
10
1
iZcrit
-=. 2
Qcrit
Theoretieal-x=0
-" Theoretical-x=0.18,y=-35
.1
10
jy
I I
100
Fig.7.27 Dimensionless critical speeds predicted from the estimated bearing coefficients
7.5.1
Precision of transducers
Table 7.5 lists the precision of main transducers used in the experiments rated by
their manufacturers. In practical application the error could be lower than the listed values
because the transducers are re-calibrated at a very narrow measurement range at the
temperature close to that of the experiments. These transducer errors will definitely affect
the estimation accuracy of the bearing characteristics.
247
7.5.2
Proximity probes
4%
Force cells
1%
Pressure transducers
0.5%
Thermocouples
0.2 C
Manufacturing tolerance
Misalignment in the test rig is mainly determined by the coaxality between two
bearing surfaces and the cylindricality of the surfaces of the journal and two bearings.
Limited to the available equipment, the manufacturing tolerances of two big bearings and
their cases can only be maintain within class 7 precision (ISO/R286). T h e coaxality
between bearing internal and external surfaces is about 0.02 m m . The coaxality between
the internal surfaces of two bearing cases is about 0.03 m m . Thus the coaxality of two
bearing surfaces is about 0.05 m m . This could be one main reason which caused the
misalignments in the experiments.
In addition to the inevitable non-coaxality between two bearing surfaces, the
fitting clearances (10 to 30 iim) between the bearing external surface and its case was
found to be different for two bearings. During the assembly, a silastic adhesive was
filled in thefittingclearance, which means the bearings are partly supported by the elastic
adhesive. It is possible that with the change of the bearing load, the bearing location
varied slightly because of the different elastic deformations of the adhesive in the fitting
clearances. This could be the reason w h y the misalignment ratio changes with the
bearing load (see Section 7.3.3).
Another important manufacturing tolerance is the cylindricality of the surfaces of
the journal and two bearings. The cylindricality can be approximately determined by the
total runout in all cylindrical surface. According to the measurement after some
experiments, the total runout is 0.04 m m for bearing 1 , 0.01 m m for bearing 2, and
248
0.005 m m for the journal. Since the bearing's radial clearance is only 0.144 m m , these
manufacturing tolerances are not negligible. They could produce a misalignment ratio of
, max. diameter variation. n >**> ^_
_* **u u
^
parts
2 x radial clearance
^ faring surfaces even though the
rotor and its load were absolutely symmetric to the midplane between two bearings. This
misalignment could considerably affect the bearing coefficients as analysed in Chapter 5.
T h e surface roughness is about 3 a m for the bearings and 2 u.m for the journal
after some experiments. The roughness affects the oilfilmthickness and contributes to
the discrepancy between the theoretical prediction and the experimental results.
7.5.3
The measurement method can also introduce error on the estimated bearing
characteristics. In the eccentricity measurement, the bearing centre is determined by
averaging the output voltages of probes at four extreme positions. In the practical
experiments, it is difficult to m o v e the journal to contact two bearings at the same
position, especially w h e n two bearings are misaligned. According to the repeatability of
the output voltages correlated to the bearing centre, it is estimated that the bearing centre
was located to within 0.03c error in the aforementioned experiments. Therefore, the
eccentricity measured in this chapter assumes about 0.03 c error. This will considerably
affect the attitude angle when the eccentricity is low.
For the force coefficient estimation, the clearance of the slave bearing (roller
bearing in Fig.7.6), which is used to apply the load on the journal, affects the force
transmittedtothe journal. Since the mass of the external ring and its case is small (23.5
kg), the force to accelerate this ring is m u c h smaller (<0.1%) than the force transferred to
the oil film. According to the calculation, neglecting the mass of the external ring of the
slave bearing, the difference in the estimated bearing coefficients is less than 0.2%. In
249
the data processing, the mass of the external ring of the slave bearing is added to the
mass of the rotor.
Since the stiffness of the air bellow is very low (< lxlO5 N/m) compared with the
stiffness of the oilfilmbearings (>2.5xl0 7 N / m ) , the static load variation due to dynamic
excitations is less than 0 . 2 % according to the recorded force signals. The effect of this
load variation on the bearing coefficients is negligible.
Since the bearing clearances are very small and noise level is high as shown in
Fig.7.12, currently available displacement sensors can not measure the small
displacement with enough accuracy. T o increase the signal/noise ratio, the vibration
amplitudes in the dynamic experiments (described in Section 7.4) are maintained to be
smaller than 0.08c except for the combined excitation. According to the relation between
coefficient variation and the perturbation amplitudes (see Table 3.14), the vibration
amplitude of 0.08c could produce 2.5% to 1 0 % difference in the estimated coefficients
with the theoretical calculation, where the infinitesimal perturbation method is used.
250
7.5.5
Due to the aforementioned experimental errors, the estimated coefficients will take
an uncertainty to some extend. Since the complexity in the coefficient calculation from
the experimental responses, it is difficult to determine the uncertainty of the estimated
coefficients analytically. T o investigate the effect of the experimental error on the
estimated coefficients, a perturbed method is used. For example, perturbing the
measured displacement xi to + 4 % and yi to - 4 % , the coefficients can be estimated from
these erroneous (perturbed) displacements. The coefficient variation (or error) are
calculated by averaging the differences of 16 coefficients estimated from the measured
displacements and those estimated from the erroneous (perturbed) displacements
(according to (6-53)). T h e m a x i m u m coefficient error under different displacement
perturbations (xi 4 % , yi 4 % , x24%
caused by the displacement error. In this way, the uncertainties for the estimated
coefficients presented in Tables 7.3 and 7.4 are between 1 6 % and 3 1 % due to 4 %
amplitude error of 4 proximity probes. The uncertainties at light loads (S>0.2 or e<0.3)
are higher than those at moderate loads (0.2<S<0.09 or 0.3<e<0.65).
Similarly, 1% force measurement error (uncertainty) will bring on 3%
uncertainty in the estimated coefficients. With 4 % displacement uncertainty and 1 %
force uncertainty, the typical uncertainty in the estimated coefficients is 3 2 % .
Since the bearing coefficients are complicated functions of m a n y variables, such
as the oil film thickness which can not be perfectly expressed because of the
manufacturing tolerance, fluid temperature, and vibration amplitudes (see Section 3.7), it
is difficult to determine them accurately. D u e to inevitable experimental errors, the
uncertainties of the estimated coefficients are normally high. Kostrzewsky & Flack
(1990b) have systematically investigated the uncertainties of the bearing coefficients
estimated from the experimental harmonic responses. They found that the minimum
uncertainties in 8 estimated bearing coefficients were typically from 1 0 % to 4 0 %
251
The temperature reaches the highest points at d o w n stream of the m i n i m u m oilfilm thickness. The temperature near the upstream supply groove is the lowest
point in all the bearing surface. The average temperature around bearing is 1.9 to
2.8 C higher than that of the inlet oil for loads from S = 3.8 to 0.09. The higher
the load, the higher the temperature rise.
(4)
252
estimated by two procedures are close. For the separated excitation procedure,
the data processing is easier, but it requires longer experimental time to maintain
the vibration steady twice. In the combined excitation, all data can be acquired
during one run notwithstanding its dada processing is slightly more complicated.
For laboratory application, both excitation procedures can yield reasonable
results. H o w e v e r for the application where the test time is limited and bearing
conditions can not be accurately controlled, the combined excitation procedure
should be applied.
Applicable experimental procedures and data processing methods are proposed.
Although the excitation forces are not standard harmonic, the proposed data
processing method can still work out the bearing coefficients with reasonable
accuracy. T h e pre-processing program developed herein can effectively remove
the outlier and other unreasonable data from the experimental signals without
changing signal's phase. Re-sampling the discrete data before F F T can
effectively filter out the noise and avoid the alias of the frequency characteristics.
The estimated bearing dynamic coefficients of two tested journal bearings
correlated well with the theory especially when the misalignment is considered in
the theoretical calculation. The typical uncertainty of the estimated coefficients is
3 2 % due to the measurement errors. The critical stable speeds predicted from the
estimated bearing coefficients show the same tendency as the theory analysis but
is higher than the theoretical prediction of aligned bearing. If the misalignment is
considered in the theoretical calculation, the critical stable speeds of the
experimental rotor-bearing system agree well with the theoretical prediction. The
experimental results verify that the misalignment can improve the stability of the
rotor-bearing system.
D u e to the manufacturing tolerance, there are significant misalignments in both
tested bearings. The misalignment ratio decreased with an increase of the bearing
load. O n e important reason is that misalignment at heavier load produces m u c h
253
254
CIEIAIPMIR 8
This chapter extends the impact excitation method to determine all 16 dynamic
coefficients of two journal bearings.
255
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The impact excitation is the most economic and convenient method among all
excitation methods in parameter identification. A n impulse force consists of the signals
with a wide range of frequencies, thus its impulse response includes the characteristics of
the identified system in a wide frequency range. Employing this impulse response to
estimate the bearing coefficients can increase the reliability of the coefficients. Nordman
& Schollhorn(1980) successfully developed the impact excitation method to identify 8
bearing coefficients of two symmetric journal bearings. T w o impulse forces were
exerted in the middle of arigidand symmetric rotor, the displacements were measured at
two locations near the bearings and were averaged. The pulse forces and their impulse
responses were transformed to frequency domain and the transfer functions at different
frequencies were found. All eight coefficients were estimated byfittingthe amplitudes of
the transfer functions. Zhang et al(1990), Chan & White(1991) have also successfully
used this excitation method to identify 8 bearing coefficients of two symmetric bearings.
Since m a n y rotor-bearing systems are not symmetric and its m o v e m e n t is more
complicated than those of one bearing, the symmetric simplification limits the method's
application and the curve-fitting method also takes long computation time because the
residual is a complicated function of the estimated coefficients. This research extends the
impact method to two different bearings and develops an explicit coefficients' estimator to
calculate all the coefficients.
Mq + (ClG + B)q + Kq = Fn
n=x, y
256
(8-1)
(8-2)
Where
C =
Driving end
Bearing 1
Non-driving end
Li
L2
LW
L2f
fy
XI
Bearing 2
L
fi=
-m ci>
Xip yip
cf^ZI
fc
X2p
Si
S2
Y2P
v?1
y2
yi
2W
Fby
Q(ju>)
=F(jto)
c
(8-4)
jcii(aG+C77v,eo'<)-<;
bB)}ZL
F(
257
(8-5)
Where
Q 0 > = ^(jfi)) riQ'Q)) X2Q-g Y2(jaJ)
F(jco) [ F(jco)' Fijco)' F(/G>)' FOffl)
(8-6)
F(m)
(8-7)
= [Hluc + jHrf, Hj[ + jHJt;, Hrf + jH^, Hj: + JHJ^ j
and:
"* =
\(M
F(/G))
1T
-rrrlr w 2 r w 3 r 774rl2
-["nJfc ***> " n * ' "nifcj
X^jCO)
l
H-l.
nk
F(jCO)
' *W
+ (akCbBH^ = tolMHit - c o ^ G ^ = P*
(8-9)
258
Ank Z = Dnk
(8-10)
AZ = D
(8-11)
The coefficients can be calculated by the following estimator based on the least-,
square
estimation method:
Z = (ATA)"1ATD
(8-12)
where
4 - ! A l > Ax2,..., A ^ , Ayl,Ay2,..., Aynf
(8-13)
and
4* =
CkH%CkH%
CkH%CkHZ
0
0
0
0
-(OkCbH%-a>kCbH%
i&kCbH% ikCbH%
CkH%CkH%
CkH%CkH
0
0
0
0
-kCbH%-G)kCbH%
G)kCbH%
(8-14)
i*kCbH%
>(1) F(2)
L=
^ ( D Pi*V)
P(3) F(4)
n=x,y
(8-15)
|Pj*(3) F^(4)
p
nkU\ P^U) U = 1,2,3 and 4) are calculated from the second equation of Eqs. (8-8)
and Eq(8-9).
259
Input the rotor and bearing data and assume the eccentricity ratios of two
bearings, input the theoretical coefficients corresponding to the assumed
eccentricity.
(ii)
(iv)
Solve the displacement response q(t) from Eq(8-2) by the Runge-Kutta method.
Impose the white noise on q(t) (see Sections 6.4.4 and 8.4.3).
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
260
Construct M , G, B and K
eq.(8-2)
| q(t)
FFT
Qn(j(D)/Fn (j)
Construct A and D
= (AFA)A ATD
L=25 m m
D = 25 m m
m=7.5 kg
it=0.47kg
ip = 0.0712 kg
Q= 3000 rpm
^o = ^o = 100 N
to = 1.5 ms
261
8.4.1
Symmetric Bearings
Assume that the rotor-bearing system is symmetrical, both bearings operate at the
same eccentricity ratio Ei = e 2 = 0.6 (Si=S 2 =0.131). The excitation pulse force peaks
are frt= f,o = 100 N . With the given (input theoretical) coefficients Zo and the exciting
forces, the displacement response q(t) can be solved on the system model Eq(8-2) using
the 6th-order Runge-Kutta numerical integration algorithm(Jackson, 1985). Transfer
functions Qn(jo))/FnGo>) are obtained by performing F F T on these responses. These
transfer functions are substituted in Eqs (8-14) and (8-15) to construct A and D in
Eq (8-11) and the coefficients are calculated by Eq(8-12).
Fig. 8.3 presents the simulated impact force and impulse responses in both time
and frequency domains. The responses are contaminated by the noise with a level of 2 %
of the radial clearance, which is 1 0 % of the maximal peak of impulse response xi(or X2)
under fx and 4 0 % of the maximal peak of impulse response xl(or x2) under fy (see
Fig. 8.3a and c). Table 8.1 presents the given (input) coefficients Z Q and the estimated
values Z under different noise level. If the simulated signals are noise-free, the estimated
coefficients are almost the same as the given (input) values. The negligible discrepancies
are caused by numerical integration and F F T errors. If Q(jco) is solved directly from
Eq(8-5) in the frequency domain, the estimated coefficients will be the same as the given
values.
262
0.000
0.003
t(s)
0.006
-0.2
0.00
0.02
0.04
t(s) 0.06
-o.i -
-0.2
0.00
0.02
0.04
t(s)
0.06
263
0.016
*******
'"**<
3
O
fa
0.008
fl = 50Hz
0.004 -
0.000
0
(fl/Q
6e-4
i . i j
Is
o
o
A
Xl,X2/Fx Yl,Y2/Fx
Xl,X2/Fy
Yl,Y2/Fy
2e-4
Oe+0 L _ L _ 6 - A . A _ 6 J &
0.0
03
1.0
(o/Q,
8.4.2
Asymmetric
Bearings
Normal rotor-bearings are not symmetric and the rotors can not be absolutely
bearing's static the load (Uo=0.1W); the simulated responses are shown in Fig. 8
264
03
-0.2
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
t (s)
0.10
03
0.2
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
t(s)
0.10
265
03
0.2
-0.2 I
0.00
y 2 .y
1
0.02
0.04
0.06
t(s)
10
2e-4
CM
3"
O
le-4 -
0e+0
(D/Q
2.0
6e-4
3
O
+
Xl/Fx
Yl/Fx
X2/Fx
Y2/Fx
2e-4 -
0e+0
0.0
0.5
1.0
0VQ
2.0
266
Since the initial vibrations are high, their amplitudes are increased (Fig.8.4a & b) or
decreased (Fig.8.4c & d) only for a short period. The amplitude variation depends on
the time w h e n the impact force starts. The transfer functions shown in Fig.8.3(f) are
calculated after subtracting the initial vibration from the impulse responses. From these
transfer functions, the bearing coefficients are estimated as presented in Table 8.2.
W h e n the signals are noise-free, the estimated coefficients are the same as the given
values. Table 8.2 presents the estimated results for different cases.
267
Table 8.1 Given and estimated coefficients with different noise levels
(Symmetric bearings, 1= 2 = 0.6 St=S 2 =0.131, impact method,ttVfl=0.2to 2)
cases
BearineNo Kxx
Kxv
Kyx
Kvv
Bxx
Bxv
Byx
Bw
given (input)
Zo#l
1.77
-0.553
3.06
3.19
1.74
1.82
1.82
6.69
(Someya, 1989)
Zo#2
1.77
-0.553
3.06
3.19
1.74
1.82
1.82
6.69
0 % noise
Z#l
1.77
-0.553 3.06
3.18
1.74
1.82
1.82
6.69
e=2.07E-04
Z#2
1.77
-0.553 3.06
3.19
1.74
1.82
1.82
6.69
5-20% noise
Z#l
1.75
-0.563
2.99
3.14
1.72
1.75
1.77
6.53
e=2.35E-02
Z#2
1.74
-0.559 2.97
3.14
1.71
1.74
1.75
6.49
10-40% noise
Z#l
1.78
-0.460 2.98
3.26
1.68
1.73
1.65
6.31
Ee=6.16E-02
Z#2
1.79
-0.451 2.97
3.29
1.67
1.72
1.62
6.27
20-80% noise
Z#l
1.63
-0.558 2.58
2.94
1.55
1.36
1.41
5.51
Ee=0.141
Z#2
1.62
-0.545 2.55
2.95
1.53
1.33
1.36
5.42
Ur =10%W
Z#l
1.77
-0.553 3.06
3.19
1.74
1.82
1.82
6.69
Ee=2.77E-04
Z#2
1.77
-0.553 3.06
3.19
1.74
1.82
1.82
6.69
8.4.3
Noise Effects
T o assess the sensitivity of the estimated coefficients to the noise, the simulated
displacement and force signals are also contaminated by noise at different levels.
Fig. 8.3 shows the contaminated displacement signals, where the noise level is about
1 0 % of the m a x i m u m peak of the impulse responses (xi and x 2 under fx in Fig.8.3(b))
and 4 0 % of m i n i m u m peak of the impulse responses(xi and x 2 under fy in Fig.8.3(c)).
Obtaining the amplitudes and phases from these noise signals in time domain is quite
difficult and inaccurate. However in frequency-domain, the noise effect is not as serious
as in the time domain.
268
BearineNo Kxx
Kxy
Kyx
Kyy
Bxx
Bxy
Byx
Byy
Zo#l
1.77
-0.553 3.06
3.19
1.74
1.82
1.82
6.69
1.89
-1.00
3.09
2.67
2.31
2.00
2.00
6.99
0 % noise
Z#l
1.77
-0.553 3.06
3.19
1.74
1.82
1.82
6.69
Ee=2.09E-04
Z#2
1.89
-1.00
3.09
2.67
2.31
2.00
2.00
6.99
5-20% noise
Z#l
3.14
1.72
1.75
1.77
6.52
Ee=1.88E-02
Z#2
1.87
-0.995 3.04
2.66
2.28
1.94
1.95
6.85
10-20% noise
Z#l
1.71
-0.565 2.88
3.08
1.67
1.64
1.67
6.24
Ee=4.63E-02
Z#2
1.85
-0.985 2.96
2.64
2.24
1.85
1.87
6.66
20-40% noise
Z#l
1.64
-0.553 2.59
2.95
1.55
1.36
1.40
5.49
e=o.ii6
Z#2
1.79
-0.947 2.78
2.62
2.13
1.63
1.66
6.16
U r =10%W
Z#l
1.77
-0.553 3.06
3.19
1.74
1.82
1.82
6.69
Ee=2.13E-04
Z#2
1.89
-1.00
2.67
2.31
2.00
2.00
6.99
3.09
In the noisy cases, the estimated results are found to be sensitive to the frequency
range in which the transfer functions are used to estimate the bearing coefficients. T h e
frequency range for the estimation of the coefficients in Tables 8.2 and 8.3 are from 0.2
to 2 times of the rotation speed. A t the same noise level, if the frequency range is
co/Q=0.4 to 4, the estimated error will be increased considerably. For example, at the
10-40% noise level, the estimated error will be 3 2 % if the frequency range is co/Q=0.4 to
4. The estimated error is 5 times of that in Table 8.1. From the transfer functions in
Figs.8.3 and 8.4, the impulse power is mainly distributed over a frequency range from
0.2 to 2 Q. This significant range is determined by the bearing coefficients and the
excitation force. Since the power of the simulated noise is distributed in all frequencies
from 0 to <, its effect at the significant frequencies from 0.2 to 2ftis negligible
comparing with the impulse responses, i.e. the signal/noise levels in this frequency
269
range are higher than those at other frequencies. Selecting the frequency range (0.2 to 2
CI for the simulated rotor-bearing system) where the transfer function amplitudes are
high can increase the noise immunity of the impact method
8.5 EXPERIMENT
8.5.1
shown in Fig.8.5. The rotor is driven through a special flexicross coupling by a 1.1 k W
electric motor, whose speed is adjusted by the M S C - M 3 frequency controller as used in
the big bearing testrig(see Section 7.2.4). T o reduce the lateral constraint force of the
coupling, a ball bearing was inserted in the commercial flexicross coupling as shown in
Fig.8.5(b). The bearings' static load is the gravity of the rotor, whose mass can be
changed by attaching more discs. Four Bentley Nevade 7200 series proximity probes
270
(see Appendix C ) are installed near the bearings at a 45 angle to the vertical to measure
the rotor vibration. A n optical sensor gives a pulse signal per turn which can be used to
calculate the rotation speed. All data are sampled and saved on discs by the same
computer and A / D converter as used in the big bearing test rig (see Section 7.2.7).
Tested bearings are full cylindrical bearings with a top axial groove as shown in
Fig.8.5(c). The parameters of the testrigare:
Bearing diameter D=25.4 m m
Width: L=25
Clearances:
c 1 = 0.128,
c 2 = 0.122,
Rotor mass:
4 to 7.6 kg
mm
c = 0.125 m m
Lowest natural frequency of the rotor: 235 H z (at m a x i m u m rotor mass 7.6 kg)
Rotor speed:
S 2 = 190 m m ,
L Q = 340 m m
The lubricating oil is supplied to the top groove of the bearings from the top
tanks, where the oil level is constant by passing the oil through a side hole in each tank
to the big oil receiver below the bearing (see Fig.8.5(a)). The return oil from both
bearings and the overflow from the two top tanks flow to the reservoir and then
continuously pumped to the top tanks. Since the friction power loss in each bearing is
less than 0.01 k W , the m a x i m u m oil temperature increase is less than 1 C even if all the
frictional power is transferred to the oil. The total volume of the oil tanks and reservoir
is 50 L, the operating oil temperature measured at the side flow of bearings was only
about 1C higher than the ambient temperature. The oil temperature is mainly dependent
on the ambient temperature and has been easy to keep constant throughout the
experiment This is important especially to the unbalance excitation method which will
be described in Chapter 9.
Since the frequencies of experimental signals are much lower than the natural
frequency of the rotor, the rotor can be thought asrigidand the afore-mentioned impact
271
probes
x2p, y2p
272
To measure the impact forces, a Kistler 902A force washer is inserted between the ny
cap and the hammer body.
273
8.5.2
Experimental Procedure
The experimental procedure includes:
(i) R u n the rotor at speed CI, sample and save the initial vibration displacements q 0 (t)
and the optical sensor signal.
(ii) While the rotor is running at the same speed, the rotor is impacted horizontally with
the impact h a m m e r and the response q,(t) and impact force fx(t) are recorded.
(iii) At the same running speed, the rotor is impacted vertically and the response qy(t)
and fy(t) recorded again.
All these three sets of data are saved on computer disc and then processed to
obtain the 16 bearing coefficients.
(ii)
(iii)
Calculate the eccentricities and the attitude angles for both bearings according to
initial displacement and q 0 (t).
(iv)
(n = 0,x, y)
(v)
(vi)
(n=x,y)
274
fx,fy
FFT
Q* (j) j Fn(jCO)
Qn
(JC0)-QO
(jffi)
AZ = D
*
Z = (ATA)'1ATD
Fig. 8.7 Data processing schedule
8.5.4
Example
A n example to determine all the coefficients from experimental data is described
here. Figs.8.8(a) and (b) show experimental impact forces, and Figs.8.8(c) to (f) show
all displacement responses under two impact excitations. The displacements at two
bearings are very close because the rotor-bearing system are nearly symmetric. From
Figs.8.8(c) through (f), a periodic component with period from 0.08 to 0.12 second can
be found for every displacement These periodic components are confirmed by the
frequency characteristics as shown Fig.8.9. Figs.8.9(a) and (b) show the transfer
functions of all impulse responses to the impact forces, comparing against those of the
simulated system with the estimated coefficients. From Fig.8.9, there are oil whirling
phenomena at frequency ratio ca/Cl- 0.5 to 0.7 ( =8.5 to 12 Hz). These whirl
frequencies correlated well with the periods of 0.12 to 0.08 s which have been found in
the time domain signals as shown in Fig.8.8.
275
&
'
:
o
150
fx-experimental
fx.-simulated
100
50
ooeoooooo
-50
0.000
0.005
001
t(s)
fy-experimental
fy-simulated
150
*\
/
'
*
/
/
100
\
\
\
\
50
/
0 *-"
.
.sn
O000
0.005
t(s)
276
0.010
S=0.1004, Q = 1 7 . 3 H z ,
0.2
1=0.69,
2=0.62
$10=47.8',
$2o= 55.7'
x l.x -experimental
yl.x-experimental
AS
'
0.0
-0.2
0.00
**s#^****. ^%r
**
0.06
0.12
t (s)
0-18
0.2
X2.x-experimental
y2.x-experimental
X2.x-simulated from estimated coefficients
y2.x-simulated from estimated coefficients
-0.2
0.00
0.06
0.12
t(s)
18
277
xl.y-experimental
yl.y-experimental
xl.y-simulated
~ yiysimulated
-0.2
0.00
0.06
0.12
t(s)
18
>>
X2.y-experimental
y2.y-experimental
X2.y-simulated from estimated coefficients
y2.y-simulated from estimated coefficients
-0.2
0.00
0.12
0.06
t(s)
0.18
278
0.02
3
K
fa
1
o.oi
0.00 Ii
oVQ
0.012
-3
xi/fy-experimental
to
yi/fy-experimental
x2/fy-experimental
y2/fy-experimental
0.008 -
-o xl/fy-simulated
-x yi/fy-simulated
- o x2/fy-simulated
- A y2/fy-simulated
0.004
0.000
279
Kxy
Kyx
Kyy
Bxx
Bxy
Byx
Byy
Estimated Z ( # 1) 24.1
-3.19
72.2
45.4
71.3
34.2
48.3
55.4
EstimatedZ(# 2) 25.8
-3.78
81.2
52.6
72.9
38.0
52.0
63.6
Kxx
8.5.5
Verification of Simulation
Only if the displacement response in both time domain and frequency domain
agree with the measurement it can be said that the estimated coefficients can represent
the experimental rotor-bearing system. T o verify the accuracy, the estimated coefficients
are substituted into the system model and the impulse response are simulated on
280
computer. Fig.8.8 shows the simulated impact forces and their impulse responses. The
impact force is simulated by the bell-shape function:
21nl0(r-r)
/(') = / .
tl
In which
to=0.0023 s, f0= 125 N for fx and f0= 160 N for fy .
The simulated impulse responses are shown as the continuous lines in Fig.8.8. The
simulated transfer functions from the estimated coefficients are also plotted as solid lines
in Fig.8.9. F r o m Fig.8.8 and 8.9, the simulated impulse responses and the transfer
functions from the estimated coefficients correlate well with the experimental data.
Therefore, the estimated coefficients can correctly represent the dynamic behaviour of the
tested bearings and they can be used to predict the dynamic performance of the rotorbaring system.
8.5.6 Discussion
Referring to Fig.8.8 the experimental signals are noisy. They were most
possibly contaminated by the magnetic interference. The experimental displacements did
not return to zero as soon as the simulated signals. This was possibly caused by the
residual contacting force of the impact hammer. Another factor which will bring on
difference between the experimental and simulated signals is nonlinear property of the
bearing forces (see Section 4.4.1). Since the peak values of the impulse responses are
close to 2 0 % clearance, approaching these nonlinear responses with linear model will
produce some error. Although these factors were not considered in the simulation, and
the simulated impact forces were also slightly different from the experimental impact
forces (see Figs.8.8(a) and (b)), the simulated responses are still agree well with the
experimental responses. The peak values and rising times for both measured and
281
simulated impact responses are very close. This means the estimated coefficients
approximate the measured system in both frequency and time domain, and they can be
used to predict the system dynamic performance.
In the experiment the displacement responses were found to be sensitive to the
coupling structure. Painstaking work was done to reduce the lateral constraint force of
the coupling. A ball bearing was inserted in a commercial flexicross coupling as shown
in Fig.8.5(b). If the coupling lateral contact forces are not balanced or the lateral
constraining force is not negligible w h e n compared with the bearing forces, the rotor
m o v e m e n t will be affected by the coupling force significantly. In the bearing
application, the rotor vibrations will also inevitably be contaminated by the coupling
force, unbalanced centrifugal and gravity forces, foundation effect and noise; so that the
measured transfer functions will not be as smooth as the theoretical calculation.
Theoretically the transfer function at one frequency for each impact can determine all
coefficients as the harmonic excitation method, but it was found that if only one
frequency characteristic was used to determine the bearing dynamic coefficients, the
repeatability of the estimated coefficients was poor. This investigation used transfer
functions at more than 20 frequencies as shown in Fig.8.9 to estimate the coefficients.
Although the transfer functions of the estimated system with the coefficients differ
slightly with the measurement at some frequencies, the combined square-error (or
residual-mean-square) is minimal
282
8.6 CONCLUSIONS
This chapter extends the impact excitation method to estimate all dynamic
coefficients of two asymmetric bearings from the impulse responses. M o r e accurate
system model capable of evaluating two different bearings at the same time is used. A
linear estimator based on the least-square estimation is derived through which all
dynamic coefficients can be calculated through one operation.
The proposed method has been performed on the laboratory bearing test rig.
Computer simulation verifies that the estimated coefficients can approximate very well
the measured rotor-bearing dynamic characteristics in both time and frequency domains.
The oil whirl phenomena were found in the experiments. The whirling
frequencies correlate well with the values predicted from the estimated bearing
coefficients and agree very well with the linear stability theory.
T o increase the estimation accuracy, transfer functions at m a n y frequencies in a
frequency range near the shaft speed should be used.
283
CIEIAIPraiR 2)
DETERMINATION OF ALL DYNAMIC
COEFFICIENTS OF TWO JOURNAL BEARINGS
FROM SYNCHRONOUS UNBALANCE
RESPONSES
A new method to determine all 16 dynamic coefficients of two journal bearings
from two or more sets of unbalance responses is developed in this chapter. The
displacement responses under trial unbalance are transferred to frequency domain,
from which a linear estimator for all coefficients is developed based on the leastsquare estimation. Compared with previous measurement methods, the unbalance
method can be conveniently applied to estimate the coefficients of large scale
journal bearings, without relying on expensive excitation equipment to apply large
dynamic force to the rotor as required by other methods.
284
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Although the harmonic excitation method described in Chapter 6 can determine all
coefficients of two bearings, it can not be applied to estimate the coefficients of large
journal bearings in situ because of the difficulty in generating the large harmonic forces.
The impact excitation method described in chapter 8 can also determine all dynamic
coefficients of two bearings at low cost, it is still difficult to find suitable space or
equipment to apply large impact force to excite the rotor to a measurable vibrating
displacement for some bearing application as in a big turbine machine in situ. The
synchronous unbalance excitations are simple and widely used in parameters estimation
(Hagg & Sankey, 1956; W o o d c o c k & H o m e s , 1969; W o o m e r & Pilkey, 1978;
Stanway, 1983). Since "tests with pure unbalance disturbance can yield only four
unknown coefficients", the previous "unbalance excitation methods are valid for the
tilting-pad bearings in which the cross-coupling terms can be virtually disregarded"
(Someya, 1989, p242). T o determine all linear coefficients from the unbalance
responses, Zhang et al(1987), Zheng & X u (1992) decoupled the mathematical model of
theflexible-rotor-bearingsystem by a finite element method and solved the coefficients
bearing by bearing. Since no example detail was given, h o w they achieved the
uncoupled model was not m a d e clear. Lee and Hong(1989) used the forward and
backward "whirling" vectors to determine the coefficients and concluded that the
coefficients can not be uniquely determined if two bearings are symmetric for lack of
information regarding the backward whirl. Since the displacements or whirling vectors
of the numerical examples in three papers( Zhang et al, 1983; Zheng & Xu, 1992; Lee
and Hong, 1989) were solved from the system model in the frequency domain, the
method to determine these displacements vectors from the noisy experimental signals
was not mentioned.
The work in this chapter attempts to simplify the coefficient calculation by
developing some explicit formula and using the synchronous unbalance responses
285
BearinglLi
286
(9-1)
(9-2)
where:
u n sin(i2f +fy)+ ul2 sin(Qf + <S>2)'
Fk = -&
(9-3)
U =
"11
"12
."21 "22 J
(9-4)
If the displacements are measured off the bearing centres, equation (6-25) can also be
used to m o v e the measured displacements to the bearing centres.
Qfc(jn) = F ft (jQ)
(9-5)
Or
[CkK+jClCbB)] Qk(JCl)=Fk(JCl)+Cl2[M-jG] & ( / Q ) = W *
(9-6)
The frequency characteristics in this chapter are also calculated by equations (6-34) and
(6-35).
Similar to (6-33), the unbalance response is also expressed as the complex vector
QUCl)=Qr+j0=[X[+jXi, n+jYi,X^+jX2, Y^+jYl2]T
where the superscript r is the real part, and i the imaginary part
287
CkK{T-Cl
(9-7)
QK&+CI CbBQr=Fi(jO)+r12^M^_GQr)z=pi
(9-8)
A k Z = Dk
(9-9)
Q % %
*t =
0
0
0
0
-ClChXU -ClCbY\i
0
ClCbX^ QCbY^ 0
CkX^ CkYry,
CkX^ CkY'u
0
0
0
0
- a c ^ -cicbru
ClCbHru
ClCbYru
(9-10)
pka) pim
A*=
(9-11)
Pk0) P[(4)
ino) n(4)
K"*
z=
K"1
-iT
\c^ K ^
-D1
ijl
ij2
TJ2
V^ V^
V^ \fi P*
n*
R. yX IV yy JVyjj R.yy B y j B y y
P^ -ry 2
JJyJ[ U yy
Since the mass m , inertia It and Ip and speed CI can be estimated or measured
directly, F^ can be calculated according to the trial unbalances, and q(t) is the
unbalance response; QQC1) and (]C1) are obtained through the Fourier transform; s
rotor twice with independent trial unbalance pairs (fi and f2) results in 16 linea
AZ = D
(9-12)
288
from which the coefficients estimator based on the least-square estimation technique is
derived:
Z=(ATATlATD
(9-13)
where
A[A^, A2y A$, _, A^J
D={Dl,D2,D3Dm]T
mZ.2
(9-14)
All the coefficients of two bearings can be determined with the estimator (9-13)
through one operation.
This method also requires matrix A T A to be non-singular which means the rank
of matrix A is 8 (only consider m = 2 for simplification). Since A is combined from Ak,
if:
(i) A k is independent on each other (k=l,2) , and
(ii) the rank of Akis 4
then the rank of A is 8 and A is nonsingular.
Condition (i) can be satisfied by changing the trial masses and their distributing
locations. Condition (ii) requires (see (9-10)):
(XytYik~Xii|tYy[)(X2jcY2jc-X2>kY2jc)^0
(9-15)
This condition is normally satisfied. Using two trial masses for each run,
locating them at different angles and away from the centre of gravity can make it more
definitively satisfied. Moreover, extensive numerical experiments with e =0.1 to 0.9 on
computer, and practical experiments with =0.4 to 0.8 on the testrighave shown that
there is no case whose matrix A T A is singular.
289
9.3.1
Fk=-Cl2
(9-16)
Similarly, if fy = n
(w 11 -w 12 )sinQf
Fk = -Cf
( U M - 1 ^ 2 ) cos O f
(9-17)
(u2l-u22)smCk
("21-1*22) cos Ck
9.3.2
especially for a large turbine machine. To ensure the accuracy of the method this initial
unbalance should be accounted for . According to the principle described in Section
290
6.3.3, the rotor initial vibration Q 0 ( j Q ) can be simply subtracted from the response
Qk(jO) measured at k-th trial running. Therefore the same coefficient estimator (9-13)
can be used as long as Qk(jQ) (k=l,2,3,4) is replaced by Q^ft) - Q0(jft).
9.33
To save computation time and to increase the FFT accuracy, the sample duration
tti should be selected as an integer multiple of the period of the rotor rotation, that
2ufl
= - ^ - , u=l,2 ..., according to Section 6.3.4. Thus the Fourier transform of the
harmonic waves with amplitude A can be calculated directly:
0 t
F ( A c o s Q t ) = rAcosnt e-iQtdt = A
(9-18)
These calculations are simpler and can save the time in the calculation of F(j CI) by the
discrete Fourier transform.
During the real experiments, signals are sampled by a computer with an A/D
converter, the sample interval T0 can not be set arbitrarily because the computer needs
some time to convert and store a datum, thus tN can not be set to -^ exactly. To solve
CI
this problem, the interpolation technique as mentioned in Section 6.3.4 has been
employed to re-sample the signals with an exact interval.
291
to check the utility of the unbalance excitation method. Fig.9.2 is the brief flow chart of
the computer program which mainly includes the following procedures:
(i)
(ii)
Cm)
Solve (9-2) for the displacement response q^t) by the Runge-Kutta integration
method (Jackson, 1985). Impose the white noise on q^t) (see Section 6.4.4).
(iv)
Perform F F T on the time-domain signals qk(t) to obtain Q^QCl) and Fk(jQ) in the
frequency domain.
(v)
(vi)
I _ _,
Construct M , G, B and K
|Eq.(9-2)
Solve equation (9-2)
^q(t),
FFT
Q(jfl)|F(jfl)
AZ = D
A T -1 T
Z=(ATA) A D
Fig.9.2 The flow chart of the simulation
292
D = 25mm
m=7.58 kg
it= 0.473 kg
Lo = 340 m m
Li=L 2 = 172
Rt=R 2 = L/4
h = 12 = 0.5
n = r2 = 0.25
9.4.1 Symmetric
c=0.125 m m
ip = 0.0712 kg
Bearings
Although all 8 coefficients of two symmetric bearings can by found from one
of vibration data, the simulation test here still assume the system is asymmetric because
one may not know the system in advance.
Assume that the rotor-bearing system is symmetrical, both bearings are oper
at the same eccentricity ratio Ei = 2 = 0.6 (Si=S2 =0.131), and the coefficients of two
simulated bearings are the same as those presented in Table 9.1 as the given coefficients
ZQ. The given coefficients, which will be input to the simulated bearing model, are
theoretical coefficients of a circular bearing with two 10-axial-grooves calculated by
Someya (1989).
For the first trial, put an unbalance mass mi= 4 g on plate 1 (Fig.9.1) in x
direction (fy = 0), and m 2 = 2 g atfy=n/2 and distributing radius pi =p2 =0.045 m .
From (9-4) calculate the unbalance matrix:
IT -
n n/ic T 0.003
Ul=
0.045 [
00Q1
0.0005 "1
QQ015
For the second trial, interchanging two unbalance masses' positions yields:
IT
U 2 =
nrt>icT 0.0015
45
L 0.0005
0.001 "I
0.003 J
293
With the given coefficients Zo and the unbalance forces U k , the unbalance response q^t)
can be solved from (9-2) using the Runge-Kutta numerical integration algorithm.
Performing the FFT on q^t) produces the frequency response due to the trial unbalan
At the noise-free condition, the frequency responses due to the above four unbalanc
U i , U 2 , U 3 and U 4 are:
QiGG) =
0.0943
-0.0842
0.0131
-0.0435
+j
+j
+j
-j
0.1169
0.0006
0.0849
0.0250
<hQCl) =
0.0245 +j 0.1014
-0.0524 -j 0.0256
-0.0596 +j 0.1244
-0.0352 -jO.0705
<hQCi) =
0.0807 +j 0.0732
-0.0601 +j 0.0110
0.0026 -j 0.0140
0.0041 +J0.0048
Q4QCI) =
-0.0026
-0.0041
-0.0807
0.0601
(9-19)
(9-20)
+j 0.0140
-j 0.0048
-j 0.0732
-jO.0110
Selecting sample duration ^ = 2 n/Cl, the force matrices can be calculated according to
equations (9-3), (9-17) and (9-18):
0.045 Ci2
i(jCl) =
0.045 ii 2
F 2 (jQ) =
-0.0005 +j 0.003
-0.003 -j 0.0005
-0.0015 +j 0.001
-0.001 -j 0.0015
-0.001 +j 0.0015
-0.0015 -j 0.001
-0.003 +j 0.0005
-0.0005 -j 0.003
Substitute them in (9-6) to construct A and D in (9-12) and calculate the coefficients by
(9-13). Table 9.1 presents the estimated coefficients Z against the given (input) va
From the tabulated values, the estimated coefficients are very close to the given v
the simulated signals are noise-free. The negligible discrepancies are caused by
numerical integration and FFT errors. If Q(jft) is solved directly from (9-5), the
estimated coefficients are exactly same as the given values.
294
Table 9.1 Given and estimated coefficients with different noise level
CTvvo symmetric bearings, i=e 2 = 0.6 S 1 = S 2 =0.131)
m
noise
Bearing No
10-60%
Bxx
Bxy
Byx
Byy
1.820
1.820
6.690
Zo#2
1.740
1.820
1.820
6.690
Z#l
3.181
1.741
1.818
1.817
6.672
2.2E-3
Z#2
3.197
1.742
1.826
1.812
6.677
Z#l
1.766
1.631
2.134
6.559
9.2E-2
Z#2
1.723
1.667
1.826
6.602
Z#l
2.963
1.794
1.865
2.019
6.954
7.1E-2
Z#2
1.78
-0.492 2.745
3.095
1.626
1.570
1.641
6.054
Z#l
2.978
1.801
1.862
1.990
6.897
5.5E-2
Z#2
3.460
1.641
1.723
1.545
6.247
Z#l
1.701
1.766
1.439
2.359
6.335
0.171
Z#2
3.045
1.687
1.497
1.822
6.484
Z#l
2.692
1.839
1.888
2.222 7.171
Z#2
2.999
1.529
1.354
1.500
5.525
Z#l
2.746
1.860
1.898
2.170
7.105
Z#2
3.656
1.549
1.614
1.312
5.829
Z#l
3.167
1.734
1.804
1.815
6.647
7.1E-3
Z#2
3.202
1.755
1.842
1.825
6.720
8
0.107
0%
Kyy
1.740
0.133
atUo
Kyx
(Someya, 1989)
5-30%
Kxy
Zo#l
given* (input)
0%
Kxx
* T h e given coefficients, which are input to the simulated bearing model, are theoretical coefficients of
a circular bearing with two 10-axial-grooves calculated by Someya (1989).
295
03
"
r-
Oi=0,
&2=K/2
0.2
.
*
a*
0.1
xl.Ul
yl.Ul
x2.Ul
y2.Ul
.^*v.
4*
-o.i
-V
*S*\
-0.2
0.00
0.01
03
>
t (S)
002
0.03
xl.U2
yl.U2
-0.1
-0.2
0.00
0.01
t (S)
0.02
0.03
296
03
0.2
x2.U3
y2.U3
0.1
X2
-0.1
0.2
0.00
0.01
t(s)
0.02
0.03
03
-0.2
0.00
0.01
t(s)
xl.U4
yl.U4
- x2.U4
0.02
0.03
297
9.4.2
Noise Effects
To assess the noise effect, the simulated displacement signals are also imposed on
the white noises at different levels (Section 6.4.4). Fig.9.3 shows the simulated
displacement responses at U l f U 2 , U 3 and U 4 in time-domain after being contaminated
with 10-60% noise. In Fig.9.3 the noise amplitude is 0.015 (or 1.5% clearance), which
is 1 0 % of the amplitude of the strongest displacement signal xi at U i and about 6 0 % of
the weakest signal x 2 under U 3 . Using these contaminated displacement responses, the
method can still estimate the coefficients with a fair accuracy as presented in Table 9.1.
Since the power of the unbalance responses is concentrated at the rotational frequency,
the signal/noise ratio in frequency domain is very high at the rotational frequency
(amplitude ratio >100), so the noise effect on the unbalance method is not as serious as
other methods. However, to achieve reasonable accuracy, the noise level should be kept
as low as possible.
298
among the four displacement signals are smaller at <t>2- n/2 than those at $ 2 = * If one
displacement is too small, its measurement accuracy would be poor, which will affect all
coefficients' estimation. Keeping all displacement amplitudes at comparable levels can
also improve the measurement accuracy.
299
<S> 2 =K/2*)
BearineNo
Kxx
Kxy
Kyx
Kyy
Bxx
Bxy
Byx
Byy
given** (input)
Zo#l
1.77
-0.553
3.06
3.19
1.74
1.82
1.82
6.69
(Someya, 1989)
Zo#2
1.89
-1.00
3.09
2.67
2.31
2.00
2.00
6.99
3.170
1.748
1.825
1.824 6.676
0 % noise
Z#l
Ee=5.5E-3
Z#2
1.5% C noise
Z#l
1.826
1.869
2.157 7.031
Ee=0.11( *2=w/2)
Z#2
2.669
2.091
1.639
1.702 6.127
1.5% C noise
Z#l
2.576
1.899
1.915
2.293
Ee=0.14( * 2 = K )
Z#2
2.101
1.735
1.410 6.070
atUo
Z#l
1.733
1.805
1.802 6.622
Ee=1.2E-02
Z#2
7.232
7.053
300
9.4.5
Initial Unbalance
Assume the initial unbalance of the rotor is:
0.045 T - 0 1
L 0.000
U0=
0
- 0 0 1
0.002 J
Fig.9.4 shows one displacement response under the initial unbalance Ufor a rotorbearing system running at ei = e2 = 0.6. The frequency response at U0 are:
Qo(jQ) =
0.0333
-0.0305
-0.0509
-0.0133
+j
-j
+j
-j
0.0449
0.0016
0.0680
0.0465
(9-21)
03
-03
0.00
0.01
t( s )
0.02
0.03
QiCJO)
f 0.1275
-0.1148
= -0.0378
-0.0568
+j
-j
+j
-j
0.1618
0.0009
0.1528
0.0714
(9-22)
301
0.0578 +j 0.1463
QiQCl) = -0.0829 -j 0.0272
-0.1105 +j 0.1924
. -0.0485 -j 0.1170
(9-23)
and:
Qi(jO)" QoCJQ) =
0.0943
-0.0842
0.0131
-0.0435
+j
+j
+j
-j
0.1169
0.0006
0.0849
0.0250
(9-24)
Q 2 (jG) - Q o G Q ) =
0.0245 +j 0.1014
-0.0524 -j 0.0256
-0.0596 +j 0.1244
-0.0352 -jO.0705
(9-25)
They are the same as equations (9-19) and (9-20) where no initial unbalance
exists. Substituting QkQCl) - Qo(j&) m place of QQCl) in (9-6) results in the estimated
coefficients shown in Table 9.1. The estimated coefficients are as accurate as those
without the initial unbalance, which means the proposed method can easily eliminate the
initial unbalance.
9.4.6
Effect o f T i m e Shift
In the numerical experiments, four displacement signals x\,yh x2 and y2 are
sampled at the same time. In practical application, any analog/digital converter needs
some time to digitise the continuous signals and computer also needs some time to
control the converter and store the data. Therefore the signals are not sampled at the
same time point Assume A/D converter and computer take 8t to sample one datum. The
sample order is xi, yi, x2 and y2- If xx is sampled at t=u To (u is the order number of
the sample points, sample interval T o ^ j St, j is the number of signals to be sampled by
the converter), yi is sampled at u To+8t, x2 at uTo+28t, and y2 at uTo+38t; therefore
yi was delayed by St, x2 delayed by 28t and y2 delayed by 35t According to the F F T
theory, these time shifts will bring on the phase delay in frequency domain. To simulate
the effect of these time shifts, the simulated unbalance responses are artificially shifted
302
j8t forward before performing F F T o n them. Table 9.3 shows the estimated
coefficients from these shifted responses. Simulation shows that if St < 20 us (as in the
case of normal A / D converter), the effect of the time shift is negligible. This time shift
effect can be eliminated by moving the delayed signal back employing the interpolation
technique. Table 9.3 also presented the estimated coefficients employing these
interpolated signals which are as accurate as those of without the time shift
Table 9.3 Given and estimated coefficients with different data conversion times
(Two asymmetric bearings i= 2 = 0.6 Si=S2 =0.131, noise-free, m = 4 )
cases
Bearing N o
given
Zo#l
(input)
Zo#2
1.740
1.820
1.820 6.690
5t=0
Z#l
3.181
1.741
1.818
1.817 6.672
Ee=2.2E-3
Z#2
1.742
1.826
1.812 6.677
5t= 10 us
Z#l
1.720
1.759
1.809
Ee=10E-2
Z#2
3.252
1.736
1.829
1.797 6.669
5t=20us
Z#l
3.293
1.700
1.700
1.800 6.719
Ee=2.E-2
Z#2
1.729
1.831
1.782 6.660
5t=100os
Z#l
3.738
1.529
1.230
1.738 6.905
e=1.0E-l
Z#2
3.745
1.676
1.849
1.655
5t=100us*
Z#l
1.741
1.818
1.817 6.672
ee=2.2E-2
Z#2
1.742
1.826
1.812 6.677
Kxx
Kxv
Kyx
Kyy
Bxx
Bxy
Byx
* The delayed signals are artificially moved forward employing interpolation technique
303
Byy
6.695
6.573
9.5 EXPERIMENT
Although the thorough simulation has confirmed the unbalance method
theoretically, experiments to measure the dynamic coefficients of real bearings are also
performed on the small bearing test rig as shown in Fig.8.5(a) to verify further the
usefulness of the unbalance method.
Rig
The bearing test rig is described in Section 8.5.1. To test the unbalance method,
it is slightly modified. T w o discs are fixed on the rotor. Trial unbalance masses can be
attached to the discs by the 4 screws in orthogonal positions as shown in Fig.9.5.
probes
x2p, y2p
optical
sensor
probes
xip, y l p \ ^ ^
coupling "
304
9.5.2
Experiment Procedure
R u n the rotor at speed CI, sample and save the initial vibration displacements q0(t)
and the optical sensor signal.
(ii)
Attach on the rotor an unbalance Ui, i.e. fix the unbalance mass m i on disc 1 at
<&i = 0, m 2 on disc 2 at <&2 = n/2 (see Fig.9.1). R u n the rotor at the same speed
and record the response qi(t).
(iii)
Interchange the trial masses at the same positions to produce the unbalance U 2 .
R u n the rotor at the same speed and record the response q2(t).
(iv)
(v)
Interchange the trial masses at the same positions to obtain the unbalance U-t.
R u n the rotor at the same speed and record the response q4(t).
The resulting five sets of data collected are sufficient to determine the 16 bearing
coefficients at the running eccentricity. Changing the rotation speed or changing the rotor
mass can change the bearing eccentricities which will result in different bearing
coefficients. Repeating the above procedure can obtain another 5 sets of data which yield
the coefficients at different eccentricities.
9.53
(ii)
305
(iii)
Calculate the eccentricities, attitude angles and rotation speed CI according to the
Stop
Start
Z = (AFA) AFD
HZA Z = D
k=0
k = k+l
change the coordinate
system, move displacements to bearing centers
Q k (jQ)- (yjfl)
c^QQ) t FkQQ>
q^nTo)
FFT
Calculate U T = 1 / N Q
^(nT)
306
9.5.4 Example
An example to determine all coefficients from experimental data is described here
to explain the application of the unbalance method. In the experiments, three standard <|>8
washers (each weighs 2.19 g) are used as the trial unbalance masses. The trial masses
distribution parameters are:
Pi = P2= 45 m m
h = 0.4976
12 = 0.5024
ri = 0.2789
r 2 = 0.2769
The rotor is run fivetimesat each load condition. T o avoid the speed variation caused by
the turning mechanism of the frequency controller, the driving motor was turned on and
off at each run, without touching the frequency controller after its frequency being set
From the data processing, the rotation speed variation among 5 runs is lower than
0.2%. T h e variation of bearing load (= gravity of the rotor) is only 0.11% at this
example case, and the oil temperature variation is maintain within 0.2C; thus the
bearing running conditions can be considered as constant. The initial vibration is
recorded at the first run. For the following four runs, the trial masses are distributed as
shown in Table 9.4.
<*>i
3>2
mi
m2(g)
Ui
7C/2
2x2.19
2.19
u2
u3
u4
JC/2
2.19
2x2.19
7C
2x2.19
2.19
7C
2.19
2x2.19
9.78930E-04 "j
3.40107E-03 J
307
Fig.9.7 s h o w s displacement xi before and after the trial unbalance Ui. T h e initial
vibration of the experimental rotor is significant and must be subtracted from the vibration
under the trial unbalance. After eliminating the initial vibration, the unbalance response is
very close to a harmonic wave. T h e solid line in Fig.9.7 is a standard cosine wave:
x U r ( t ) = A c o s ( Q t + <l>)
(9-26)
Y'
Y'
ft-tan"1 u
yr
A
h0
-Yr
A
i,i
i,o
W h e r e XJ,, X ( 0 are frequency responses of signal xi, subscript 1 or 0 after dot indicate
under U i or at initial condition respectively; superscript r or i indicate the real or
imaginary parts respectively.
0.2
-i
Vibration due to
unbalance U i
-0.1
Vibration after
eliminating the
initial vibration
-0.2
0.000
X1.0 initial
Xl.l at U I
TXT3 *
+ *
0.010
_L
0.020
t(s)
308
After eliminating the initial vibration, the measured displacement due to the trial
unbalance Ui, i.e. Xi i(f) - x, >0(f), is very close to the standard harmonic wave which is
recovered from its frequency response X14 (jft)-xi,o(jQX The relative error is:
Jki-o(')-*Ur(t)|<fc
ITT
5%
jki-o(')|*
This error is in the same level as that of the displacement measurement Therefore, the
unbalance responses can be considered as harmonic signals. The close relationship
between the measured data and those recovered from the frequency response also means
that the frequency responses represent the time domain signals correctly. Without the
FFT, it would be difficult to find the vibrating amplitude and phase delay. The frequency
QiGQ) - Q.(JQ) =
0.98606E-01 +j 0.20351E-01
-0.83912E-01 +j 0.54715E-01
0.32882E-01 +j 0.31378E-01
-0.45359E-01 -j 0.22698E-02
Q2QCI) - Q.QC1) =
0.57000E-01 +j 0.32845E-01
-0.60515E-01 +j 0.20082E-01
0.31598E-01 +j 0.93783E-01
-0.89303E-01 -j 0.46921 E-01
WQCl) - Q(jG) =
0.72308E-01 +j 0.18025E-01
-0.53788E-01 +j 0.41040E-01
-0.16269E-01 -j 0.98083E-02
0.18335E-01 -j 0.876O4E-02
WQCl) - CftjQ) =
0.15458E-01 +j 0.14433E-01
-0.18928E-01 -j 0.14330E-02
-0.86213E-01 +j 0.42196E-02
0.55363E-O1 -j 0.65679E-01
309
Substitute them into (9-12) to construct A and D and calculate the coefficients by (9-13).
Table 9.5 presents the coefficients Z estimated from 4 runs (m=4) and from 2 runs
(m=2). T h e estimated coefficients from 4 runs and from 2 runs are quite close, which
means the bearing running conditions do not change significantly during the 5 test runs.
Since the misalignments of two bearings are different, and their eccentricities are also
different (mainly because of a difference in clearances, Ci>C2), the coefficients of two
bearings differ from one another as shown in Table 9.5.
Kxy
Kyx
Kyy
Bxx
Bxy
Byx
Byy
#1
5.93
-2.90
14.43
8.02
15.15
6.55
7.84
29.47
#2
5.95
-1.92
9.01
3.27
12.30
2.98
3.31
21.41
#1
5.70
-2.62
14.71
7.96
15.43
6.83
7.83
29.75
#2
5.82
-1.69
8.76
3.36
12.54
3.22
3.36
21.65
03
X 0.2
XI
+
X2
YI
A
Y2
From inverse FFT
-0.1 -
-0.2
o.oo
0.01
0.02
t(s)
03
0.2
XI
+
X2
YI
A
Y2
From inverse FFT
-0.2
0.00
0.01
0.02
311
t(s)
03
'
'
S 0.2 o
i
XI
+ X2
YI
A Y2
- From inverse FFT
.
w 0.1
^^OoP^^
*7
/ A ^ A t f r - f ^ ^ P iftft
0.0
"^
^TA
^CSs
^m!hiyj-i
jfta^o
-0.1
^ > w ^ _ ^ j * < ^
-0.2
0.00
0.01
0.02
{(s)
03
0.2
xi
+ X2
Yl
A Y2
From inverse FFT
pcrxfiBi
-0.2
0.00
0.01
0.02
312
t(s)
9.6 EXPERIMENTAL
RESULTS
misalignment consideration in the theoretical calculation can yield more practical values
313
for the experimental bearings. The estimated coefficients of bearing 1 are larger than
those of bearing 2 especially at heavy loads. This could be caused by the coupling
constraints, which are closer to bearing 1. The coupling constraints help the bearing to
resist the lateral motion of the rotor as the additional stiffness and damping(see also
Section 9.7.2).
Employing the estimated bearing coefficients, the critical stable speeds at different
loads are calculated according to (4-19) and (4-22). Fig.9.11 is the dimensionless
stability contour compared with theoretical prediction. The trend of the critical speed
predicted from the estimated coefficients agrees well with the theory, although the
theoretical critical speed of the aligned bearing (T=0) is lower than the experimental
critical speed. However if misalignment (x=0.4, y=n/2) is considered, the theoretical
predictions as shown in dash line in Fig.9.11 agree very well with the experimental
results.
160
TI
1TT|
"I
. ! [
. . . . . .
Kxx
n(c/Rf
120
kii
Kij=-
\iQL
o
Kxx
2
80
Kxx
Tneoretical-T=0
Theoretical-x=0.4, y=it/2
40
III
.1
III
10
1/S
'
'
10
160
1 1 1
Kxy
120
Kxy
Kxy
Tneoretieal-T=0
80
- Theoretical-x=0.4,y=c/2
40
-40
'
i_
1 1 1 1
10
ioo
1/S
160
-" 1
T'T"rT't|
i 'i'rTrr|
I J I
l i l t
Kyx
120
0
A
80
Kyx
2
Kyx
Theoretical-T=0
Theoretical-T=0.4, y=rc/2
40
-40
'
.1
i '
11
'
io
1/S
100
315
160
' ''i
Kyy
120
O
Kyy
Kyy
80
Theoretical~T=0
Theoretical-T=0.4,Y=jt/2
40
-40
1 1 1 1
10
100
1/S
160
'^ w
I " I
I I
I PPI | m i
T1-'
I"
Bxx
120
80
. n(c/R? ,
Bij=-
H&L
Bxx
Bxx
Theoretical-T=^)
Tneoretical~x=0.4, y =re/2
40
-40
.1
J-uL
L.
io
1/S
100
316
160
Bxy
&
i
Byx
Bxy
Byx
Bxy
Byx
80
Bxy=Byx Theoretical-x=0
Bxy=Byx Theoretical--xM).4,y=jc/2
40
-40
-i
_i_L
'
io
1/S
100
160
^^~^T*
I 1IIT"I^
f I I I ]
Byy
A,
n(c/Rf
120
By =
[iClL
o
80
Byy
Byy
Theoretical-x=0
Theoretical-x=0.4, y =rc/2
yf
40
-40
.1
io
l/s
ioo
317
20
15
O
A
10
-^ 1
iZcrit
2
Qcrit
Theoretical-x=0
Theoretical~x=0.4, y=n/2
s.W_
- i i
10
1/S
100
9.7
E R R O R ANALYSIS
9.7.1
Transducers
Error
Only four proximity probes are used in the unbalance excitation method, their
rated error is 4 % . Employing the perturbation method as used in Section 7.5.5, 4 %
transducer error will result in 2 0 % variation in the estimated coefficients.
318
9.7.3
Experimental Errors
For the unbalance method, the rotor has to be run at least twice, and therefore the
running conditions, such as speed, static load and temperature should be carefully
controlled. If the trial unbalance masses change the rotor's eccentricity in the bearings,
the bearing coefficients will vary a little which will introduce an error in their estimation
because the coefficients are assumed constant during each running. T o avoid the trial
unbalance masses affecting the journal's eccentricity in the bearings, the trial masses
should be as small as possible; but the unbalance force must be large enough to vibrate
the rotor to a measurable displacement. T o increase the unbalance force without
increasing the trial masses, the rotation speed should be high and two trial masses should
distributed as far away the journal axis as possible (increase CI and pi and P2 in Fig.9.1).
In the aforementioned experiments, since the total weight of the trial masses was
less than 0 . 2 % of the gravity of the rotor, the bearing load can be considered as
unchanged. From the optical signals, the speed variation among five runs was less than
0.2%. Thus the speed can be considered as constant in the data processing. The oil
temperature measured at the outlet of the bearing was maintained to within 0.2C for
five successive test runs. Therefore, the running conditions in the testrigdid not change
significantly.
319
The vibration amplitudes of the unbalance responses are smaller than 0.16c for
eccentricities lower than 0.4, and are smaller than 0.08c for higher eccentricities.
According to the relation between coefficient variation and the perturbation amplitudes
(see Table 3.14), these vibration amplitudes could produce about 1 0 % difference from
the theoretical coefficients calculated by the infinitesimal perturbation method.
The unbalance excitation method was also performed on the large bearing test rig
described in Chapter 7. The rotor speed and the pressure of the air bellows have to be
reduced to zero before each run (the driving motor in the large testrigcan not start-up at
loaded condition). Since the error of the speed controller of the D C motor in the big test
rig is 1 % at 1000 rpm, and the error of the pressure-reducing-valve is worse (as high as
5 % ) , the bearing operating conditions (speed and the load) can not be accurately
controlled. It is difficult to eliminate the initial vibration if the rotation speed changed for
different runs. A m o n g five runs in the large testrig,the eccentricity variation was about
5 % , which changes bearing coefficients. All these errors m a k e the bearing coefficients
estimated from the unbalance responses on the large testrigunreliable.
320
9.8 CONCLUSIONS
(1) This chapter develops an experimental method to estimate all dynamic coefficients
of two journal bearings. Using the unbalance displacement responses under two or more
sets of trial unbalances, the method can determine all 16 dynamic coefficients of two
bearings. Comparing with the previous identification methods, the main advantage is that
it can be conveniently applied to estimate the coefficients of large journal bearings on site,
without having to generate large dynamic force to excite the rotor.
(2)
Vibrating more times can increase the confidence level but it can also introduce
errors arising from bearing condition variations. If the test runs are limited to twice, the
trial masses should be distributed at right angle (<&2= nt2 ) to obtain better results than
positioning them in line. T h e proposed method can easily eliminate the initial unbalance
effect on the coefficients' estimation.
(3)
Fast Fourier Transform combined with the re-sampling technique can greatly
simplify the data process and minimise the noise influences. Choosing the sample
duration of one or two rotational periods can increase F F T accuracy.
(4) Select the sample duration to be the integer multiple period of the shaft rotation
can increase the accuracy of the frequency characteristics.
321
(5)
T o apply the unbalance excitation method, normally the speed and the static load
of the bearing should be controlled within 0.5%, the temperature should be controlled
within 1.5 C for moderate eccentricity. It is possible to achieve these accuracy
requirements in practice. Therefore, the unbalance method will be a promising method in
detennining the coefficients of large journal bearing in situ.
322
CIEIAIP'IITO
323
T h e linear force coefficients can also be used to predict the trajectory, but the
vibration amplitude should not excess 0.1c for eccentricity ratio up to 0.8 to keep the
trajectory error within 5 % .
To determine the force coefficients from the linear model, the excitation force
amplitude should be less than 1 5 % of the static load.
(4) For a flexible rotor, if the rotor's stiffness is much smaller than the equivalent
stiffness of the bearing, the critical speed of the rotor-bearing system is about double
the critical speed of the rotor. If the rotor is m u c h stiffer than that of the bearing, the
critical speed of the rotor-bearing system will be lower than that of the critical speed
of the rotor. W h e n the oil whirl frequency coincides with the rotor's critical speed,
the whip normally occurs.
(5) The bearing misalignment affects some bearing characteristics considerably. Under
the s a m e load, the misaligned bearing is more stable than the parallel (aligned)
bearing and thus the misalignment can improve the stability of the rotor-bearing
system. If a misaligned bearing is unstable, its whirl frequency ratio will be lower
than that of the aligned bearing. The whirl frequency of highly misaligned bearing
could be 3 0 % lower than that of the aligned bearing. This m a y be used to indicate
the misalignment condition in situ from the unstable vibration signals.
(6) The traditional harmonic excitation method to identify 8 bearing force coefficients of
one journal bearing is extended to identify 16 bearing force coefficients of two
asymmetric journal bearings. T w o different data processing techniques are
developed for the separated excitation and combined excitation procedures.
For the same sample duration, the separated excitation method can produce more
accurate frequency characteristics thus obtain more accurate coefficients. W h e n the
bearing running conditions can not be accurately controlled, the combined excitation
324
325
(9) If the sample duration of FFT is selected to be the integer multiple period of the sha
rotation, the alias of frequency characteristics can be avoided and the accuracy of the
coefficient estimation can be increased. F F T combined with the re-sampling
technique can greatly simplify the data process and minimize the noise influence.
The data pre-processing program developed in this thesis can effectively remove the
outlier and other unreasonable data from the experimental signals without changing
signal's phase.
(10)
T h e estimated
326
327
(v) For theoretical work, it should be significant to consider the misalignment moments
in the nonlinear simulation. In this case, the bearing forces should be integrated
from pressures around two bearings, each m a y be misaligned differently with the
journal dependant on the movement position of the journal.
The supply pressure will considerably affect the bearing characteristics, significant
conclusions will be obtained if different supply pressure values are input to the
programs developed by this thesis.
The thermal effect on the bearing characteristics could be significant, it is worth
further investigation.
328
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Reynolds,0., 1886 "On the theory of lubrication and its application in Mr Beaucamp
Tower's experiments", Phil. Trans, of The Royal Society. London, v.177, Pt.1
RfceJ.R., March 1965 "Misalignment torques of hydrodynamic gas-lubricated journal
bearings" / of Basic Engineering, p 193-198
Roberts,J.B., EllisJ. & Sianaki,A.H., 1990 " The determination of squeeze film
dynamic coefficients from transient two-dimensional experimental data" / of
Tribology, v.H2,p287-298
RobertsJ.B., Ramli, M.D. & EllisJ., 1988 " Experimental determination of squeezefilm dynamic coefficients by a frequency domain method" Proc. Inst, of Mech.
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Rough JC.E., 1990 "Experimental evaluation of squeeze film damper coefficients with
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342
Sternlicht, B., 1959," Elastic and damping properties of cylindrical journal bearing
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344
345
A1HPI1NMX
Where:
RBUSH
346
= c, clearance, m
REVS
PS
VISCY
= m , viscosity, N.s/m2
GFI
GL
groove length, m
TILT
= x, misalignment ratio
GAMA
FLAG
DPHAI
NSETS
INI
IN2
DE
EBS
ALPHA
UMO
The following data in thefilefdmifp.dat are used in the calculation of all characteristics
of the circular bearing with two 20-grooves as presented in Table 3.1.:
0. 1 ,0.2, 1 .5e-4,3000.,0.,0.00845
20.,0.2,.0,0 1
1..20
1,9,0.1
1E-8,1.8,1600
0.01,0.01
347
The last two data are AX and A X for program 'femfp' which employs thefiniteelement
and finite perturbation methods to calculate the bearing coefficients. The program femfp
shares the same input datafileas fdmifp.
O u t p u t files:
Calculated force coefficients are stored in file lib'. The following dynamic coefficients
are calculated from the above input data:
Full
bearing
DPHAI=
with
1.00
WbuBh(m)
0.10000
0.20000
Dimensionless
S
20.0000deg. 0.200000
N=20
Rbuh(m)
KRTIO
LIM=
c(m)
grooves
1600
Viscosity
0.00015
Long
0.00845
H(rpm)
3000.00
Psuply
TILT
BETA
0.00
0.00
0.00
Byx
Byy
Parameters:
Kxx
Kxy
Kyx
Kyy
Bxx
Bxy
0.10
1.5119
1.50
-3.10
10.44
1.53
6.32
1.53
1.53
20.94
0.20
0.7210
1.54
-1.71
5.80
1.60
3.66
1.66
1.66
11.72
0.30
0.4425
1.60
-1.30
4.42
1.71
2.95
1.85
1.85
9.02
0.40
0.2943
1.61
-1.04
3.82
1.91
2.58
2.00
2.00
7.87
0.50
0.1999
1.52
-0.67
3.46
2.38
2.00
1.84
1.84
7.14
0.60 0.1335
1.47
-0.37
3.34
3.00
1.61
1.77
1.77
6.89
0.70 0.0844
1.44
-0.08
3.41
3.99
1.29
1.71
1.71
7.00
0.80 0.0474
1.46
0.29
3.79
5.87
1.04
1.72
1.72
7.67
0.90
1.56
0.99
5.05
0.80
1.85
1.85
9.83
0.0195
11.27
Calculated static characteristics are stored in thefile'esw'. The following data are
results calculated from the same input data:
BRTIOL
1/S
PHAI0
BKTZO0
0.1O0
0.100
0.100
1.5119
0.6614
76.4790
0.0657
28.7812
0.200
0.200
0.200
0.7210
1.3869
65.7272
0.1208
13.4903
0.300
0.300
0.300
0.4425
2.2598
57.9453
0.1646
8.3470
0.400
0.400
0.400
0.2943
3.3978
52.2853
0.2006
5.7455
0.500
0.500
0.500
0.1999
5.0034
47.3195
0.2296
4.1063
0.600
0.600
0.600
0.1335
7.4902
42.3311
0.2512
2.9814
0.700
0.700
0.700
0.0844
11.8421
37.0959
0.2657
2.1431
0.800
0.800
0.800
0.0474
21.1097
31.1837
0.2732
1.4771
0.900
0.900
0.900
0.0195
51.2779
23.4937
0.2741
0.8865
348
QS
Ckc
BRTIO
Where
ERTIO
= e eccentricity ratio
ERTIOO
ERTIOL
= L eccentricity at bearingrightend ( Z = L )
PHAIO
QS
fkc
=f t friction coefficient
The steady pressures at different eccentricities are stored in the file 'pre.3d', which ca
be opened by Nisus or Excel 4.0 to draw three dimensional pressure distribution graphs.
349
A1PPBNMX IB
The program name is: 'bls.f. Simulated trajectory data are saved in die file
locus'. T h e frequency characteristics are saved in thefile'trans'. The parameter data
are input in thefilebls.dat' in the following order:
Part of the variables have been explained in Appendix A, the other symbols are:
350
IPA
NF2
DET
ITOUT
LIM
ERTIO
PHAIO
FEXR
FEYR
TO
RU
UFR
TOL
HMIN
HMAX
XO
start integratingtime,radian
TN
(XQ,YQ,XQ,YQ)
351
DPHAI DET(Deg)
14.0
Rbush(m)
0.10000
N(rpm)
3000.000
FEX
5.0
deg.
0. Long grooves
TOL
HMIN
HMAX
EBS
Wbush(m)
0.20000
ERTIO0
0.600
FEY
c(m)
0.00015
299
Viscosity
Psuply
TILT
0.00845
0.00
0.00
PHAI0
50.615
LIM
S
0.1205
GAMA
0.00
C02/g
0.621E+05
1.5091
TO
A2
0.000
0.300E-02
0.512E+06
RU
0.1000
FX
FY
0.000E+00
0.000E+00
0.000E+00
10.0 -0.409E-04
0.848E-02 -0.586E+03
0.108E+05
0.124E+00
20.0 -0.218E-03
0.317E-01 -0.292E+04
0.204E+05
0.234E+00
0.000
T(Deg.)
0.0
0.000E+00
0.000E+00
UFR
0.0000
N2
514
Wspeed
Where:
A2
= a 2 , see Fig.4.9(d)
N2
C02/g
= cmft2/W=cQ2/g
FX, FY
Wspeed
352
AIPFIENMZ
o o o o o o
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3
TRANSDUCER CALIBRATION
T o increase the measurement accuracy, the transducers are re-calibrated. Since
the natural frequencies of all transducers (except thermocouples) are higher than 10 kHz,
the dynamic properties of the transducers will not significantly affect the measurement of
the parameters in the experiments, where signal frequencies are lower than 300 Hz.
Therefore, the transducers are only statically calibrated. During calibration, the
transducers are wired in the w a y as they are used in the experimental system. This
appendix describes the calibration methods and presents typical results.
M a y 3,1993
Temperature: 21 C
10 -
o fl.up
+
fl.down
-10
fup = 0.21330 - 26.342 Ue R A 2 = 1.000
fdown = 0.23994 - 26.060 Ue R A 2 = 1.000
-20
-04
-0.8
Fig. C I
0.0
U e ( y )
0.4
353
increased(indicated with "up" in Fig.C.l), and then gradually decreased (indicated with
"down"). F r o m the curve fitting, the formula between force and output voltage is
determined for both "up" and "down" cases. In the experimental data processing, the
average of formulae for both "up" and "down" is used. Similarly, the expressions for
other two load cells are determined and presented in Table C.
For Kisder 902A force washer, which is used in the impact hammer to measure
the impact force, the manufacturer calibrated data as presented in Table C is used.
354
1.0
30/09/93
@ 2 9 C
0.8
@29 C
+
A
@43 C
@65 C
0.6
A
0.4 . X5.29 = 0.14564 - 0.12250 Ux R 2 = 1.000
"
"
Ux5(V) -
Micrometer
Si/
355
= Cc(l + c o s ^ ) + t/0
(C-l)
Recording the output l/i of at each probe angle (|>i, the gain Cpp and the initial voltage
U{ of the probe can be determined by linearly fitting equation (C-l). Fig.C.5 shows
typical calibration curve of the probes in shaft Since the bearing surface is contaminated
by the thermocouples and inevitable surface roughness (see Fig.7.15), the linearity of
calibration curve in Fig.C.5 is not as good as those as shown in Fig.C.2. However, the
probes in shaft are only used to monitor the oil-film thickness, their accuracy will not
affect the measurement of the bearing force coefficients. Table C also presented the fitted
results of two proximity probes in shaft
356
probe in journal
@29
-4.2
357
pressure tester
deadweight
T
HXh
4000
-J
r-
-|
r-
13/08/93
@ T=19.6 C "
3000
2000
o
+
p up
p down
1000 -
TJp(V)
358
C.5 Thermocouples
Thermocouples are calibrated by N. Freund. The soldered T type thermocouples
were inserted in a water tank, whosetemperaturewas controlled within 0.2 C. The
relation between thetemperatureand the output voltage isfittedas the following 9th order
sectioned polynomial function:
\A11236
1.0352
f-i
forl7.079T<53.564
V y / S " for53-564^T<9102
cold junction voltage (V)
Tq=10Vcj
V ^ r o + TcjO-x+Tcjrz)
V C =V!+U
T=g8 + V c g 9
For i=7,6
1,0, T=& +V C T
Where
r0 =0.525793xl0-7
rx =0.386007x10-5
r2 =4.18649xl0-8
go =0.123812
gl
=26861.2
g 2 =-896494
g 3 =-4.64893x107
g 4 =1.2441 lxlO 10
g 5 =2.27530xl0 12
g 6 =-6.39950xl0i4
g 7 =5.43576xl0ifi
g 8 =-2.02362xl018
g 9 =2.830121xl0i9
359
(C-2)
Code
location
Strain gauge
SGI
see Fig.7.6
/,=2.7215xl0 4 x(l/-l/ 0 )*
Force transducers
SG2
see Fig.7.6
fx.fy
force washer
relation
unit
impact hammer N
W = 2.4259 x\04
/ = 125.00
x(U-U0)
x(U-UQ)
(small rig)
BENTLY N E V A D A
XI
bearing 1 centre m
3300 series
X2
bearing 2 centre m
y^ = -5.6449 x IO -4 x (U - U0)
Proximity probes
Xip
in bigtestrig
yip
(see Fig.7.9)
X2p
x(U-U0)
y2P
y2p =-1.2154x10-*
x(U-U0)
BENTLY NEVADA
Xip
7200 series
X(U-U0)
Proximity probes
X2p
Fig.8.5(b)
x(U-U0)
V2p
x(U-U0)
Pi
kPa
Pl
KULITE
P2
kPa p2 =
SEMICONDUCTOR
Pi
XTM-1900
Pressure transducers Ps
P6
TC1TC51
see Fig.7.8
see Fig.7.9
= -513.05 x(U-U0)
-6O0Mx(U-U0)
x(U-U0)
kPa p4=^421.90x(U-U0)
kPa p5 =
-535.S2x(U-U0)
kPa p6 = -1056.2
x(U-U0)
C Equation (C-2)
t
TType
thermocouples
*
U and U 0 are in voltage. For the force cells and pressure transducers, U 0 is
output voltage of the transducers measured at the beginning of the experiments, when no
force and pressure are exerted on the transducers. For the proximity probes, U 0 is
eliminated in the data processing because only relative displacements are used in
determining the eccentricity and harmonic responses.
360
AIPIPBNMX
(D-l)
(ii) Construct the second new series X2G) (j=4> 5,...,N-3 ) from X!(k):
^0') = T *i(*> J= 4, 5,..., N-3 (D-2)
(iii) Construct the third new series x3(n) (n=5,6,...,N-4) from x2Q):
x3(n) = x2(n-l)
M")"*sMl>S
n=
=5' 6-'N-4
361
(IM)
(D-3)
(D-5)
8 in equation (D-4) is the threshold value and should be selected according to the
signal. For the displacement signals in the bearing testrig,selecting S = 3 p:m can
effectively remove the outliers and high level noise according to the data processing in
this diesis.
The outlier-removing method can effectively remove the outliers and does not
change the signal's phase (see Fig.7.12). Interpolation equation (D-5) uses information
of 8 neighboured data to smooth the signal if an outlier or a high-level-noisy point is
found. Applications show it can effectively remove the high level noise (>3um) data and
m a k e signal smoother. T h e mehtod is used to process all displacement signals
throughout this thesis except for the impulse responses in Chapter 8.
362