MAGNETISM AND MATTER

Oersted's Experiment:

Oersted's Experiment
Take a magnetic needle NS, which can rotate freely about a vertical axis in horizontal
plane. Hold a conducting wire AB over the magnetic needle NS parallel to it.
Complete the circuit by closing the key such that current flows from A to B.

It is found that N-pole of the magnetic needle gets deflected the west. If the direction
of current in the wire is reversed (i.e. from B to A), the N-pole of magnetic needle
gets deflected towards east. Since magnetic needle can be deflected by another
magnetic field therefore current in the wire must be producing a magnetic field in the
surrounding space.

Amperes Swimming Rule

According to this rule, if we imagine a man swimming along current direction in wire
such that current enters from feet and leaves from the head, then the N-pole
deflected towards his left hand.

Magnetic Field(or) Force on amoving charge in magnetic

field:
If a charged particle is projected in a magnetic field, in general, it
experiences a magnetic force. By projecting the particle in different
direction from the same point P with different speeds, we can observe the
following facts about the magnetic field force.

a.

Force experienced by the moving charge is directly proportional to the

magnitude of the charge i.e.
Fq

b.

Force experienced by the moving charge is directly proportional to the

component of velocity perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field i.e.
F v sin
c.
The magnitude of the force F is directly proportional to the
magnitude of the magnetic field applied i.e.
FB
On combining all factors we get,
F = kq v sin B
Here k=1 is proportionality constant. F= q v sin B. Here we can see that
v and B follows the vector product hence force is perpendicular
to v and B. Direction of the force can be can by Right Handed Screw Rule
or Right Hand Rule.

V
B
F =q
By measuring the magnetic force F acting on a charge q moving at a
speed v, we can obtain B. If v=1, q=1 and sin =1 or =90 then F = 1x
1x B x 1 =B
Thus the magnetic field induction at a point in the field is equal to the
force experienced by a unit charge moving with a unit velocity
perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field at that point.

Special Cases
a.

If =0 or 180 the F = q v Bsin(0) = 0. Its means, a charged particle

moving parallel to the direction of magnetic field, does not experience any
force.
b.
If =90 or 180 the F = q v Bsin(90) = qvB (maximum force). Its
means, a charged particle moving along a perpendicular to the direction
of magnetic field, it experiences maximum force.
c.
If v =0, then F=q v sin B = 0. It means, a charged particle is at rest
in a magnetic field, it experiences maximum force. It experiences no
force.

Units of magnetic field B:

SI unit of magnetic field is tesla (T) or Weber /meter2

1T = 1NA-1m-1
1 Gauss = 10-4 T
Dimensions of B = [MA-1T-2]
We have a magnetic field of the order of 10-5 T near to earth surface
Magnetic field is also called as Magnetic Induction or Magnetic Flux
Density.

Maxwells cork screw rule:

Imagine a right handed cork screw advancing in the direction of current,

then the direction of rotation of the screw head gives the direction of
magnetic lines of force.

Amperes right hand thumb rule:

When a straight conductor carrying current is held in the right hand such
that the thumb is pointing along the direction of current, then the
direction in which fingers curl round it gives the direction of magnetic lines
of force.

Ampere's circuital Law:

Statement : The line integral of the intensity of magnetic induction field
0
around any closed path is equal to
times the net current across the
area bounded by this path.

Explanation :
Consider a closed path of any shape. We have to take a small length
element di on the closed path. Let B be the resultant intensity of magnetic
induction at the position of dl . The scalar product of B and dl is B.
dl . Integrating B. dl by varying dl on the closed path we get the line
integral of B.dl around the closed path. It is denoted
by the symbol B.dl.
The rule for deciding whether an enclosed current is positive or negative.

B. dl =

SI unit of the line integral of B is Wblm or NIA.

Dimensional formula is [MLT-2 I -11]

Magnetic Induction (B) near a Long Straight Conductor:

Let us consider a straight conductor carrying a current 'i'. Let 'P' be a point
at a perpendicular distance 'r' from the conductor. Let a circle of radius r
passing through P be drawn with the conductor as centre.

B. dl =

B. dl cos 0 = B dl =B2r

According to amperes law

B2r =

B=

0 I
0 I
2 r

is the expression for the intensity of magnetic induction at any point

outside the conductor. It is in a direction perpendicular to the plane
containing the conductor and the point P.

Biot-Savart's Law:

r2

Magnetic Induction at the Centre of a Circular Coil Carrying

Current:
Consider a circular loop of radius r carrying a current i. To find the magnetic
field due to the current at the centre of the loop consider any small element d
f of the wire .By Biot -Savart law, the intensity of magnetic induction at the
centre o due to the current element idl is
0 I dl r
dB =
4 r3

Where r is the vector joining the element to the centre O. The

direction of B is perpendicular to the plane of the diagram and is going
into it as shown by the symbol cross. Its magnitude is
0 I dl
dB = 4 r 2

dB =

0 I dl
4r2

dB =

dB =

0 I

4 r 2

dl =

0 I
4 r 2

2r

0 I
2r

If a circular coil has n turns arid average radius r then the resultant B is n
times that due to a single loop. Hence, B due a circular coil carrying
current is
dB =

0
2r

Magnetic Induction 'B' Along the Axis of a Current Carrying

Circular Conductor Coil:

Consider a circular coil of radius R, carrying current i and having n turns.

Let P be a point on the axis of the coil at a distance x from the centre O
of the coil. In case of a point P on the axis of circular coil as for every
current element there is a symmetrically situated opposite element. The

component of the field B perpendicular to the axis cancel each other while
along the axis add up
0 Idlsinq

dB sin=
sinf
4r2
And as here angle between the element dl and r is
r is same for all

R
sin = r

so

dB sin=

element. Also

Now if the coil has N turns, then

0 Idl
4r2

everywhere and

dl = 2RN

and as r3 = (x2+R2)3/2
B=

0 I 2 N R 2
4 ( x 2+ R 2) 3/2

The direction of magnetic field B is along the axis of the coil.

Flemings left hand rule:

This is used to find the direction of force on a moving charge (or) current
carrying conductor in a uniform magnetic induction field.

Statement:

"If the fore-finger, central finger and thumb of left hand are stretched
mutually perpendicular to each other such that the fore-finger points in
the direction of magnetic field and the central finger in the direction of
current or velocity of the positive charge, then the thumb points in the
direction of force experienced by the charge (or) conductor.

Charged particle is moving perpendicular to the field:

(i) In this situation force is always perpendicular to the direction of motion

of the particle. So the charged particle moves in circular path. Necessary
centripetal force is provided by the
Force = qVB

mv 2
r

= qVB

mv
radius of the circular path, r = qB

r=

p
qB (Where P is momentum)

ii) When a charged particle is projected into a transverse magnetic field, it

moves in a circular path with an angular velocity then
qB
mr2 = qVB - = m
Time period of revolution T=
Frequency of revolution f=

2 m
qB
qB
2 m

Time period, frequency and angular velocity are independent of speed of

particle and radius of the orbit and depends only on the field B and the
specific charge (q/m) of the particle.

Force on a current carrying wire in a magnetic field:

Consider a conducting wire carrying a current i, placed in a magnetic field

B.Consider a small element dl of the wire. The free electron drifts with a
speed Vd opposite to the direction of the current.

The relation between the current i and the drift speed Vd is

I= ne Vd A
(eq....1)
Here A is the area of cross-section of the wire and n is the number of free
electrons per unit volume. Each electron experiences an average
magnetic force
F=BVde
The number of free electrons in the small element considered is nAdl.
Thus the magnetic force on the wire of length dl is
dF= n Adl(BVde)
if we denote the length dl along the direction of the current by dl , then above equation
becomes
dF= nAeVd dlB
using eq (1) then

dF=idlB
F=Bilsin
The direction of force is always perpendicular to the plane containing I dl
and B and can be obtained by right hand thumb rule.

Force between two straight parallel current carrying

conductors:

Consider two parallel conductors that carry currents i1and i2 in the same
direction which are separated by a distance r as shown in the diagram.
The current i1 in the first conductor produces magnetic induction B at any
point on the second conductor. The magnetic induction B at a distance r
from first conductor is given by
0 i1 i2
B=
------(1)
2 r
This B is perpendicular to the second conductor and is into the plane of
the paper .This field B exerts a force F for a length l of second conductor
carrying current i2 is given by
F= Bi2l -------(2)
According to flemings hand rule this force F is directed towards the first
conductor as shown in the figure. Substituting the value of B from eq(1) in
eq(2) then
0 i1 i2
F=[ 2 r ]l ------(3)
Force per unit length

F
l

0 i1 i 2
2 r

-------(4)

Magnetic Dipole Moment of a Revolving Electron :

Consider an electron revolving in a circular orbit of radius r with a speed v
and frequency v. Consider a point P on the circle. The electron crosses this
point once in every revolution. In one revolution, the electron travels
distance 2r revolutions made by the electron in one second is
v
n = 2 r
The electric current at this point, i = the charge crossing the point P per
second.
charge of the electron
=
time taken for one revolution
= Frequency X Charge of the electron

I= ve =

eV
2 r

This creates magnetic field and the electronic orbit can be taken as a circular

loop that encloses an area, A = r2 Its magnetic dipole moment is

eV
evr
2
M=iA= 2 r (r ) = 2

Force and Torque on a Current Loop or Coil in a Uniform

Magnetic Field:
Consider a rectangular current loop ABCD having length AB=CD=l and
breadth AD=BC=Band carrying current i suspended in a magnetic field of
induction or flux density B with normal on to its field direction.
There are four forces f1 ,f2 f3 and f4 are acting in the four sides AB,BC,CD
and DA of the loop. Magnitude of these forces are
F1=Bil F2=Bibcos F3=Bil F4=Bibcos
By flemings left hand rule forces F2 and F4 acts on sides BC and AD
exactly in opposite direction along the same line. Hence they cancel.
If the coil is made to rotate the coil about vertical axis as shown in fig
,these couple forces which tends to rotate the loop.
The moment of couple or Torque = force perpendicular distance
Here F1= F3=Bibsin= Bibsin
= FPR
=Bilbsin(Qsin=PR/PQ-PR=PQSIN=bsin)
If area of the loop is A=lb then = NBiAsin -----(1)
In vector form
= MB ------(2)
If plane of the coil making angle with the direction of the magnetic field
then
= NBiAcos

Moving coil galvanometer :

Moving coil galvanometer was first devised by Kelvin and later modified
by D'Arsonval. It is used to detect and measure small electric currents of
the order 10-9 A.
Principle :
When a current carrying coil is placed in a uniform magnetic field, it
experiences a torque.

Construction :

It consists of a rectangular coil of an insulated copper wire wound on a

non conducting frame. The coil is suspended between the concave shaped
poles of a permanent horse-shoe magnet by a phosphor-bronze wire. The
upper end of this wire is connected to torsional head. The lower end of the
coil is connected to a phosphor bronze spring.
A small plane mirror M is attached to the phosphor bronze wire to
measure the deflection of the coil.

A soft iron cylinder is arranged inside the rectangular frame of the coil.
This cylinder increases the field intensity in between the poles. The
combination of curved poles and the soft iron produces a radial magnetic
field. In radial field, the plane of the coil will be always parallel to the field
and experiences a maximum and constant torque. The whole
arrangement is kept inside a brass case provided with a glass window. The
deflection of the coil can be measured using lamp and scale arrangement.

Working :

When the current to be measured is passed through the coil, the coil
experiences a deflecting. Torque d then coil begins to rotate. As the coil
rotates the phosphor bronze wire gets twisted. As a result, an oppositely
directed restoring couple develops in the phosphor-bronze wire. Let n be
the number of turns in the coil, A be the area of the coil, B be the intensity
of magnetic induction field, and i be the current through the coil.

As the field is radial, the plane of the coil is always parallel to the
magnetic field. Then the coil experiences a constant and maximum
deflecting torque is given by
d = niAB
If C is restoring couple per unit twist and is the deflection of the coil,
then restoring torque
r = c
In equilibrium position, the deflecting torque is equal to the restoring
torque.

d = r
niAB= C
c
i= niAB
i=K where K=
So

c
niAB

is a constant for the galvanometer.

i
Thus the current flowing through the moving coil galvanometer is directly
proportional to the deflection of the coil. It means the moving coil
galvanometer has a linear scale. It is an important advantage because the
instrument can be accurately calibrated.

Magnetic Dipole Moment of a Revolving Electron

Consider an electron revolving in a circular orbit of radius r with a speed v
and frequency v. Consider a point P on the circle. The electron crosses this
point once in every revolution. In one revolution, the electron travels
distance 2r. The number of revolutions made by the electron in one
second is
v
= 2 r

The electric current at this point i = The charge crossing the point P per
second.
charge of electron
= time taken for one revolution
= Frequency X Charge of the electron

ev
I=ve= 2 r
This creates magnetic field and the electronic orbit can be taken as a
circular loop that encloses an area, A =2r Its magnetic dipole moment is
M = iA =

ev
2
2 r (r)

Force and Torque on a Current Loop or Coil in a Uniform

Magnetic Field
Let a rectangular current loop ABCD having length AB = CD =land
breadth AD = BC= b and carrying current ii' be suspended in a magnetic
field of flux density B with normal (ON) to its plane making an angle e with
the field direction
Forces i (bxB) on arms AD and BC act in opposite directions along vertical
axis, of suspension X Y and hence cancel.
Forces on arms AB and DC, being .I perpendicular to field, are i lB each and they
act at the middle points P and Q as shown in, Fig. These forces form a
couple of arm
PR,= PQ sin = b sin

As Torque = force x arm or perpendicular distance between the two forces

= Bilbsin
= Bi(lb)sin
= i(A)B sin
For a loop having n turns

= ni(A)B sin

If the plane of the loop makes an angle with direction of B. Then

= ni(A)B cos

Force between two Straight Parallel Current Carrying

Conductors:
Let two long parallel conductors I and II separated by a distance 'r' carry a
current i1 and i2 in the same direction. The current i1in conductor I
produces magnetic induction B1 around the conductor. Similarly current i2
in conductor II also produces magnetic induction say B2 around the
conductor II. Here we find that each conductor is immersed in the
magnetic field produced by the other conductor i.e" conductor I is
immersed in the magnetic induction B2 and conductor II is immersed in
the magnetic induction B1

The magnetic induction B1 at distance r from conductor I is given by

B1 =

0 i1
2 r

Its direction is into the plane of the paper. The magnetic induction B 1
exerts force on conductor II. The force on conductor II is given by
F2 =B1 i2 l
The direction of the force is given by the Fleming's left hand rule. It is
directed towards the first conductor as shown in the Fig
Substituting the value of B1 IN F2

0 i1
0 i1 i2 l
F2 =i2 l ( 2 r ) =
2 r

The magnetic induction B2 at a distance 'r' from conductor II is given by

B2 =

0i 2
2 r

Its direction is out of the plane of the paper. This magnetic field B2 exerts a
force on conductor I. The force on conductor I is given by
F1 = B2 i1 l
The direction of the force is given by the Fleming's left hand rule. It is
directed towards the second conductor
F1 =

0 i1 i 2 l
2 r

0 i1 i 2 l
F1 =F2=
2 r
This is the expression for the force acting between two parallel, straight and long conductors
separated by a small distance.
The force per unit length of the conductor is given by
0 i1 i2
F
l = 2 r

When two infinitely long parallel conductors, carrying the same current
are separated by a distance of 1 m in vacuum if the force per unit length
on each conductor is 2 x 10-7 Nm-1 then the current flowing through each
conductor is said to be one ampere.