Calculus (1): Differentiation Calculus is a very important branch of Mathematics. It was developed by Newton (1642-1727) and Leibnitz (1646-1716) to deal with changing quantities. The gradient of a curve is an example of such a quantity and we begin with thi GRADIENT OF A CURVE The gradient of a straight line is constant. It is equal to jestep . Zsiep between any two points of the line (sce Chapter 1, page 8). On a curve however, the gradient is changing from one point to another. We define the gradi- ent at any point on a curve therefore to be the gradient of the tangent to the curve at that point (Fig.9.1). Fig.9.1 tangent the ratio ‘We now find a gradient function, derived from the function represented by the curve, using a method called a limiting process. Consider the simple quadratic curve y = 2 (Fig.9.2) and take the point P(3,9) on that curve. Fig.2.2 185Now take a point near P, say Q,(4,16). The gradient of the line PQ, is S=2 = 7 which only approximately equals the gradient of the tangent at P. To get a better approximation we try again, this time with Q,(3.5,12.25) which is closer toP. The gradient of PQ, = 325 = 6.5. Now see what happens if we repeat this, taking positions of Q closer and closer to P, using acalculator (Fig.9.3). Fig.9.3 Coordinates of Q QR PR Gradient 3.3,10.89) 1.89 0.3 63 B.1,9.61) 0.61 0.1 61 3.01,9.0601) 0.0601 0.01 6.01 tending to 6 (3.001,9.006001) 0.006001 0.001 6.001 (3.000 1,9.00060001) 0.00060001 0.0001 6.0001 The sequence of values suggests that as we continue, taking Q closer and closer to P, the gradient approaches 6. We say that 6 is the limiting value or limit of the sequence. As Q —— (tends to) P, the gradient of PQ ——* 6 and we take this limiting value as the gradient at P. Note that we cannot find this value directly. We have to use this limiting method. (We also have to be sure that there will be a limit but this will be assumed in our work). Exercise 9.1 (Answers on page 626.) 1 Repeat the limiting process to find the gradient where x = 2 and.x=—I on the curve yar. 2 Use the limiting method to find the gradient at the point where x = 2 on the curve yoo’ 3 By the same method, find the gradient where x = 4 on the curve y = Vx. 186GENERAL METHOD FOR THE GRADIENT FUNCTION To find the gradient at another point on the curve we must repeat the calculations, A better approach would be to find a formula for the gradient, using the same method. In Fig.9.4, we take a general point P whose coordinates are (x,x7). Fig.9.4 Now take a nearby point Q where x, =x + i. At present the value of h is not specified except that h # 0. Then yg = (r+ A)? Gradient of PQ = oF = wth -aeeee — Bt dhe Rao A = Dhe A Qx+h (h #0) Now suppose Q moves closer and closer to P, ic. h ——> 0. Then 2x + hh ——> 2. The limiting value of 2x + A is 2x and we take this as the gradient at P. When x = 3, the gradient = 6, as we found before. When x = 0, the gradient is 0, which can be seen from the graph as this is the turning point. The function x +——= 2x is the gradient function for the curve y = +. Each curve will have its own gradient function which we find by the limiting method, known as working from first principles. 187Example 1 Find the gradient function for y = 2x° - 3 (Fig 9.5). Fig. 9.5 P is a general point (x, 2c? — 3). Qis a nearby point with xg =x +, yg = 2x +h)? = 3. QR = 2x + hi)? — 3 - (2 - 3) we + Ach + 2-3 -2e +3 = 4xh + 2h QR = ME ROE = ax + 2h Nowas A——* 0, 4x + 2h ——* 4x. The limiting value is 4x. The gradient function is therefore x -—= 4x, Example 2 (a) Find the gradient function for the curve y = x! + 2x (Fig.9.6). (b) Hence find the gradients at x = 0 and x =-1. (c) Is there a value of x where the gradient is 0? vat 42x 188(a) Take P as (x,x' + 2x) and a nearby point Q where x, Vg = Xt hy + a+ h). Then QR = (x + ft)? + 2(¢ + A) — (8 + 2x) =xlt 3h + Sri? + b+ 2x + 2h - = 3h +P + + 2h 2, 24h Gradient of PQ = SF = BUA + Sah + + 2h h Ash 0, 3xh and h’ each ——= 0. The limiting value is 3x* + 2 and the gradient function is.x +> 3y? + 2, (b) When x = 0, the gradient = 2; when x = (c) The equation 3x + 2 = 0 has no solution so the gradient of the curve is never 0. xth, =30 + 3h + +2 1, the gradient = 5. NOTATION If the equation of the curve is y = f(x), we write the gradient function as f’(x). If we take a point P on y = f(x) (Fig.9.7), the coordinates of P are (x,f(x)). The coordinates of Q are (x + A, f(x + h)). Hx + bp Fig.9.7 Then QR = f(x + A) - f(x) and the gradient of PQ = fhe fix +h) = fi) h The limiting value of as h —— 0 will be f(@). im £41) - foo hot ht We write this as f= tim means ‘take the limiting value when h ——> 0°. 189Example 3 pfs) = <4 (xe I), find £0). fle +h) - te =—l 1 xth-1 0 x= _ x-)]-(r+h-1) ~ “@+h-D@_-D = A ~ G+h-Da-D Then f+ =f) 2 =| A G@t+h-Da-) Ash——~ 0,x+h-1— x-1. Ay — So the limiting value of E*2= "2 yi) be Gar and fa) = @- iF Note that this is always negative, so the gradient on the curve is always negative, as seen from the sketch (Fig.9.8). Fig.2.8 Exercise 9.2 (Answers on page 627.) 1 Find the gradient function for the following curves: @) y=3e (b) y=3x-1 () yertx-1 (e) y= $40) @) yae-x tl = 0 (except curve (e)). 3 (a) Find the gradient function for y = 3x7 - 6x + 2. (b) For what value of x is the gradient 0? (c) Hence find the minimum value of the function. 1904 (a) If f(x) =. —8, find f). (b) For what values of x is the gradient on the curve y = f(x) zero? (c) Find the values of f(x) at these points. 5 By finding the gradient function, show that the curve point where x = -2, Is this a maximum or minimum point 4x — x has a tuning 6 Find the gradient function for the curve y= 1 + 4x (x # 0). Hence find the values of x where the gradient on this curve is zero. 7 Find the gradient function for y = ax? + bx + c where a, b and ¢ are constants. The dy, 5x Notation for the Gradient Function To find f(x}, we tock two points whose x-coordinates were x and x + A. We now introduce anew and important notation. Instead of h, we write 5x (read delta x) which is one symbol for the change in .x, called the increment in x. ‘We use the curve y =.¢ again (Fig.9.9). Now if x changes to x + dx, y will also change to y + dy, where Sy is the corresponding increment in y. By = (x Ox - Fig.9.9 PR = Gr, QR = by. The coordinates of Q are (x + 8x, y + 8y) and so y + Sy = (x + Oxy, QR = (r+ &y a? + 2xGx + (Bx)? = = QxBx + (8x)? The gradient of PQ = © = Bott G0" Coys Br Now we let &e ——>= ° The limiting value of will be 2x, so the gradient function is 2x as before. ‘The special feature of this notation is that we write the gradient as (read dee y by dee x) to symbolize the limiting value of z as 8x 0. (The curly 8 is straightened to ordinary d to show that we have taken the limiting value). 191flr 4 By 210), He ey ao So roy= B= lim, = tim This dy, 6x notation will be used from now on. 4 . Note: {is to be taken as one symbol and NOT as a fraction. Example 4 My = 16x + 4, find © from first principles. Find the value of x where the gradient is 0. fla) = 16x + Jp and for + 8x) = 16x + 8x) + aes = 16x 1 _ ig 5 Hence fix + 8x) ~ fi) = Hor + Wer + GES = Nox = 2 2 = 168e + 4 BF Oct bt = 168x + = 168y — 2866+ Gv! (x + Sayin? by 2 Then 2 = 16 - 1+ 8 en ey (e+ Oye As 6x ——= 0), 2x + 8x ——= 2v and x + &y —— x, Ws jim & = p- = Then Gy = im, gr = 1o- When the gradient is 0, 2 = 16 - =Oie, 16x! =2orx = } giving = 4. Exercise 9.3 (Answers on page 627.) 1 Find 4! from first principles for (a) y=3r41 (b) y=2-40? @ y=4s (d) y i () y=Snae3 ® y=4 2. What is the gradient of y = 5? Hence explain why 42 = 0 if y = & (a constant). 3 Given y = 22 4x+ 1, find (a) #2 and (b) the coordinates of the point on the curve where the gradient is (i) 0, (ii) -8, 4 (a) Find 2 ify =x? +ax #3 where ais a constant. (b) Find the value of a if the gradient where x = 3 is 2. 192MEANING OF & The notation {2 for the limiting value of 2 as 6x —= 0 is appropriate as it is a reminder that 2 is derived from z. ‘We call this differentiation (as it uses the differ- ence 8x) and £2 is called the derivative or the differential coefficient of y with respect to x. We shall use the abbreviation ‘wrt’ for ‘with respect to’. { gives the gradient function for a curve and the value of {2 at a given point is the gradient of the curve and therefore of the tangent there. Now the gradient at a point measures the rate at which y is changing wrt.x, The steeper the gradient the greater this rate of change. For example, on the curve y = x°, the two quantities are each changing and the rate of change is 2x. When x = 3, y = 9 but y is changing at that point 6 times as much as x is changing. 2 measures this rate of change. This is what makes differentiation 4 powerful tool in Mathematics. The idea and notation can be applied to any function. For example, if s is a function of t, 5 =f(1), then 4 is the rate of change of s wrt t. If A is a function of r, A = f(7), then is the rate of change of A wrt r. Example 5 fp = 38-21-44, find B. pis a function of ¢ so we take an increment 8r in 1. The corresponding increment in p is Sp. pt bp = 30 + 8)? - 20+ 8) +1 Now show that 3p = 6rdr + 3(61)? - 261 42 = 61+ 38¢—2 and the limiting value is 6r ~ 2, Hence 2 = 61-2. NOTE ON INDICES We shall be dealing with negative indices shortly so this note recalls the rules for indices. To multiply powers of the same term, add the indices. Bx Srxxrxrxaxxxes To divide powers of the same term, subtract the indices. = eapencne vers i 1s? and x? = 1 xeeextextbutS = 4 ie xtxel A negative index means the reciprocal: x" = + 193THE DERIVATIVE OF ax" Here are listed some of the derivatives we have already found: Function Derivative x a ae 4x 4c 12x ter -p eo? Can you see a pattem in these? ‘The derivative of x? is 2x = 2x7". The derivative of 4x° is 12x? = 4 x 32°! The derivative of x! is -x? =-Lr""'", We deduce the following rule (which we shall not prove): to differentiate a single term, multiply by the index and then reduce the index by 1. For example, to find the derivative of Sx°: the index 3 becomes a multiplier 5% 3.2 <— thenew index is 3-1 = 2 The derivative of ax* is anx™!. What about the derivative of a constant, say y = 5? This is 0, as the gradient is always 0. The derivative of a constant is 0, pee ade ye Ify sax’, & = ane Ify =k (aconstant), 2 =0 THE DERIVATIVE OF A POLYNOMIAL In Example 5, we saw that the derivative of the polynomial 3f — 2r + 1 was 61 — 2. The derivative of 3f is 61, the derivative of —2r is -2 and the derivative of | is 0. These are added to obtain the derivative of the polynomial. The derivative of a polynomial is the sum of the separate derivatives of the terms. This rule applies only to polynomials and does not apply to functions such as V3x— 1 or 42 which are not polynomials.Example 6 Differentiate wrt x (a) 3x5 +7, (bx) — 5° - £, (c) (2x- 3, (d) 4, (e) ax? + 2x? — ex +7 where a, b and ¢ are consiants. (a) Ify= 3x5 +7, then = 3x S014 0 = 15x, Note: Do not write 3x + 7 = 152+. This is incorrect. Use a letter such as y for the function and then write 2. (b) Ify=e- $2 then @ = 3r- $ x 2e!- (Its 3r7-x+ & Rewrite reciprocals such as + in terms of negative indices before differentiating. (c) Here we express (2x — 3)? as a polynomial first by expansion. (2x = 3) = 4x7 12r4+9 Ify = 4x — 12x49, then 2 = 8x - 12° +05 8r= 12, asx = 1. @) y= 4 =4r, then 2 = 403)r™! = 124 which can be left in this form or written as — 12. (c) If y= ae + 2bx - cx +7, then 2 = Bax + 4bx — cx° + 0 = Bar + 4bx—c. Example 7 Find the coordinates of the points an the curve y = x1— 3x° 9x +6 where the gradient is 0. The gradient = a. = Bx - Gx - 9 = 3G - 2x - 3) = B(x - Br + 1) If the gradient = 0, then 2 =O and so 3(x — 3)(x + 1) = 0 which gives x=3 or x=-1. When x = 3, y = 3 3(3°) — 9(3) + 6 = -21: coordinates (3,-21) When x = =I, y= (+1) - 3-1)? - 9-1) + 6 = 1: coordinates (-1,11) Example 8 (a) Differentiate A = 2a? + 2arh wrt r, where h is a constant. (b) fT = PAL find Zand the values of p for =0. (a) A = 2m 2r! + Anke” = der + 2h 195(b) Here we rewrite the expression as a polynomial first. Gp+iP _ 9p + p+ > = 9p +6+} (dividing each term in =9p+6+p% the numerator by p) Then ¢ =9404(Clp2=9- It Gy = 0, then 9 = Zs and p= Exercise 9.4 (Answers on page 627.) 1 Differentiate wrt x: (a) Sx (b) 4c (d) 3e-5 @ 3e-x-1 (g) 1-38 ch) G1)? @ 3r+t (k) @-2) (meet a eee ay Heed dete (p) = 2 Differentiate s = 3° —4r— 2 wrtz. 3 fW=3rP-22+r-3, find H. 4 Given « = (Br - 2), find Pa 5 y=4i? —puv + 6. Given that the rate of change of y wrt x is 2 when = 1, find the value of 6 Find the gradient on the curve y= 4x" - 10x + 1 at the point where x = -1. 7 The gradient on the curve y = ai? - 3x +4 where x =—2 is 13. Find the value of a. 8 Find the coordinates of the points on the curve y = 3° — 4x + 2 where the gradient is 0. 9 Find the coordinates of the points on the curve y =.x° - 3x° +x = 5 where the gradient is 1. 10 Find the values of z for which 2 = 0 where P = dz’ ~ 2c ~ 8c + 5. 11 Show that there is only one point on the curve y = x‘ — 32x + 10 where the gradient is 0 and find its coordinates. 12 Given that u = 4¢ + 3 — 6f — I, find the values of ¢ for which a =12, 13 Find the values of ¢ for which “ =O given that s = 4f +P - 21-5. 14 Given v = 45° 12s ~7, find 42, For what value of s is {¢ = 4? 15 Given that the curve y= ax? + & has a gradient of S at the point (1,1), find the values of a and b, What is the gradient of the tangent to the curve at the point where axel 19616 If the gradient on the curve y = ax + 4 at the point (1-1) is 5, find the values of a@and b. 17 The curve given by y = ax’ + bx? + 3x + 2 passes through the point (1,2) and the gradient at that point is 7. Find the values of a and b. 18 Given y = 2x3 - 3x° — 12x 4 5, find the domain of x for which 2 20. 19 The function P is given by P = $ + br and when r= 1, P= -I. The rate of change of P when ¢ = 5 is -5. Find the values of a and b. 20 Given that R = mp! + np? + 3, find $8. When p = Find the values of m and ne se = 12 and when p = pa COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS In part (c) of Example 6, to find the derivative of (2x — 3), we first expand it into a poly- nomial. Similarly, if we want to find the derivative of y = (3x—2)*, we first expand it into a polynomial. This would be rather lengthy so we look for a neater method. To do this we take (3x — 2) as a composite or combined function. The function y = (3x - 2)* can be built up from two simpler functions, « = 3x - 2 and then y = uw. We call w the core f function. _ Now wisa function of xso $4 =3. y isa function of the core u so a Su‘. To obtain ‘from these two derivatives we use a rule for the derivative of composite functions (which we shall not prove): dx du dy dy dy du y sy 4, ot where y is a function of w and w is a function of x. Note: du cannot be cancelled on the right hand side as these are not fractions but deri- vatives. However the notation suggests the result and is easy to remember. Then §* = Sut x 3 = 15ut = 15(3x-2)', Example 9 Find © given that y = (x —3x +1) 3x + 1 as the core. Then y = we’. 4u} differentiating y wrt the core du = 2x — 3, differentiating the core wrt x. Multiply these two derivatives to obtain $ : Bs du x Qx 3) = (2x - 308 Br + WY 197Example 10 Find & ify = (ae +bx +e7. Take u = ax? + bx +c and then y =a". Wo num! and Mt = 2ax +b Then & = me! x (ax + b) = n(ax + bax? + bx + cM. With practice, 2 can be written down in two steps on one line. Suppose y = (core)" (core being a function of x) Step i Step 2 dy 5 7 dtcore) i =ntcorey' x s derivative of (core) derivative of core wrt core wrt Example 11 Differentiate T—yy qq wrt x. Take y = 20 = 3x + 1)" Then & = 2-1)? = 3x + 1? x (2x = 3) de — _72Qr-3) ~ (F=3r4 1? derivative of core wrt x Example 12 Given that 5 = 3t — fa) s=3r-(1-2" core %- find (a) 4 and (b) the values of s when $f = 7. # =3-CI(1 - 292) derivative of core wrt 1 = 35 — ip geci- (o) 163 ~ Tae = Fi then Ga agt = 5 ie. 9= (1-29 Hence 9 = 1-41 + 4P or 4 - 42-8 =0 which gives # - 1-2 = Oor (t— 2)(¢4+ 1) =O and r=2or-1. When t =2,5=6- and when f=-l, 5 =6l =63 198Exercise 9.5 (Answers on page 627.) 1 Differentiate the following wrt x: (a) (x-3)* (b) (3x- 1)? (c) (5- 2x? (d) (4x-5)'° (©) (4x - 3)" @) @-x+1F () G-x- 2" ) Sty © Se + 4 9 aa (k) @- 3) ® 7 (my =4— (n) (ax + by oO ay ® wate @ @x- 2) 2 Ifs = (2r— 1), find (a) & and (b) the value of ¢ for which $f = 24. 3 Ifv=(3P- 2+ 1} find the value of 42 when t=-I. 4 Given that a = 5 - “= fing $4 and simplify the result. Hence find the value of for which 4 = 5 Ifs= 73> find © and the values of s when as =} 6 The equation of acurve is y= 2x— 4. Find (a) {2 and (b) the gradient of the curve when x= -3. 7 Find the gradient of the curve y = sola where x = 2. 8 If y= ~1,, find the coordinates of the points where the gradient is ~ 5. 9 If y= yp, find the coordinates of the point where the gradient = 10 Given that y= 3, find (a) &, (b) the values of ¢ when $Y = U1 Ify=3¢+ 1+ ado, find @ 2 and (he values off when =2h, 12 When x = 1, the gradient of the curve y= +2 is 2. Find the values of a. 13 Given that L = 25> and that L = 1 and =3 when x = 1, find the values of aand b. 14 The curve y= a passes through the point (1,-1) and its gradient at that point is 2. Find the values of a and b. THE SECOND DIFFERENTIAL COEFFICIENT sy If y is a function of x, then {2 is also a function of x (or a constant). Hence we can’ differentiate { wrt x. This gives the second differential coefficient az) which is written as 2 (read dee two y by dee x two) for brevity. The 2's are not dx squares but symbolize differentiating twice. The square of & is written as (2). 2 is sometimes also written as f"(r) where y = f(x).Example 13 a dy )> 5 Find a and (ZY if (a) y=2P 3841, (b)y = (4x-1), (y= @ 26x -or #y = 12-6 ae AS _ 2 eet which ie cite di ay y = (6x? ~ 6x)? which is quite different from 5. (b) = = 44r- 1)? x4 = 124-1) S = 24(4x — 1) x 4 = 96(4x— 1) (BY = ads — 8, © y=@-3x" = (12 - 3x)? x (3) = 32 - 3)? & = 3(-2)(2 — 3x)? x (-3) = 18(2 - 30) = 9 Cae) = (2 = 3x" P As we shall see, s has important applications, It is also possible to find further P foe d derivatives, such as ger ol but we shall not use these. Exercise 9.6 (Answers on page 626.) 1 Find © and £2 for (a) 4-548 (b) @x—7) ©) (1-404 t f e-1 oy () ¢-¥-+ 2 Ifs=3e- 2, find 4 and $3. 3 Ify =(ax-+ 2) and 4 = 18, find the values of a. 4 y= ax’ + bx, Given that 2 a and b. and that {% = 3 when x= 4, find the values of 5 For the function y= (ax + b)?, % =—6 when x= 4 and “f = 18. Find the values of a and b. 2006 Ifthe gradient of the curve y = 2x + pix? — 5 is -2 when.x = 1, find the value of pt and the value of a at that point. 7 fy = gt, find (22)? and £2. Show that yf = 22) 8 Ifs=3r —30f + 361 + 2, find the values of s for which $ =O and the value of f for which # = 0, 9 Ify = 20 — 4x? + 9x— 5, what is the range of values of x for which $2 > 0? SUMMARY © If y=f(a), f(x) is the gradient function. The value of f(x) is the gradient at a given point. x + Sx) — fix) ‘ 4+ 80-19 where Sy is the imerement in x. i, dy by 7 or tay in ee BO sins ay Beis a e x is the derivative or differential coefficient of y wrt x, It measures the rate of change of y wrt x ¢ dy 1 dy e tfysax, © Snax: ify =k (aconstant), & = Ify sax, Gg Snax! : if y =k (a constant), 7 © The derivative of a sum of terms or a polynomial is the sum of the derivatives of the separate terms. @=Thy 2 fan where ted function of x; 2 dy ae) e —“<'is the second differential coefficient of y wrt x, written as < or as £%(0) de if y= f(a). REVISION EXERCISE 9 (Answers on page 628.) 1 Differentiate wrt x: (a) (@- 5)" (b) (1 = 2x5 © tr @) (e-1) (@) (1-3x- 2p © aoa (@) Q2e- 1) (hy SaRet @ & Des @ bees _ I 2 Ify =. - 3x + 7, for what range of values of x is 2 < 0? 3 Find the gradient of the curve y = 5 + 2x — 3° at each of the points where it meets the x-axis. 2014 (a) Find the gradient of the curve y = § where x = 3. Hence find (b) the equation of the tangent at that point and (c) the coordinates of the points. where this tangent meets the axes. (d) Calculate the distance between these points. 5 Given that s = 31° — 41+ 1, find the rate of change of s wrt f when s = 5. 6 Ity=4x— se find & and 3. 7 For the funetion y = 21° - 4x, find & and £2, oy Hence find the value of when x = 2, 8 IfA= 7715 where pi is a constant > 0 and the rate of change of A wrt r is —$ when r= 044, find the value of p. 9 The tangent at the point (a,b) on the curve y = 1 —x — 2x? has a gradient of 7. Find the values of a and b. 10 The curve y = { + bx (a, & constants) passes through the points A(I-1) and B(4,-11 p. (a) Find the value of a and of b. (b) Show that the tangent to the curve at the point where x = -2 is parallel to AB. 11 (a) Show that the gradients of the tangents to the curve y = x7 —x — 2 where the curve meets the x-axis are numerically equal. (b) Find the equations of these tangents and show that they intersect on the axis of the curve. 12 The line y = x + 1 meets the curve y = x - x — 2 at the points A and B. Find the gradients of the tangents to the curve at these points. 13 If p= 2s'—s* = 285, find the values of s which make {2 =00 and for these values of 5 find the value of $2. 14 The gradient of the curve y = ax? + bx + 2 at the point (2,12) is 11. Find the values of aand b, 1S If y= x! + 3x? — 9x + 2, for what range of values of x is $ negative? 16 Given that y = (x + 2)? - (x 2), find the range of values of x for which 2 = 0. 17 If y= 4 + Bx, where A and B are constants, show that 42 +r =y, 20218 The velocity v of a moving body whose position vector r is given by r =.xi+ yj, where i+ 4] (Fig.9.10). x and y are functions of , is the vector v = ar (a) If r = 2ri + (5 — Dj, use the above to find the vector v. (b) Find the value of ¢ for which v is perpendicular to r . direction of velocity Fig.9.10 ° 203