INTRODUCTION

Kmastra (KS) is a work of encyclopedic nature, devoted to Kmasstra

i.e., erotica and love. It is the first available work on Kmasstra in Indian
tradition and still remains the most exhaustive and scientific work in
Sanskrit on this subject.

1.Vtsyyana : the author of Kmastra

KS is known to have been authored by Vtsyyana (V). Who was V? No
historically valid record on him is available. Some old Ksas (lexicons) in
Sanskrit like Vaijayanti, Trikndassa and Nmamlik take Vtsyyana to
be identical with Kautalya or Cnakya - the author of Arthasstra.
Hmacandra's Abhidhnacintmani and Ydavapraksa's Vaijayanti say
that Vtsyyana, Mallanga, Kautilya (correctly spelt as Kautalya),
Dramila, Paksilasvmi etc. are the names of one and the same person.
Another name associated with the authorship of KS is that of Kmandaka,
the famous author of a work Kmandakiya on ethics. This Kmandaka is
said to be the disciple of Kautalya or Cnakya.
Subandhu, in his well-known prose-romance Vsavadatt (L.H.Gray:
1962:156) refers to Mallanga as the author of Kmastra. Yasdhara (Y),
the author of Jayamangala (JM), the most authentic commentary available
in Sanskrit on this work, also says at the very outset of his commentary
that the real name of the author of Kmastra is Mallanga, and on KS
1.2.19, he again says that Vtsyyana is just the family name of the author
of this text and the name given to him through Samskra (ritual for
naming) is Mallanga.
Vtsyyana is just a family name. Mallanga, the author of KS was a
Vtsyyana like several celebrated authors. There have been several
Vtsyyanas in ancient Indian tradition of Acryas or Rsis. Paksila Svmi,
the author of Nyyastrabhsya was also a Vtsyyana. Bnabhatta, who is
well-known as the author of two prose-romances was born in Vtyyana
family. The author of KS became famous as Vtsyyana so much so that
some other Vtsyyanas by misunderstanding were held to be identical
with him.
Date of Vtsyyana
2

The language, style and the structure of Vtsyyana's Kmastra as a

Sstric discourse reveal its proximity to Kautalya's Arthasstra. V.
explicitly cites Arthasstra (KS, 1.2.10) and is indebted to it by borrowing
terms and concepts. We can conclude that both these works stand close to
each other in respect of their period of composition. M. Krishnamachariar
therefore places Vtsyyana the author of Kmasutra in 4th or 3rd century
BC. Shama Shastri says that Vtsyyana flourished between 137 AD to
209 AD, while Bhandarkar places him around 100 AD, and Keith before
4th century AD. A.K. Warder (IKL : vol. 1:1989: para 25) suggests that
Kamastra was probably produced in 3rd century AD. Doniger and Kakar
(2003) almost agree with Warder by assuming that KS must have been
composed after 225 AD. V has referred to Stavhana dynasty and has also
mentioned the king Stakarni of this dynasty by name. According to
Purnas Kuntala Stakarni was 13th Andhra king in Stavhana dynasty.
He was son of Mrgndra Svtikarna and he ruled in Kali era 2487-2481
(615-607 BC). The Stavhanas flourished till second century BC.
Vtsyyana's KS came to be held as a standard work on Kmasstra by
4th-5th century AD and it had made all earlier works obsolete by this time.
Study of this work was supposed to be a sine qua none for courtesans, man
of taste or connoisseurs, as is evident from references to KS by several
authors coming after these centuries. We have already referred to
Subandhu, who rose in 6th century AD or before it. Bhavabhti, a wellknown poet and dramatist belonging to 7th-8th centuries gives copious
references from KS in his Mlatimdhavam. Dmdara in his
Kuttanimatam (stanza 77) cites the names of Vtsyyana and Dattaka as
two authors in the field of Kmasstra. Even poet Klidsa appears to have
been familiar with the text of Vtsyyana and he indirectly hints upon it at
a number of places in his Kumrasambhava. In fact, the VIII canto of
Kumrasambhava illustrates some of the instructions and theories of V in a
very picturesque and subtle way.
Thus V's text came to become a widely read and universally accepted work
during the beginning of christian era and ,a considerable time might have

elapsed after its composition to make it popular all over the country. We
can therefore assign V the period of 3rd to 2nd century BC.

2.Tradition of Kmasstra before Vtsyyana

According to A.K. Warder (IKL: vol. 1:1989: para 24) Kmasstra appears
to have developed first under the auspices of materialistic or naturalistic
(the Lokyata) school of philosophers, who maintained that pleasure was
the highest object of human life and denounced the pretensions of religion.
This suggestion does not hold ground. There is ample material on sex or
erotica and the areas related to these in Rgvda, Atharvavda and some of
the Upanisads, and this is not related to Lkyata school. On the other
hand, at the very outset in his KS, V has made it clear that Kama is not the
highest objects of human life, it is one of the three objects and is
subordinate to Dharma, and even Artha in some respects (KS I. 2.14-15).
Sex is a celebration of life and it is n activity signifying continuity of
creation. Atharvavda, which is described as the source of the concept of
Rasa in the tradition of Natyasastra or poetics and aesthetics, has several
hymns dealing with Kama. These hymns pertain mainly to charming a
beloved. The 25th hymn in the III book of Atharvavda expresses the
longing of a man to command the love of his beloved. The man says there:
"Let the upthruster thrust thee up, do not abide in thine own lair, the arrow
of love, that is terrible, therewith I pierce thee in the heart".
The arrow of Kama is described here as feathered with longing, tipped
with love, necked with resolve, piercing straight into the heart. V neither
refers to Kama as a god, nor does he describe his arrow, but the metaphor
in this description of Kama's arrow unfolds the basic concept of his text, as
longing and resolve form the very core of erotic love. The Tradition of
Kamasastra therefore is as old as the Vedas and the Upanisads in India, and
the Vedic seers frankly talked about the themes of sex and did not view it
as a taboo, rather an essential and pious activity. Atharvavda has many
hymns on charming a beloved. It seems that the early authors on
Kamasastra must have borrowed some concepts and classifications from
Atharvavda. In one of the hymns of Atharvavda, the lover asks the
4

woman to embrace him as a creeper completely entwines the tree (A.

V.8.1, XVII1,1.15,16) This description exactly tallies with the definitions
of Latvstitakam Twining vine and Tilatandulakam (sesame and rice
embrace) - the types of embraces as defined by V. There are subtle
references to other activities besides embrace, as well as gestures and
expressions during sexual arousal (A. VI.9, VI.139). The poet of
Atharvavda very imaginatively reverses the simile of a creeper entwining
the tree, and describes the embrace as a Sami creeper climbing over an
Asvattha tree (A., VI.11.1),In fact, this is a special type of embrace
described by V in KS (11.2.14) called Vrksdhirdhakam (climbing the
tree), There are many passages in Atharvavda dealing with prescriptions
for recovery of virility, they also hint the energy of a bull and a horse
(A.,IV.4.2), which provides a basis to V for classification of man. The seer
of the hymn in A. prays gods to make the male sexual organ straight like
an arrow (A., IV.4.6,7), and to provide the man with the vigour of the
horse, the mule, the goat and the ram (IV.4.8). Man's sexual organ is
described as a placer of semen in the embryo (Garbhasya Rtdhh) and
the process of sexual intercourse is suggested by the simile of an arrow
moving straight in waters (A.V.25.1). In fact, a number of hymns in this
Veda describe the process of procreation, the man is the possessor of
semen, he discharges his semen in the womb of a woman to make an
embryo (A, VI.11). The famous Sryskta, not only describes the
ceremony of marriage, it also depicts the meeting of the bride with her
newlywed husband. The passages here describe their sexual union and hint
upon the coital positions also (A., XIV.2.14, 37-40). There are not only
references to herbs or plants which enhance sexual potency, in one of the
hymns of Atharvavda, the seer hints upon a herb which makes a man
impotent (VI.138.1). The connection of such passages with V's treatment
of virility, impotency and aphrodisiacs in book VII of KS cannot be
denied. Further, there are hymns on search for a husband (II.36) or
marriage in Atharvavda, traces of which emerge in books III and IV of
KS. Book VII of KS is especially based on some of the hymns of
Atharvavda. Y rightly suggests here that the details of various
prescriptions described in this book can be known from Atharvavda. The
5

seers of Atharvavda (VI.139) have used the word Subhankarani or

Subhankarana (the herbs which make a man or woman lucky in love),
which form the core concept of this book of KS.
There are references to sexual union and awareness of sex in other Vedic
Samhits also. Yajurvda metaphorically describes coital process by saying
that vagina is mortar and male organ is pestle, their union leads to progeny
(ynirulkhalam sisnam musalam mithunamvaitat prajananam kriyate).
In Rgvda there is a reference to Rmas, the daughter of Brhaspati, who
invites her husband Bhvavyaya for cohabitation evincing awareness for
female body and sex (R. 1.126.7). The hymns on dialogue between
Agastya and Lopmudr, as well as between Yama and Yami (R.I.179;
X.10) are full of references to erotic pleasure and sexual union.
Kama has been viewed as a fundamental principle of life and creation by
the seers of Upanisads. Brhadranyaka Upanisad describes Kma as the
primordial desire related to creation and multiplication of human race "In the begining everywhere there was tman or self only. He was in the
shape of a person..... He was afraid. Because whosoever is alone becomes
afraid. Then he thought since there is nothing else other than me, of what I
am afraid? Then his fear ceased. ... verily, it is from a second that fear
arises. But then he has no delight, because whosoever is alone has no
delight. He then desired a second. He expanded himself to become a
couple of a woman and a man in embrace. He caused this self to split into
two parts. Thus arose husband and wife. Therefore, as Yjnavalkya used to
say, this body is one half of the one self, like one of the two halves of a
split pea. Therefore this space is filled by a wife. He became united with
her. From that human beings were produced." (Br.Upa. 1.4.1-3).
Again it is said in the same Upanisad -- Woman is fire, the sexual organ is
fuel, the hair around is smoke, the vagina is the flame, the act of
penetration is the coal, the feeling of pleasure is the sparks. In this fire the
gods offer semen and from this man is born" The Upanisad also cites a
view that Sexual pleasure is a corollary to highest bliss -

sarvsmnandnmupastha kyatanam - Br. Up. 11.4.11). The act of

love making is treated at par with supreme bliss. (Chndgya 11.1.3.1)
Vtsyyana on the tradition of Kmasstra

V has traced the history of Kmasstra and has cited the names of its
exponents. The account given by him is partially mythical and partially
historical from modern point of view. The tradition starts with Prajpati,
after creating this world and human beings, composed a Sstra on the three
ends of life (Dharma, Artha and Kama) with a view to regulate human life.
Manu and Brhaspati took the first two respectively i.e, Dharma and Artha
and Kama was taken up by Nandi, the servant of Mahdva Siva. Nandi
presented an independent discourse on Kamasatra in one thousand
chapters. The same was abridged by Svtaktu in 500 chapters, and was
further made concise in Bbhravya Pncla in 150 chapters. The
Kmasstra as elaborated by these Acryas had seven sections, named as
Sdhrana (general) Smpraygika (sex) Kanysamprayuktaka ( union
with virgins) Bhrydhikrika (On duties of a wife) Pradrika ( On extramarital relationships with married women) Vaisika (On Courtesans)
upanisadika (secret devices).
Subsequently, independent treatises were composed by seven authors on
each of these seven topics. These seven works must have been in vogue
before V created his magnum opus. Dattaka separated the sixth section for
an independent treatment at the request of the courtesans of the city of
Ptaliputra. As a sequel to it, Cryana spoke on the General topics
independently. Suvarnanbha composed Smpraygika (experimental)
Ghbtakamukha composed Kanysamprayuktaka (approaches to virgins)
Gnard iya composed Bhrydhikrika (On duties of wife); Gnikputra
composed Pradrika (On extra-marital relationships with married women)
and Kucumra composed Oupanisadika (secrets). Because of this
compartmentalisation of the Sstra into various disciplines, its holistic
view was lost. Vtsyyana therefore presented a compendium of this
Sstra in a small book (KS, 1.1. 4-14).

Amongst authors who followed Vtsyyana, Kokkoka refers to two

schools of ancient Indian Erotics-- i.e. of Nandikasvara and Gnikputra.
He also draws the line of difference between the two in respect of
Anangatithi (right days for sexual intercourse). The former schools adjusts
the first 15 days of full moon as right days for sexual intercourse. Jytirisa
says that he has seen the text of Nandin (Upadhyaya S.C. 1961: Preface,
p.50).
No work of the authors cited by V in the field of Kmasstra has till this
date survived. Vtsyyana frequently refers to their views. The works by
these authors must have been available to him, as he cites many of them
verbatim. No historical data on these authors except Dattaka is available to
us. Of the authorities or Acryas cited by V in this description of the
tradition of Kmasstra, Svtaktu is otherwise known as a seer or psi in
the Upanisads. V calls him Ouddlaki or the son of Uddlaka. In
Upanisads also, Svtaktu is described as the son of Uddlaka Rsi. It is
interesting to note that in Brhadranyaka Upanisad (VI.4.4), this Uddlaka
is referred as one of the authorities of procreation ceremony. This
ceremony in fact is a ritualisation and glorification of Kmasstra, where
sexual activity is treated at par with a ritual performance. This section
(VI.4) of Brhadranyaka Upanisad in fact describes the method of
performing intercourse with a woman for procreation and this performance
is identified with a ritual or Yajna. Semen (Rtah) is termed here as the
rasa of man. Svtaktu Ouddlaki was a revolutionary in many respects.
Not only he has his own epistemological and ontological concepts on
philosophical issues, he was responsible for visualizing a new social order.
Yasdhara in his JM has given a brief account of a story related to him,
and this story is,narrated in detail in the Mahbhrata (1.113.9-20).
Accordingly, Ouddlaki was outraged to see his mother being taken away
forcibly by a Rsi for having sex with her. His father, however, pacified him
by telling that this is Dharma, like unfenced cows, women can be taken
away by men this way. Svtaktu could not tolerate this, and said that he is
going to proclaim a new order as Dharma setting a moral boundary for
men and women and debarring men's right to take a married women
8

forcibly. Yasdhara , the author of commentary Jayamangala on KS also

refers to Svtaktu as the first lawgiver who produced a work on
Kmasstra before Vtsyyana.
Yasdhara has also furnished some details about the life of Dattaka.
Accordingly, Dattaka was the son of a brahmin of Mathur, and was born
in Ptaliputra. He lost his mother immediately after his birth, and was
handed over to some woman by his father in his infancy. Therefore he
came to be known as Dattaka (adopted son). He got into the company of
dancing women, and became adept in their devices and ways of life. Y also
refers to a legend about Dattaka -- that he became a woman due to some
curse, and therefore came to be very intimate with the courtesans. He was
requested by the courtesans to compose a work for their education and
guidance. Dattakastram was the nme of his work. Two aphorisms from
Dattakastram have been quoted by Symilaka and svaradatta in their
plays under Caturbhni .
Dattaka's work alongside Vtsyyana's magnum opus remained a favourite
text with those interested in the study of Kmasstra, as Dmdara, in his
Kuttanimata (verse 77th and 122), twice refers to it alongside Vtsyyana,
Vitaputra and Rjaputra. We shall refer to Dmdara in discussion on other
authors in the field.
Mdhavavarman- II, a king of Ganga dynasty wrote a Vrtti on
Dattakastras. He was the fifth ancestor of King Durvinita and lived
around 380 AD. A fragment of his Vrtti; has survived. Besides these
authors, Vtsyyana refers to the views of Bbhravya, Ghtakamukha,
Gonard iya, Gnikputra, Cryana, Ouddlaki and Suvarnanbha very
often in his text. He also cites the school of Bbhravya or the followers of
Bbhravya. It seems that the texts of these Acryas were available to V.
But as time passed, these texts by his predecessors were made obsolete by
his own work - Kmautra. The texts of Bbhravya and Dattaka were
certainly available to Y, as he quotes stanzas from these authors (on KS
V.4.62, VI.3.20).

Gonardiya and Gnikputra have been referred in the Mahbhsya of

Patanjali (I.IV.51). Kncintha, a later author on Kmasstra also quotes
from Gnikputra, so that the workof Gnikputra might have existed
during his times. Jyotirisa, another author in Krnasstra also knew of
Gnikputra.

3. Kmastra as a Sstra
Kmastra of Vtsyyana is known as a Sstra in our tradition. A Sstra is
a scientific work supposed to serve two-fold purpose --- samsana
(narration) and ssana (regulation). A sstra presents an analytical and
descriptive account of the practices, models and standards related to a
particular theme. This is samsana. A text becomes sstra by samsana
(samsancchstram). Alongside the analysis of the real practices, a sstra
should also establish norms, evolve the set of rules and regulations. This is
ssana. A text becomes sstra by ssana (ssancchstram). KS perfectly
answers this definition of sstra -- it is descriptive as well as prescriptive.
Kmastra of Vtsyyana perfectly serves both the purports of a Sstra,
i.e., Samsana and Ssana. There is no other work in ancient Indian
tradition presenting such comprehensive documentation on sexual
behaviour, life-styles, sports and festivals as prevailing in different regions
of this vast peninsula. The purpose of Kmastra is to suggest devices and
practices which keep the life of the lovers always kindled by the light of
love. V guides men and women into sensuous pleasures to save them from
excesses and going astray. Love seeks expression in multifarious ways.
The lovers gifted with imagination find their own ways to maintain
novelty in the course of love. But a Sstra like Kmastra can help those
who are not gifted with this sort of imagination. Variety and novelty are
always desirable for enhancement of love and passion. Vtsyyana says
that variety is required even at the height of the passion, and the mutual
passion should be enhanced by variety (KS 11.4.25).
V emerges as a scientist of first order in the galaxy of great Indian seers or
Rsis. Motichandra makes a right assessment of his work when he says"The entire range of the topics on love has been laid bare with a cold
10

scientific thoroughness unparalleled in Sanskrit literature" (Upadhyaya

S.C.:1961: IV).

4.Scope of Kmastra
Kmastra is a scientific text (Sstra) on Kma. Human life has three
levels- material, psychological and spiritual. Artha, Kma and Dharma these are the three ends of life which lead it to perfection at these three
levels respectively. Kma is related to the second level -- the
psychological. A Sstra related to it speaks about the psychic needs of
human beings and their fulfillment. This fulfillment depends on the
makings of an individual and his or her relations with society. Kmasstra
therefore deals with human relationships at psychological and social
levels.
A.K. Warder (IKL: vol. I: 1989: para 24) describes Kmasstra as 'the
science of pleasure'. The term pleasure covers a limited aspect of Kma
and its Sstra. Kma in fact is the desire to make life beautiful and to attain
its fulfillment through regaining love. KS is not simply a text elaborating
upon the pleasures of life, it also lays down the norms for the life of a
Ngaraka or an ideal citizen, it establishes the codes for the conduct of
house-wives, co-wives, ladies of seraglio and courtesans. In the same way
Doniger and Kakar (2003) have termed KS as a 'Hindu text book of erotic
love'. As KS is a scientific work, composed with a secular outlook, it is not
proper to describe it in terms of Hindu or non-Hindu. Also, KS is not just a
text book on erotic love, it covers many more areas of human life.
M. Krishnamachariar (1989: p.889) describes KS as 'a valuable treatise on
sociology and eugenics. As we have seen KS covers some area of
sociology, but it is simply misleading to call it a work of eugenics.
Vtsyyana certainly has no concern for the ideology and methodology
preached on the name of the so called eugenics, which is relatively a very
modern branch of study. Eugenics is devoted to the study of heredity,
effects of human genes on progeny. The word eugenics (coming from
Greek eugenes or wellborn) was coined in 1883 by Francis Galton, an
Englishman and cousin of Charles Darwin, who applied Darwinian science
11

to develop theories about heredity and good or noble birth. (I. Kevles
1985, p. x). Eugenics initially evolved by combining evolutionary theory
and a theory of human heredity to focus political concerns about
population policy and control. The Encyclopedia of Bioethics defines
Eugenics as - "a science that investigates methods to ameliorate the genetic
composition of the human race, a program to foster such betterment; a
social movement; and in its perverted form, a pseudo-scientific retreat for
bigots and racists" (V. Ludmerer 1978, p. 457). Ever since its inception,
eugenics has been controversial and its nomenclature as science has been
questionable. It degenerated into lowest forms of racism and came to be
misused in Nazi Germany and America. By 1935 "eugenics had become
'hopelessly perverted' pseudoscientific facade for 'advocates of race and
class prejudice, defenders of vested interests of church and state, Fascists,
Hitlerites, and reactionaries generally" (I. Kevles 1985, p. 164) and it soon
came to an end as a healthy movement for scientific study.
The outlook adopted by the promoters of this so-called eugenics simply
does not fall within the purview of Vtsyyana's work, The law givers like
Manu and Yjnavalkya do show some concern for purity of Varna, but
they are concerned with social order and sanctity of individual, life, and
they also do not advocate racial purity, as has been proclaimed on the
name of so-called eugenics.
As for Vtsyyana, he is simply averse to any idea of racial purity, neither
does he maintain that sexual union of superior class of male and female
will lead to a superior progeny. It is thus wrong to see any connection
between Kmastra and eugenics.
Kmastra as a scientific work on Kama presents a comprehensive view of
life. The cycle of human life is not complete without the realisation of all
the three ends -- Dharma, Artha and Kama . Kmastra therefore deals
with human life and its fulfillment through the realisation of Kama.
Vtsyyana in fact stands for freedom, variety and choice in life. His text
thus reflects the true spirit of India -- which is the spirit of freedom.

5. Structure and methodology of Kmastra

12

Like Kautalya's Arthasstra, KS is divided into adhikaranas (books),

adhyyas (chapters) and prakaranas (topics). The whole text is composed
in the style of stra (aphorism) and bhsya (commentary). Like Kautalya,
Vtsyyana extensively cites traditional verses which must of have been
handed over to him through generations. The whole text is divided into
seven adhikaranas or books. The First adhikarana has five chapters and
five topics, the second ten chapters and seventeen topics, the third five
chapters and nine topics, the fourth two chapters and eight topics, the fifth
six chapters and ten topics, the sixth six chapters and twelve topics and the
last and seventh book has two chapters and six topics. According to V's
own calculation in KS L1.15-22, the seven books of the whole
compendium have 36 chapters and sixty four topics dealt in 1250
aphorisms. The number sixty four in case of topics however does not tally
if we sum up the numbers of topics in each book which V himself has
specified. It is in fact sixty-seven. This has strange coincidence with NS of
Bharatamuni, where the number of hand-postures is specified as sixty four,
but when calculated from the text itself they come out of be sixty seven! V
himself has not specified the topics in his text, but Y has identified these
and reaches the number 64 by omitting one topic from Book V (A man
having relations with many women) and two of Book VI (Reasons for
taking a lover and types of courtesans).
The number of aphorisms also presents a problem. According to
Vtsyyana himself, the number should come to 1250. However no printed
edition of KS exactly comprises 1250 aphorisms. In DDS's edn. they are
1492, while in Goswami's edn., the number goes to 1683. In fact the
editors and translators of KS have blundered by reading the verses quoted
by V as his own aphorisms, whereas V clearly indicates that he is
reproducing a verse by the way of a quotation from some earlier author, by
his preceding remark - Tadtadhuh (this is what they say). D & K even
read a prose portion (1.2.29) as a verse. Also, by copyists error, several
aphorisms appear to have been split in two. The editors have not closely
examined the aphorisms while marking their numbers. DDS has marked
two independent verses after 1.2.39 as one aphorism (no. 1.2.40).
13

Doniger and Kakar (2003: Intro.: XVII) assume that the prose part in KS is
descriptive and the verses are prescriptive. This is simply misrepresenting
Vtsyyana's design, who has followed the pattern of earlier Sastrik works
(like Arthasastra and Ntyasstra). Verses are introduced in these works to
sum up or supplement the discussion in prose portion. Throughout their
translation, D & K have mostly rendered the prose portions of KS in
present tense, taking them to be the descriptions of practices current during
V's times, and the verse parts they have rendered as prescriptive by using
verbs suggestive of order or instruction. V has used Vidhilin (optative)
both in his prose and verses to impart instruction and has clearly used
Latlakra (present indicative), also both in prose and verse portions, to
describe what had been a practice during his times.
As a social scientist of first order, Vtsyyana adopts the following
methodology for presenting a problem -1. Study of current practices/ prevailing norms or accepted orders,
2. study of past practices
3. diverse views of experts on the problem - the prima facie view
(prvapaksa) and the views exploring the other aspects of the
problem, They also include the arguments that the imagined
opponents might raise,
4. Vtsyyana's view-- This includes the view as finally accepted
(siddhnta paksa) along with Vtsyyana's rebuttal's on opponent's
arguments.
5. conclusions, clear instructions or injunctions.
V never imposes his point of view. He attempts an analysis of the problem,
gives his perspective and then leaves it up to the men of good conduct to
decide the norms.
KS in fact presents an encyclopedic record of diverse practices regarding
sex and ancient Indian individual and social life. But Vtsyyana forwarns
against following all the practices described by him in practical life. A
Sstra has a much widr scope than individual life. 'Therefore one should
not start practicing whatever is stated in this Sstra'-- he says- 'one has to
apply his or her own discretion as well as consideration for time and place
14

etc. Because of the privacy and fickleness of human nature, sex has no
limits. The purport of Sstra is to regulate sexual behaviour and to stop
human beings from excesses' (11.9.41-45). Yasdhara has made a very apt
analysis of the structure of KS. He says that this Sstra has two layers of
structure-- i.e., tantra (technique) and vpa (means). Tantra is the
applications part, which deals with the methodology of love and sex.
Under vpa are included various means through which the lovers get
united.-- i.e. marriage, individual efforts and messengers, social
relationships etc. There is only one book speaking of tantra or technique,
and four books deal with vpa or means. The first book deals with general
topics which are necessary for initiating both tantra and vpa, and the last
book just covers the topics which could not be dealt under these two. (Y.
on 1.1.23).
6. Outline of KS
The first book of KS forms an introduction to the Sstra. After presenting a
synopsis of the whole treatise Vtsyyana then goes to discuss the three
ends of life, the sixty four arts or skills, the routine of the connoisseur and
the duties of the assistants and the messengers of the lovers. The second
book presents a threadbare analysis of the practical aspects of the sexual
act, discussing its varieties in accordance with the size of sex organs, time
and states, and then dealing with subjects like embracing, kiss, marks
made by nails, types of marks made by teeth, the indigenous treatments,
types of copulation, peculiar kinds of sexual acts, strokes or hitting
physically, initiating the inarticulate sounds, and the reverse pose. This
book also takes notice of oral sex, its peculiarities and the reasons why the
Sistas -- the law-givers -- decry and avoid the practices related to oral sex.
Vtsyyana's instructions regarding the initiation of love-making and
things to be done at the conclusion of the sex act are very important from
the point of view of human psychology. Finally types of love sports and
love quarrels are also discussed.
The third book is on approaches to a virgin. It presents an interesting
sociological study of the process of selection or choosing a bride, as well
15

as on deciding the relationships and fixing of marriage. Again V's

instructions on taking a virgin into confidence; ways to initiate love in a
virgin, knowing the gestures and signals, approaches to the virgin by a
man, attracting of the man by the bride and acquisition of the beloved by
the lover are very relevant from the point of view of human psychology..
The fourth book is on the duties of a house wife. The two chapters and
eight topics of this book are devoted to the performance of a devoted wife,
her routine when the husband has gone on journey, her behaviour with the
cowives when she is the eldest amongst them, the behaviour of the
youngest of cowives, the behaviour of the lady remarried, the behaviour of
the unfavored one towards the cowives, the routine in the seraglio and one
man interacting with several wives.
The fifth book deals with extra-marital relationships. It presents a subtle
analysis of the reasons of woman's aversion. It also portrays the picture of
a paramour who is adept in wooing women, Then it takes into account the
ladies liable to be wooed without effort and the ways for getting
introduced to them. The functions and responsibilities of a messenger are
described at length. Sections dealing with sensuous pleasures of the lords
and protection of the women of seraglio of this books present V.'s minute
study and understanding of the society of his times as well as a very
interesting sociological perspective.
The sixth book brings out the world of courtesans. Detailed instructions
are here given to the courtesans with regards to their dealings with the
paramours and maintenance of professional ethics as well as accumulation
of their earnings.
The last book contains tips for attracting ladies and use of aphrodisiacs.
The prescriptions given in this book have been derived from Ayurvda and
Tantra and many of them are yet to be confirmed by a scientific inquiry.
Technical terms

All translators of KS in English agree that it is impossible to find out exact

equivalents to many of the terms used by V. I have not used any English

16

equivalent for Dharma, Artha and Kama, as they represent vital concepts
inherent in a particular culture, and other cultures may not exactly identify
with them. D & K have tried to solve the problem by employing a triple set
of terms for the trio according to the context- i.e., piety, profit and
pleasure; or society, success and sex; or duty domination and desire.
Lots of misreading have resulted by misunderstanding V's terminology. All
translators agree that he has used the word paryya for 'turn' or successive
stages in 2.8.28. All translators agree that he has used the terms rasa, raga,
rati etc. to denote specific stages of relationships between man and
woman. But when V says (in 2.1.32) that rasa, rati, priti, bhva, raga, vga
and sampti are Paryyas of Rati; and also samprayga, rata, rahahsayana
and mhana are Paryyas of surata -- all translators have simply taken the
word paryya to mean synonyms. Any student of Sanskrit language would
agree that these terms cannot be synonymous to each other, neither
grammatically nor in the context V is using them. When V himself has
used the word paryya to denote successive stages, he should be
understood to be speaking of the stages of love and sexual intercourse here
too. Commenting on the above aphorism of V, Yasdhara makes it clear
that Rasa, Raga, Rati etc. form the parts of the same process but their
causes are different. The effects having different causes cannot be treated
as identical. These terms have been used with different connotations in KS
itself. In 6.1.23 the word Bhva, as per Yasdhara's explanation has been
used in the sense of intention. The word Vyavya means cohabitation or
sex act in 6.1.13 but at another place (7.2.17) it means penetration.
V often quotes or cites the sistas and cryas, as reliable sources. I have
translated the former as the authorities, and the latter as the masters. The
term sista derived from the root gas, indicates a person who has been
initiated in the sstra or has mastered it. Therefore sistas stand as
authorities in KS. In the same way, crya is an expert of a particular
discipline.
The ngaraka stands at the centre of V's conceptual frame work. 'Ngaraka'
literally means a man of the city. The words 'ngarika' and 'ngaraka' both
17

are derived from the noun nagara meaning a city or a town. While the
former is used as a generic term applicable to any resident of the city, a.
ngaraka is not just a resident of the city. He is a man of cultivated or
refined taste, and also stands as a model for V. In later literary tradition the
word 'ngara' denotes the lover par excellence and is even used for Krsna
in Vaisnava Bhakti cult.
MW explains ngaraka as civic, polite, clever, cunning and also a police
officer. In Abhijnnaskuntala of Klidsa the police officer in the VI act is
called Ngaraka Syla.
It is V who has vested the term ngaraka with a special significance in his
KS. Ngaraka is a man of refined taste who has also imbibed cultural
values and elegance. He sets norms and standards for the practice of kama
which includes pleasures of life on a holistic pattern.
V. regards the ngaraka as a model for the practices as prescribed in KS
(1.2.13). Y. rightly explains ngaraka as vidagdhajana (connoisseur).
D & K have translated ngaraka as 'the man about town'. I have accepted
the term 'the citizen' for ngaraka following A.K. Warder (IKL Vol II).
Pithamarda, vita and vidasaka are associates of the the lovers.
Commenting on KS 1.4.31, Y calls them as upangarakas indicating their
status a little below that of the citizen. V himself has called them as
counsellors in 1.4.34. Of these, pithamarda earned his living by working as
a counsellor to the courtesans or as an associate to the ngaraka. I have
therefore translated pithamarda as 'a counsellor' or an associate depending
on the context. A.K.Warder in his volums of IKL, has used the term 'the
parasite' for vita, which does not suit the context here. Vita functions as a
go-between or an agent for lovers, D & K have used the word 'pander' for
a vita, which I have also accepted. Vidsaka mainly entertains or humours
the ngaraka or the courtesans by funny remarks, but he also functions as
an ally for the lovers. Pithamarda, vita and vidsaka are frequently
depicted in Sanskrit dramas and their functions as described above overlap
each other.
18

The words nayaka and nyik which stand for the hero and the heroine in
literary tradition have been used in KS in a different context, mostly they
mean the man and the woman pursuing pleasures of love. I have therefore
kept the words 'the man' and 'the woman' for these.

7. Theoretical Framework
Purusrtha

Vtsyyana is foremost amongst ancient Indian seers who uphold secular

values. He is basically concerned with betterment of human life. There are
three objectives of human life -- dharma, artha and kma. They are called
purusrthas literally meaning 'the objectives of a human being'. The circle
of human life evolves on three levels - spiritual, physical and
psychological. The ends of life or the Purusrthas lead to its fulfillment at
these three levels.
Dharma is often translated as religion, but dharma in V's concept does not
mean religion as such. It stands for social and moral obligations and
fulfillments of duties as prescribed in the law-books designated as
dharmasstras in the tradition. The authors of these law-books are
designated by V as sistas - the authorities. V's view of dharma is based on
the definitions given in law-books. To him, dharma consists of code of
conduct for human life, i.e. injunctions of scriptures on pravrtti
(inclination) and nivrtti (disinclination). He directs all human beings which
are desirous to follow the path of pleasure according to Kmastra first to
follow the codes of conduct as laid down by these authorities. Artha
includes all the means of livelihood and material prosperity. Kama is
related to love and aesthetics.
The first aphorism of KS begins with a salutation of these three ends of
life. There is no place for the fourth -- Mksa -- in V's system as such. He
stands for fulfillment of life at the empirical level. There is no deity, no
worship and no cult or rites in the framework of KS. Quite unlike his
followers in the field, V does not offer any prayers to any deity, not even to
Kamadva, who is regarded as the god of erotic love in Indian mythology.

19

He simply offers salutations to these three ends of life. Kamasutra in fact is

a tribute to the dignity and beauty of human life.
Owing to V's integrated approach to human life, the treatment of Kama in
KS is everywhere linked with the other two of its counterparts in the trinity
of purusrtha. There is hardly in chapter in KS where Dharma, the
authorities on law are not remembered and also where social relations and
economic considerations are not referred.
In the purview of dharma and artha, V presents a wide perspective of
kama. Kama does not simply mean the sexual urge and its satiation. V
gives two-fold definition of kama-When the five sense organs -- the ear, the skin, the eyes, the tongue and
the nose -- presided over by the mind which is enjoined with the soul, are
inclined towards the objects suited to each; this pravrtti or inclination is
called kma. The experience of joy by touch (of the beloved) leading to a
fruition is mainly kma. Kama is as essential as food for the maintenance
of body. Also it is the resultant of dharma and artha.
Kama is thus the summum bonum of life resulting from the proper practice
of dharma and artha it is also an expression of sensuality through arts,
sports and other activity, which also includes the sexual activity -- the
physical union of the man and the woman.
Kama basically means desire-- the desire to create and to multiply. MW in
his Sanskrit-English Dictionary (p.271) has given wish and desire as the
first two meanings of Kama. The other meanings are longing, love,
affection, pleasure, enjoyment, sensuality and Kamadva (Cupid or the
god of love). In Buddhist text Lalitavistara, this Kamadva is described as
the son of Dharma, whereas in Puranic mythology he is the son of Brahma.
Kama therefore represents the wish or desire, or a longing to create, to be
united. In Nsadiya Skta of Rgveda, kama is said to have germinated as
the first seed of mind when the creation started. The foundation of pleasure
or kma as visualised by V lies in a man's inclination to live (pravrtti), to
remain in this empirical world. This inclination leads to creativity in life.
20

Pleasure (kma) is thus enshrined in a creative mind, and it negates

disinclination (nivrtti) towards earthly objects. Kama is not simply
sensuous pleasure. It is fulfillment of life at psychological and emotional
level through various arts crafts and skills.
Holistic approach

V does not treat his discipline in isolation to other branches of knowledge.

He stands for a holistic approach to life, comprising its fulfillment through
realisation of purusrthas (dharma, artha and kma). These are
interdependent and interrelated. V. again and again says that a man should
never allow his liabilities related to dharma and artha suffer due to his
inclinations to kma. He defines the trio of dharma, artha and kma as
interdependent and complimentary, insisting on a balanced life with his
holistic approach. The cycle of life must imbibe all the three objectives in
due course for its fulfillment. A man should divide the full span of one
hundred years of his life into interconnected periods for acquiring these
three ends, so that there is perfect harmony (KS 1.2.1-4). V argues against
the materialistic as well as the fatalistic view of life (1.2.22-29). The
conduct of sistas or authorities should be followed in pursuing various acts
of life.
An ideal view of life makes a synthesis of dharma, artha and kma.
However, V leaves it to the discretion of a person how he creates a
harmony in his or her life by acquiring one, two or all the three ends of
life. A person if he or she so desires may pursue only one end for his or her
life. But in no case, the pursuance of an act or acquisition leading to one
should come in the way of the attainment of the other ends. This outlook
for integration and synthesis of the three ends of life can be compared with
the injunctions of law-givers (the author of dharmasstras) such as Dharma, artha and kma are to be served equally, a man who is
excessively attached to any one of these is a sinner.
V elaborates upon this idea by suggesting that some actions lead to the

21

realization of all the three objectives of life, some may lead to two or only
one of them. A man may pursue all such acts, but in no case an action for
achieving one objective should violate the other two. In fact none of these
objectives come in the way of their counterparts. (KS 1.2.41). The study of
Kmastra is a sine qua non for man and the woman are also required to
be initiated in the study of this Sstra, but the study of Kmasstra should
in no way hinder the pursuits of dharma and artha (KS 1.3.1)
A man's social obligations are never overlooked by the author of KS. He
quite appropriately establishes the concept of Ganadharma. - from the
point of view of social life and social responsibilities of a ngaraka or
connoisseur. (KS 1.3.2-18). His concern for social order is also evident in
the guidelines for courtesans.
V's concept of kma has a wide scope, it is not restricted to sex and
amorous pleasures only. Kama in the real sense of the term is imbued with
desire for creativity, to make life beautiful as well as meaningful. This
beauty and wholeness can be inculcated in life by the acquisition of
various arts, crafts, skills and amusements. V has termed the gamut of
these arts, crafts, skills and amusements as kal, and has enumerated 64
such kals. He calls these 64 kals as branches (ariga) of Kmasstra.
This kma is not confined to bedroom activity only, V views it in the
perspective of its social functions and kinetic relationships between
individual and society. Kmastra presents picturesque and graphic
descriptions of ancient Indian social life and provides copious data on
festivals and community sports which were in practice in BC era. Ghat,
gsthi and samjas were institutions providing platform for creative and
cultural activities. Ghata is related to a religious ceremony, whereas gsthi
and samja are quite secular in their nature. Poetry and arts chiefly formed
the focus in gsthi, while samja has wider participation.
Topology and geography in Kmastra

While composing the KS, V had a perspective of the vast peninsula. He

refers to the customs, traditions, and social styles prevailing in different
regions of this country. He describes the physical features and peculiarities
22

of behaviour of Gaudas, Andhras, Ddksindtyas, Vdhlikas, Avantikas,

Mahar&strikas, Dravidas etc. He also describes the customs and traditions
prevailing in Strirdjya - a province governed by women only, and Vanavsi
Rjya (see 2.4.7-14, 2.5.21-30.) He also repeatedly refers to certain
practices of the people residing in the cities like Ahicchatra
(Ahicchatrikh), Sdkta (Skth), Pataliputra (Ngarakh) or the region
of Srasna (Saurasnh). He presents a very realistic picture of the
practices of the lords and kings for satiating their lustful desires in the
regions of Andhra, Vidarbha, Aparantaka and Saurastra, (V.5.30-35). In the
chapter on the conduct of the ladies of seraglio (V.6) he refers to various
practices in the seraglios at Gauda, Saindhava, Haimavata, Variga, Ariga,
Kaliriga, Pracya regions .
Ethical, moral, hygienic issues

Certain injunctions and prohibitions are laid down for maintaining balance,
good health and immunisation from various infections. The following
types of ladies are prohibited for establishing sexual relationship -- the one
afflicted with leprosy, a mad lady, an unchaste lady, one who divulges a
secret, one who gives vent to her desire openly (i.e. she is shameless), one
whose youth is spent, one who has white skin, one who is too dark in
colour, one who is emanating bad smell, one who lives with a family, one
who happens to be a friend, one who is an ascetic, the ones who are related
(being daughters, sisters etc. of the teacher, student, priest or being the
wives of own brothers etc.) the wife of a friend, the wife of a priest, and
the wife of the king.
While he most liberally accepts the peculiarities of sexual behaviour, V
does not want the lovers to transgress social norms and to overrule the
social order. Consonance with the injunctions of law (Dharmasstra)
therefore is everywhere emphasized in KS. This is very much evident in
V's treatment of extra-marital relationships or the ladies of seraglio or
desires of the Lords. He forewarns the kings, ministers or lords not to
indulge in extra-marital relationship, as this will hamper the cause of the
welfare of their subjects. The kings, the ministers, officers of high ranks
and the brahmins are strictly forbidden to establish illicit sex relations,
23

because they are supposed to set models and codes of conduct for the
society. "A king wins the earth only after controlling the group of six
enemies."(5.5.36-37) says the author of KS. Interestingly, kma is the first
in this group of six internal enemies, the other five being anger,
intoxication, greed, infatuation and jealousy. But Kma here means
perverse carnal desires which overrule social obligations.
V is quite aware of the contradictions, queer practices and abnormalities
which sex imbibes. He gives an account of the practices of sodomy,
lesbianism, homosexuality and even masturbation (5.6.5) Y even explains
the posture in which it should be done!) but such accounts are simply
analytical and descriptive, they are not prescriptive. Sometimes they are
recommended in absence of a better alternative. But the account of such
practices and abnormal behaviours are given to present a study of
abnormal human psychology and also to warn the humanity not to be
carried by them. V decries the obsession with sex and making crude or
cruel attacks on women in most unequivocal terms and cites a number
instances how such an obsession makes a man maniac and leads to
devastation -Vtsyyana says that this is causing pain and is a mark of vulgar
behaviour, quite unrespectful 2.7.25
V takes a note of abnormal sexual practices, and also allows them as
exceptions. Here also his outlook is quite different from the orthodox lawgivers like Manu (II.174) where homoerotic activity or heterosexuality is
punishable. Kautalya also does not condone the practices of homosexuality
and prescribes fine for those who indulge in them (AS 11.18.4). V holds
that such practices are aberrations; Fellatio is permissible only in certain
conditions and not recommended.
To quote him further- "It should not be presumed that because these
practices have been described in the Sstra, therefore they should be
followed. The contents of the Sstra are wider and the practices are one
sided. In yurvda (medical science) even the dog's meat is recommended
for the increase of potency, but does that make it edible for the wise? There
24

are some men, there are some regions and there are some times, in which
these practices may not be meaningless. Therefore, after examining the
region, the time, the behaviour prevailing there, and also the Sstra, and
above all his own self, a man should or should not follow these practices.
Because these things are a secret, and the minds of men are unstable,
therefore who can know who will do what and when?" (2.9.42-45)
On the whole, V is of the opinion that the practices of oral sex, sodomy
and lesbianism are unhealthy, and they should be avoided. He has referred
to the view of Dharmasstras which also have clear injunction against any
such practice. (see 2.9.27).
In the seventh chapter of the second book, an analysis of violent and
outrageous methods practiced in some regions is presented. While V
condones the transgressions of human behaviour during sexual practice,
where most abnormal things become normal, he also warns against their
excess which may be devastating. There are no limitations when passions
rise and the lovers are completely devoted to each other and the
imagination has its full swing. It is here that Sstra steps in to regulate
human behaviour and to save erring humanity from downfall.
In his concluding remarks at the end of KS, V has summed up the
objectives of the whole discourse. He says- "Everything does not become
practicable because of its having been described in the Sstra. The contents
of the Sstra cover the whole and the practices adopt just a part of it .
Vtsyyana has composed this Kmastra with due methodology (of a
Sstra) after understanding the formulae of Bbhravya's text and after duly
considering them. This Sstra has been composed with due observance of
celibacy and meditation for regulating human life, enhancement of
passions is not its purport. Maintaining the due status of dharma, artha and
kma in his life in this world, a man who understands the essence of this
Sstra becomes a conqueror of sensuous pleasures. If a skillful and
knowledgeable man, desiring pleasures of love, practices this (Kmastra)
keeping in view dharma and artha, he succeeds in life". (VII.2.53-59)
Outlook towards woman
25

Striking a slightly different note from the orthodox views, V allows

considerable liberty to women. He wants the women to be educated and
also to be trained in Kmasstra before marriage. They can continue their
studies with the permission of the husband after marriage (1.3.2). He
permits a young girl in certain circumstances to make efforts at forming
her own marriage. "A girl born in a low family, but gifted with qualities, or
a girl who is born in good family but has no money, and hence is not being
approached for marriage by families of equal status; if she has lost her
parents or she is living with her kin; if she has attained young age; she
should attempt to form her own marriage. She should approach a good
looking man who has qualities and strength and has also been her mate
from childhood. Otherwise whomsoever she thinks that this man because
of his weakness of organs will neglect his parents and would make
relationship with me, she should try to make him inclined towards her by
pleasing and beneficial treatment and by showing herself to him repeatedly
(KS 4.36-38).
In V book on duties of a wife he presents a lively picture of an ideal Indian
house-wife. It is here that V shows real concern for family life and the
bonds of matrimony. The roots of these bonds lie deep into the feelings of
mutual love and concern for each other in the couple. The purpose of a
Sstra like Kmastra is to provide just some clues for realisation of
fulfillment in matrimony and conjugal love, to enable human beings to
nurture and cherish these roots and bonds of love happily. It is with this
point of view that V emphasises over the need to treat ladies with utmost
care and tenderness. He says"The ladies are like flowers, they are to be treated tenderly. When treated
forcibly without being taken into confidence, they develop apathy towards
intercourse with a man. Therefore a man should behave with them with a
persuasive manner"(3.2.6)
However, V is not free from the shackles of a man's outlook. What a pity
that there is no citation from a woman in the whole text of KS which
mostly deals with the behaviour and psychology of women! This seems
26

rather odd, considering the traditions which V and his predecessors had
inherited, for there are women seers in the Vedas. The absurdity of this
situation becomes quite ironic when we find the authors of Kmasstra
considering the question whether women attain orgasm or not. Vtsyyana
and all the earlier authors cited by him (KS, 11.1.9-30) do not even
consider the possibility of approaching the women themselves and ask
their opinion, even though the conclusion which V has painstakingly
reached in unraveling the mystery of a woman's orgasm is confirmed by
modern scientific investigations. Doniger and Kakar (2003:XXX) are of
course right when they say that the women in Kmastra are less idealised
and more differentiated. Instead of reflecting women's voices, 'the text
assumes an official male voice'. They also accuse the author of KS at least
in the passages where he deals with strokes and moans during sexual
intercourse, of 'rape mentality'. At the same time V. is credited by them for
the discovery of woman as a subject, and a full participant in human life
(ibid, xliii).
The authors of Dharmasstra deny a woman's right to split the bond of
marriage even when the husband is impotent, of lose character, suffers
from incurable disease like leprosy. V on the contrary has all sympathy for
the punarbh, a lady who leaves her husband in search of love.
Liberal and humanitarian outlook

V describes the life of the citizen (nagaraka). He also makes a provision

for a man of good taste who has no money (see 1.IV.32-34), His concern
for the middle class and deprived people comes out here. He takes liberty
from the orthodox view and even the codes and conducts prescribed by the
authors of Dharmasstra to suggest that the lovers who are deprived from
the patronage of parents or guardians should align by Gndharvavivha
(love-match wedding). In the V Chapter on Discourse on forming a
marriage in the III book of KS, he says "In accordance with the position in
the Dharmasstra as described by the law-givers, of the eight forms of
marriage, the preceding ones are superior from each of the successive
ones; and when a man is unable to marry by the first, then he should take
recourse of the second and then the succeeding ones in order. Love is the
27

fruition of all forms of marriage, therefore the Gndharva type of marriage

is worthy for an attempt, and is therefore honoured (in the dicta of this
Kmasstra), even though it stands in the middle amongst the eight forms..
Because it culminates into happiness, because there is less trouble in
making it, and also because no arrangements for marriage are required to
be made for it, the love-match wedding (Gndharvavivha) therefore is
held as most preferable." (3.5.29-30).
In their treatment of marriages, the, law-givers like Manu place Gndharva
type of marriage even below the Rksasavivha (marriage of demons), it is
V who firmly declares that Gndharva is the best form of marriage,
because only this marriage guarantees love and solace to the couple (KS 3.
5.29-30)
V in fact, attaches utmost value to love and mutual faith in human
relationships. He says that If there are several suitors equal in quality,
amongst them the real suitor or the bridegroom should be the man who
loves the girl , and amongst them that suitor is the best who is loved by the
girl (3.4. 55).
V does not want to impose any norm on the Individuality so long it it does
not violate or hinder his progress and the growth of humanity. On the other
hand, he whole-heartedly supports window-marriage and re-marriage of a
woman in his concept of punarbad. A punarbh is a lady married again.
She may be a widow or a woman whose husband is alive, but he is
unworthy of her, or is unable or support her or is impotent. He goes to the
extant of saying that "a lady should remarry wherever her consciousness
finds solace" (Atmanascittnukalyditi Vtsyynah - IV.2.35)
V's injunctions on the conduct of an undesired wife bring out his
sensitiveness to woman's issues and humanitarianism.
V on courtesans
Prostitution in some form or the other has ever existed in the history of
human civilisation. Ganik is referred in.Atharvaveda as Mahnagni (the

28

great naked woman). She displays the upper part of her thighs. Wine and
dice are also mentioned in this context (A. XIV.1.36).
As an idealist, V stands in conformity to the injunctions of law-givers
regarding marriage and the duties of a house-holder (Grhastha ), but at the
same time, as .a social-scientist, he does not ignore the glaring realities of
Indian society, where courtesans always formed a necessary part. The lawgivers would not give an honourable position to the professions of the
courtesans. V on the contrary, not only recognises prostitution as a
profession, he wants to see that the courtesans, prostitutes and harlots are
not disgraced and exploited in a male dominated society.
Types of courtesans- Vsy is a common term to be applied to the class of
courtesans or prostitutes. It is difficult to find an exact equivalent of the
term Vsy in English. She is not exactly a -prostitute. A prostitute is
supposed to be a woman who engages in promiscuous sexual intercourse
especially for money, The verb form of prostitute (to prostitute) gives the
sense of selling- oneself or one's talents to an unworthy cause. A vy, as
conceptualised in Kmastra, does not do so, she may earn livelihood by
other honourable means. Literally, the word vsy means a lady who earns
her livelihood by Vga (attire). She may a dancer, an actress, or a harlot.
Numerous types of Vgys existed in Indian society right from the
beginnings of our civilisation. Vtsyyana has classified them in the
following categories- (i) Kumbhadsi- a common slave, (ii) Paricrik attendant, (iii) Kulat- a whore, (iv) Svairini- a wanton woman, (v) Natian actress, (vi) Silpakrik- an artisan's wife, (vii) Praksavinast - run
away wife, (viii) Rpajiv- a harlot (ix) Ganik- a courtesan. We can see
that this classification of Vtsyyana is so vast that it can incorporate some
of the most modern types of prostitutes- like the call-girl, cocotte, hooker,
hustler, joy-girl, moll, night-walker, party-girl, sporting girl, street girl,
bar-girl, pick up girl etc.
Of all the categories of ladies mentioned above, Vtsyyana regards
Ganik as the most essential for sustaining society. In English there is no
equivalent term for Ganik. She is not a prostitute, although she is paid for
29

entertaining a man. A.K. Warder (IKL Vol I, para 24) suggests that the
word geisha which comes from Japanese tradition seems useful as an
equivalent for Ganik as 'it suggests the sophistication and elegance, and`
skill- in fine arts, including literature and music, of the Indian as well as
Japanese girls, which seems quite foreign to the harlot, courtesan etc. of
English and most European tradition.' D & K use the word courtesan deluxe for Ganik, to denote her status. The same has been accepted in the
present translation:
Prostitution was legally sanctioned during the days of Vtsyyana. A
ganik or a courtesan enjoyed an honourable position in ancient Indian
society. She was supposed to an expert in all types of arts and crafts and
was engaged to tutor the princes and princesses of royal family. Ganiks
gave public performances of dances or dramas, and the chief amongst
them was even invited to be the member of the council of ministers to the
king. In fact one of the aims of V in composing a text like Kmastra was
to instruct the courtesans for behaving properly, to enable them to earn
good amount of money through their profession.
The most noticeable fact about V's view of courtesans, prostitutes and
harlots is his treating them as human-beings and honourable citizens, who
should have their own identity, and should not be viewed as mere body of
flesh. He would not like to see any lady even if she is using her body and
flesh for livelihood, to be treated as mere object, and to be subjected to
humiliation.
Prostitution in some form or the other has always existed in the history of
human civilisation. In V's age it became an institution, cherished, nurtured
and patronised by the royalty. It was presumed that this institution not only
provides a necessary escape and an outlet, it contributes to the preservation
of the uniqueness of sexual experience, which is lost in the routine of life
of a house-holder. V's views are very relevant today. Due to the overflow
of information technology, the experience of sex is being converted into a
mere exercise in sensation and the possibilities of sexual partners
recognising each other as human beings are being marginalised and
30

minimised. The uniqueness of sexual experience thus is being overlooked

due to the burden of trash and trivial of routine life. Split between physical
organism and psychological man is leading to a crisis of identity - which a
social scientist has termed as 'sexual anonymity' (Patnaik Priyadarshi,
Sexual Anonymity, TCRI, Vol.l.2,p.139-41).

8. Kmastra and Other Sstras

Kmastra and yurvda

Susrutasamhit, a well-known text on yurvda, describes the origin of

yurvda as revealed to Susruta by Dhanvantari. Accordingly, yurvda
is an Upavda of Atharvavda. Kmastra too, as we have seen, is
invariably related to Atharvavda. The tradition of yurvda as envisaged
in classic texts like Caraka, Susruta or in works like Astridahrdaya
developed through eight components, Which are - Kyacikits (internal
medicine). S~lakya ((treatment of supraclavicular diseases), Salyatantra
(Surgery), Visagaravairadhikaprasamana (Toxicology), Bhtavidy
(Science of demoniac seizure), Kaumrabhrtyka (Paediatrics) Rasyana
(Rejuvenation therapy), Vjikarana (Aphrodisiac Therapy) (Sharma R.K.:
1995:16, Sharma P.V.:1993: lix). Of these, Rasyana and Vjikarana are
closely linked to Kmastra. Rasyana (Rejuvenation therapy) is meant to
promote intellect, memory, immunity to diseases, longevity, strength of
sense organs and provide normal sexual excitement. Vjikarana or
Aphrodisiac measures have been discussed in detail in all the important
texts of yurvda, viz. Carakasamhit, Susrutasamhit, Vgbhata,
Bhvapraksa etc. On the other hand, there are manuscripts of works on
Kmasstra, where the discipline itself has been treated as a part of
Ayurvda. A work entitled as Kmsstra, printed with Marathi translation
in 1900, has also been called as Sukrasamhit or ,4rgyasindhu Another
work entitled as Kmasstra also bears the title Ayuhpraksa (NCCL. Vol.
III. p. 53).
We find explicit correspondence between Kmasasstra. and yurvda in
respect of maintenance of health in general and adoption of aphrodisiac
measures in particular. Vtsyyana in fact has depended on yurvda for
31

prescribing medicines and herbs for good health and for the use of
stimulants and aphrodisiacs. On the other hand, the authors of yurvda
themselves had a fairly good knowledge of
Kmasstra, and they also depended on it. In his treatment of aphrodisiacs,
Caraka is almost producing the gist of the life-style of a citizen (ngaraka)
as described by V. Defining the ideal life style of a ngaraka, he says "One also gets stimulated like a bull by massage, anointing, baths,
perfumes, garlands, adoration, comfortable house, bed and chairs, good
and attractive cloths, chirping of birds, the tinkling of ornaments of women
and a little pressing of the body (Cakarasamhit, Cikitssthna, II(3).2425. This is a true picture of a Ngaraka according to KS (1.4) too.
Both Vtsyyana and Caraka favour the use of aphrodisiacs. A substance,
action or factor which enhances sexual potency, fertility, sexual impulse,
recension, sexual excretion and attraction in a man or woman for the other
sex can be termed as aphrodisiac. Caraka says- "A conscious person
should use aphrodisiacs regularly because virtue, wealth, pleasure and
fame depend on them (Cakarasamhit, Cikitssthna, 11(3).24-25)
Both Vtsyyana and Caraka regard love and sex as integral parts of life.
Their concepts of beauty and health are akin to each other. Caraka says"The woman who is excellent in terms of age, beauty, voice and amorous
movements enters into the heart quickly and is like a celebration of the
heart of man. A woman who is similar in mind and psyche to her male
partner, is submissive, pleased with what he likes and is like a house for all
the senses due to her excellent qualities." (Cakarasamhit, Cikitssthna,
11(1).8-15.
yurvda and Kmaastra advocate a balanced attitude towards life.
Caraka stands for maintenance of good conduct and ethics, at the same
time he is also against suppression of desires. Natural urges should not be
suppressed - this is the motto of yurvda. The natural urges also include
sexual urge. These have been discussed in the VII chap. of SOtrasthana in
Carakasamhit. "Pain in the phallus and testicles, malaise, cardiac pain and
retention of urine are caused by the suppression of urge for seminal
32

discharge" -says Caraka (Stra. vii.10). Sexual intercourse is prescribed as

a remedy for it (Ibdi VI1.11).
Both Caraka and Vtsyyana believe in normal healthy life. Caraka speaks
of equilibrium (stmya) as fundamental principle (Strasthna, VI11.17).
V has adopted the concept of stmya from yurvda but he has further
developed it in the context of relationships between the lovers. The daily
routine which. Caraka lays down for a normal man tallies with the routine
of Ngaraka prescribed by Vtsyyana.
There are several themes treated equaly by the authors of yurvda and
Kmasstra. Authors like KM for example have discussed the treatment of
menopause, excess menstruation, stopping abortion, ways for easy
delivery of a child, dealing with labour pains and also treatments for a
sterile woman (AR VI.52-93):
Kmasutra and Arthasstra

Arthasstra (AS) of Kautalya, a monumental work on administration,

diplomacy and economics, had been composed a couple of centuries
before V, The whole framework and structure of KS is modelled on
Arthasstra of Kautalya. V also depends on Arthasstra for various
concepts related to Artha or material prosperity.
The VI chapter of Book VI in KS on calculating gains and losses,
successiveness and doubts is based on Arthasstra (IX.7). Kautalya has
defined Anartha has the genesis of danger from self or from others (Artha
IX.7.7). He has also defined six types of successiveness or Anubandhas
(Ibid (X.7.14-21). Vtsyyana has extended the concept anartha to dharma
and kma also In fact, V has discussed various issues related to profits and
gains by the courtesans and the whole treatment on such issues in KS is
based on Arthasstra. 1,
Of the eight types of marriages, Kautalya holds that only the first four are
legally valid. (AS, 111.2.10). Vtsyyana does not hold any form of
marriage as illegal, he prescribes the rituals and ways through which even
marriages made by abducting a girl or raping her may be legalised and

33

sanctified. He does not dispute with the law-givers, but he allows a man to
form a marriage as per his individual circumstances.
Like Manu, Kautalya also stands for the delivery of Stridhana to the lady
concerned after the death of her husband or her marrying for second time
(AS, 111.2.19-21). Kautalya has used the term Mksa for divorce,
divorcee lady is Vibhakt. There can be no divorce in the four types of
legal marriages. (111/3/19). He calls the sum for maintenance as Bharma.
Kautalya stands for a totalitarian system, where women have little
freedom.
This is very much unlike V, who is much more sympathetic to the cause of
women. Kautalya does not allow freedom to women. He prescribes
punishments for a women who participates in parties for drinks without
permission, or goes to see a play in the day. She would get double of the
punishment if she goes to see some theatrical performance in night
(111.3.20-22). She should not leave the house of her husband on her own,
and is liable for punishment if she does so, punishment is doubled if she
goes out after being forbidden; there are different sets of punishments for
women visiting houses in neighbourhood, for giving alms on her own, for
leaving the city or village; (111.4.5-11). Kautalya even forbids any
untoward vulgarity between husband and wife and prescribes punishments
for it (111.3.25). Punishments for molesting (Prakarma) are also prescribed
(IV.12.2-7).
Kmasatra and Dharmastra

In the tradition known as Hinduism, Manu stands foremost amongst the

law - givers. For centuries, his Manusmrti (MS) remained as a major
source- book for implementing various laws and customs in traditional
Indian society. Manu is a staunch advocate of Varnavyavasth or caste
system. He prescribes different sets of duties and practices for the
members of different casts-- Brhmana, Ksatriya, Vaisya and SOdra.
Vtsyyana on the other hand, makes no distinctions between these four
Varnas and his injunctions are meant for the benefit of humanity
irrespective of the divisions of caste, colour or creed. Instead of the caste
34

hierarchy, Vtsyyana recognises the divisions in society based on

economy- the rich and the poor, the lords - kings, ministers and royal
dignitaries and the servants. He provided alternate set of rules,
admonitions and injunctions for the deprived class who cannot afford
various luxuries and delicacies. His care for the poor and the lower classes
makes Vtsyyana one of the most humanitarian seers of ancient Sstras.
V falls in line with law-givers or the authors of Dharmasstra in respect of
recognitions of the types of marriages. Eight types of marriages have been
recognised by these authors. V also describes quite a different type of
marriage-marriage on a contract for a fixed period, as this must have been
in practice amongst the courtesans during his times. No orthodox lawgiver would call such a union a Vivha or marriage, what to talk of
providing it a lega(status. Out df the eight forms also, Manu holds only the
first four types as sacred and the remaining four just to be permitted as
exceptions (MS 111.24.39). Only the first four types of marriages lead to
socially and ethically acceptable relationship and tend to produce worthy
sons. The progeny issued through the other four types is cruel and
untruthful (MS 111.39-41) He has no regard for Gndharvavivha (lovematch wedding) which formed by the boy and the girl falling in love at
first sight and being united. Vtsyyana pays tributes to love match
(Gndharvavivha) in most laudatory terms, To him it is the best form of
marriage. Manu on the contrary regards the love-match even lower than
Rksasa type.
Manu is strictly against acceptance of Kanysulka, i.e. acceptance of
money by the parents of a girl for marrying-her. Kanysulka even if it is
taken just as a token is like saling the daughter, Acceptance of Stridhana
by the parents or relatives of the bride is a sin (MS 111.51-54). However,
dowry given by the parents of the bride voluntarily is a honour to the
virgin. Vtsyyana does not condemn the acceptance of Kanysulka
(money for giving a virgin in marriage) in such unequivocal terms, as he is
conscious of the practices and realities of his times.
Both V and Manu have high regards for women. Manu says35

The whole family is happy, if the woman there is happy. If she is

unhappy, there is sadness everywhere. (MS 111.62)
Manu allows a virgin to find out a suitable match for herself on her own
after the expiry of a stipulated period. A girl who is not given in marriage
by her parents within these three years after attaining puberty , if she thus
seeks out her husband, neither she nor her suitor begets any sin (MS.
IX.90-91) V is much more sympathetic to the ladies who have no support
and want to stand on their own. He does not refer to a stipulated period of
three years. A girl born in a low family, but gifted with qualities, or a girl
who is born in good family but has no money, and hence is not being
approached for marriage by families of equal status; if she has attained
young age, she should attempt to form her own marriage, if she has lost
her parents or she is living with her kin (KS 3.IV.36). "She should
approach a good looking man who has qualities and strength and has` also
been her mate from childhood"-- V says. He then goes on giving detailed
guidelines to such a girl suggesting ways and means for her to find out a
suitable match. (KS 3.1V. 37-47)
Lawgivers like Manu are strictly against allowing any freedom to women.
In a male-dominated society, the man is supposed to always protect the
woman. The father, the husband or the son failing in his duty to protect the
daughter, the wife and the mother stand condemned (MS IX.3-5). Such
patronage for women comes more from the anxiety to protect the sanctity
of progeny, rather than any care for the better sex. V does not pay tribute to
women in eulogistic terms, but he is more sensitive to women's issues.
Manu says that a wife should not leave her husband even he be addicted to
excessive drinking, is impotent or is suffering from incurable disease (MS
IX.78-79). Vtsyyana on the other hand encourages a woman to take a
decision on her own and make another match in such circumstances. Manu
instructs a women to wait for his man for eight years if he has gone on a
religious duty, for six years if he is out for studies and three years if he is
unable to satisfy her sexually (MS IX.76). V on the contrary advises a lady
not wait and seek a companion who provides her a solace.

36

By and large Vtsyyana is in agreement with Yjnavalkya regarding the

choice of a bride; viz.-"A man who has successfully completed the term of
his studentship (brahmacarya), should marry a woman with auspicious
marks, she should not have been married to another man before; she
should be pleasing to him, not related to him by offering the balls of food
(asapindb), she should be younger to him in age, should' be free from
decease, should have brothers, and should not be born of a clan of the
same sage (samnrstrajta) [YS.I.52-53]
Normally the lawgivers do not allow a Dvija to take a wife from Sdra
community [YS.I.56]. V grees with Manu and Yjnavalkya with reference
to accepted social norms, but presents his own perspective with regards to
intricasies of human relationships.
In fact V stands in sharp contrast with the Smrtikras like Manu, who do
not allow a man or a woman to derive even pleasure out o sex. To them sex
should be practiced just for progeny. Sex just for the sake of fulfilling the
duties of a Grhastha does not fall within the orbit of Vtsyyana's theory.
The puritans in christian tradition also regard sex for pleasure as
something evil, to them "no sex was best, sex to produce babies who
would be raised Catholic was okay, and sex for pleasure was bad"
(Charlotte Davis Casl: Woman, Sex and Addiction, 1990,. p.16)
Kmastra and Ntyasstra

Ntyasstra (NS) of Bharatamuni is a voluminous compendium on

aesthetics, drama and theatre, dance, music and performing arts. It was
compiled approximately in second century BC, i.e. the same time when
Vtsyyana wrote his Kmastra. Bharatamuni or the author of
Ntyasstra is very well aware of the tradition of Kmastra. He has used
the word kmatantra to denote a man's sexual tendencies or inclinations
(XXII.206). V also used several technical terms from NS, and he is aware
of the close relationship of his Sstra with Ntyasstra, aesthetics, music
and performing arts. However, it is doubtful whether the author or those
who compiled the text of NS attributed to Bharatamuni had studied
Kmastra by V or V had studied the text of NS as it is avaIlabie t us

37

now. There is a close correspondence between Vtsyyana and Bharata,

because drama and theatre presents eroticism, Srngra or love as a major
theme, and therefore a theoretician discussing theatre, drama or
performing arts has to enter the arena of Kmasstra. So does
Bharatamuni. In fact chapters XXII and XXIII of his NS deal with some of
the topics of Kmasstra. He says that kma lies almost at the root of all
earthly things, and invested with desire this kma appears in various
forms. He defines kma as the union of male and female and enumerates
its three categories - dharmakma, arthakma and mksakma which lead
to merit, prosperity and salivation receptively. Vtsyna in his discussion
entitled Arthnarthasamsaynubandhavicra (KS, VI.6) hs expounded
somewhat similar categories, but kma or sexual union leading to mksa
or salvation from the bondage of life does not fit in his purview. The whole
treatment in NS like that in Vtsyyana's work is from a male's point of
view, where women are regarded as the cause of happiness. Developing
this point of view, Bharatamuni embarks upon the classification of women
into the categories related to gods, demi-gods, animals etc. (XXII.100145). This sort of classification is entirely out of the purview in KS, but the
later authors on Kmasstra have given varieties of nyiks following
Bharatamuni.
Bharata then he goes to describe upacra or treatment of lover and beloved
for each other. He says that this upacravidhi or the lovers' giving treats to
each other arises out of kmatantra (XXII.146-151). He describes three
types of sexual relationhips-- bhyantara (interbal), bhya (external) and
bhybhyantara (external- cum- internal). The upacra also differs
accordingly (XXII.155). V also describes upacra with similar purport.
There is a close correspondence the traditions Of Ntyasstra and
Kmasstra with regards to the treatment of types of heroines. According
to V there are three types of heroines - kany (virgin) punarbh (a
remarried lady) and vsy (a courtesan). In later tradition of erotic and
Shityasstra also three types of heroines are accepted - svakiy, parakiya
and smnyd svakiy is supposed to be of three types- mugdh madhy
and pragaibh. Bharatamuni has initiated this tradition of nyikbhda.
38

Bharatamuni has enumerated the following causes for inciting Kama or

conjugal love- hearing, seeing, beauty, various gestures through limbs and
sweet words (XXI1.158). He has given a very minute description of the
gestures and mental states which ensue if a lady falls in love. He
distinguishes between the gestures of a courtesan and a lady of aristocrat
family in such situations (xxii.161-168). He has also described ten stages
of kma (love) - abhilsa (longing) , cintana (anxiety) , anusmrti
(recollection), gunakirtana (enumeration of the merits of the lover), udvga
(distress), vilpa (bewailing), unmda (insanity), vydhi (decease), jadat
(stupor) and marana (death) ( NS' XXII.169-194). There is a long tradition
of authors on aesthetics and erotics who describe these ten stages, with
very slight difference of nomenclatures while some authors like
Vidyntha (in Pratparudriya) make them twelve or more. V. also
describes ten stages of Kama or love (KS 11.10.34 and V.1.5) with slight
difference of terms. It is difficult to say whether Bharatamuni borrowed
them from V or V adopted these from his NS. In NS Off course all these
discussions are from the point of view of performance on stage.
Also, Bharatamuni discusses a system of erotics adopting terms and
classifications which are unknown to V. He has used the term
pracchannakmita (activity by hidden desire) for (NS, XX11.201- 207) and
bhyastribhga (enjoying the other woman) for extra-marital love affairs.
These terms are conspicuous by their absence in KS. Bharatamuni has
forwarned the lords or kings not to indulge in bhyastribhga (enjoying the
other woman) in NS (XXII.154), an admonition which V has also given.
Bharatamuni's observations on extra-marital love affairs and the life in
seraglio are similar to those of V. An occasion to meet a lady of seraglio is
termed as Vsaka (appointment), six types of vsakas are counted
(XXII.209). Eight types of heroines are also discussed in this context. V
also refers to vsaka, but he does not go into the details of eight types of
heroines.
23rd chapter of NS' is captioned as Vaisika. The VI book in KS is also
entitled as Vaisika (on courtesans). Bharata under Vaisika postulates
theories on courtesans which have much in common with the tradition of
39

Kmasstra. Vaisika in KS is the science or Sstra for teaching or training

of the courtesans. In NS, Vaisika is a discipline which makes a man or a
woman adept in arts or skills; and also, Vaisika is a man who is especially
adept in various arts, and knows the treatment for courtesans (NS,
XXIII.1-2). Bharata has described ten types of lady messengers
(NS,XX111.9-10) and the qualities and functions of a messenger (NS,
XIII. 10-13) most of which are in accordance with Vtsyyana. Similar is
Bharata's treatment of the symptoms of a lady in love and the symptoms of
an indifferent lady, the causes of indifference, ways and means to remove
these causes (NS, XXII1.18-34). It exhibits minute knowledge of the
behaviour of lovers, and it comes directly from his study of human
behaviour. Bharatamuni describes the behaviour of lovers because an actor
or an actress should observe and study human behaviour, which falls under
pravrtti or the study of human behaviour. The description of four stages of
youth in females is also Bharata's contribution to erotic. He not only
describes the anatomy and successive development of female body
through these four stages, he also describes the psychology of woman
undergoing through these stages (XXIII.42-51). From the point of view of
inclinations or tendencies of the intercourse with women, men are said to
be of five types- Catura, Uttama, Madhya, Nice and Pravrttaka.
Bharatamuni was aware of a tradition of Kmasastra which appears to be
different from Vtsyana's tradition. Authors following V in the field of
Kmasstra are indebted to Ntyasstra for their treatment of several topics
of erotic, especially the classifications of heroes and heroines.

9. Vtsyyana and his successors

Commentators of Vtsyyana

There are commentaries on Vtsyyana's KS by several erudite scholars in

Sanskrit and vernacular languages. In Sanskrit, we find references to the
following five commentaries- (i) Jayamangala (JM) by Yasdhara
Indrapla -- it is supposed to be the most authentic and scholarly work. (2)
Praudhapriy by Bhskara Nrsimha (3) Commentary by Malladeva, (4)
Kandarpacdmani by Virabhadra (5) Commentary by Anonymous author.
40

Ksmndra is said to have written a Vtsyyanastrasra (Gist of

Vtsyyanastra) but it is not available.
Yasdhara, the author of JM, belongs to thirteenth century AD. JM
remains to this date a most scholastic work on KS, providing valuable
references and filling the lacunae of the text of V.
Bhskara Nrsimha, the author of Praudhapriy lived in Varanasi, and he
composed his corn. on KS in 1788, The corn. has not been published so
far.
Authors on Kmasastra

Mladeva or Karnisuta appears to have been an ancient author in the field

of erotic . His views have been cited by Kokkoka and Jyotirisa, and
Yasdhara in his Jayamarigal. Ksmndra in his Kalvllsa also refers to
him as an expert on arts. Rghavabhatta in his commentary Arthadytanik
on Skuntala (1.26) has quoted from Madandaya, a work on erotic. But
nothing is known about the work and its author.
Kkkka

Kkkka is one of the most celebrated authors after Vtsyyana in the

field of Kmasstra. He wrote Ratirahasya (RR) or the secrets of love,
which has been popular till this day. RR has been commented upon by
Knc i ntha, Avafica Rmavarman, Kaviprabhu and Harihara.
Kdkbka was grandson of Tejoka, and son of Paribhadra, who bore the penname of Gadyavidydharakavi. Kkkka also calls his work by the name
Kmaklirahasya, and it is also known as Kkasstra by the name of its
author. In the beginning of this work, Kkkka says that he has composed
this treatise at the instance of a king Vainyadatta (Vainyadatta in some
mss.) who was curious to know about the science of love.
Yasdhara, the author of Jayamar galyon Kmastra has quoted a verse
from RR. Yasdhara rose before 14th century, so that it fixes the lower
limit of Kdkkdka's period. King Kumbha and Sankaramisra have referred
to Kkkka and his RR in their commentaries on Gitagdvinda of Jayadva.
Mallintha, one of the most renowned commentators on Sanskrit Kvyas
41

also quotes from RR. On the basis of these references, A.B.Keith places
Kkkka around 1200 AD.
RR of Kkkka is one of the most popular works in the field of
Kmasstra. It is divided into 15 chapters. Kkkka has made an attempt
to create the most essential compendium of Kmasstra after culling down
the essence of the Sstra from earlier works. Vtsyyana of course is his
major source, but he has introduced new themes and made innovations in
the discipline. He acknowledges several other cryas in the field of
Kmasstra whose works he has consulted. A noteworthy feature of his
debut lies in his references to Uddisatantra, a work on Vasikarana
(charming the beloved) attributed to Kvana. Kkkka has dealt with the
following topics in the 15 chapters of his work- (i) Four-fold classification
of females and their characteristics, the days congenial for the four groups
of women and the ways of winning over them, (ii) erogenous zones, and
days according to lunar calander on which ladies belonging to a particular
group can be sexuall excited. (iii) classification of males and females as
per the size of their organs and, nine types of sexual union on their basis,
nine as per duration of time in sexual intercourse and another nine types on
the basis of sexual energy; (iv) classification of females on the basis of
age, nature and mental attitude, (v) females of different provinces and their
respective characteristics. (vi) varieties of embrace (vii) varieties of kiss;
(viii) varieties of scratching made by nails, (ix) varieties of bites, (X)
postures for sexual union, strokes and inarticulate sounds etc., (XI)
selection of a bride and winning her confidence, (XII) Conduct of a housewife, behaviour of co-wives etc., (XIII) stages of love, extra-marital
relations, characteristics of ladies who can be easily seduced, use of agents
for enticing women etc., (XIV) Mantras and rites to be used for laying a
charm on the beloved; and (XV) aphrodisiacs and special appliances for
heightening enjoyment.
Of these, the treatment of erogenous zones and congenial days for sexual
union are topics not dealt by Vtsyyana, rest of K5kkaka's treatment
follows the general outline of the great master (Vtsyyana) with slight
variations and novelties.
42

Jytirisa Kaviskhara

Jytirisa Kaviskhara has authored Pancasyaka (PS). Pa"ncasyaka

literally means five arrows or the god (Kmadva) who holds the arrows of
five different flowers to inflict the lovers with wounds. The period of
Jytirisa can be easily decided as he refers to Ksmndra in the first
chapter of PS and Sankara Mira in his commentary on Gitagvinda refers
to him. Jytirisa therefore must have flourished in 14th century AD. He
was patronised by Arisimha , who is said to have fought a battle with
Gayasuddin Tuglaq (1320-24). Manmohan Chakravarty has referred to
another work on erotic by him entitled Rgaskhara which is not available.
(SC Upadhyaya, introduction, p. 57).
PS is divided into five Syakas or chapters. Jyatirisa boasts to be the
topmost poet of his times and informs that he has condensed the science of
erotic in this PS after studying the works by Vtsyyana, G5nik5putra,
Mladva, Bbhravya, Nandiksvara, Rantidva and Ksmndra. After
this, the characteristics of nyakas (the heroes) and pithamardas
(companions of the hero) are described; followed by those of the nyiks
(heroines) with their classification according to jti, suitable dates for
getting them incited and erogenous zones and other applications for
leading them to orgasm. In the second Syaka, Jytirisa has taken up
classification of males and females as per the size of their organs, their
characteristics and the types of sexual union. Characteristics of women
according to their age and regions they belong are also described in detail.
The third Syaka presents description of the ingredients of cosmetics,
aphrodisiacs, collyrium, ointments, powders and sacred incantations or
Mantras along with the iconography of the goddesses to be meditated upon
for attracting and inciting the female partner. Medicines for lifting up
sagging breasts or stiffening the loose ones, contracting vagina,
menstruation, impregnation, sterility, depilation (Imastana or removing
the hair of private parts etc.) and also growing hair are also described here.
The fourth Sayaka starts with description of young ladies, forming
marriages with them, eight types of marriages, extra-marital relations,
female messengers, ladies who can be seduced easily and proper places
43

and timings for happy union. Jytirisa then describes embraces, kisses, nail
scratching, biting by teeth, catching of locks and other activities preceding
sexual union.The final Syaka or the fifth chapter takes up postures for
sexual union and then the reverse pose (purusayita), strokes and beatings
and ends with the eight-fold classification of nayikas (heroines).
While Jytirisa appears to be indebted to Kkkka for his treatment of
erogenous zones and suitable dates of lunar calander for inciting the
women, the detailed treatment of cosmetics happens to be his own area of
specialisation. The rest of the scheme of his work entirely depends on KS.
Padmasri

Padmasri is also known as Padmasrijnna. He was a Buddhist by faith, but

it is not known whether he was an upasaka (house-holder) or a bhiksu
(monk). He must have flourished around 1000 AD, as he mentions
Kuttanimata (eighth century AD) and is quoted in Sargadharapadadhati.
His Nagarasarvasva (Ng.) or the treasure for a man of taste is one of the
most authentic works in the field of Kamasastra. Jagajjytirmall (16171633 AD) has written a commentary on it.
Ng. is divided into in 38 chapters. In the last chap. Padmasri informs that
Ng. was written by him at the behest of Vsudva, a brahmin and
renowned pundit of his times. He begins the text with laudatory verse for
ryamanjusri, offerings of worship for the goddess Tr, (both of these are
Buddhist deities). Of all the texts on erotic described here, Ng. is the only
one where Gemmology has been taken up in a separate chapter (3rd). In IV
chap. Padmasri takes up cosmetics. From V to XI chapters various topics
related to costumes and behaviour of the lovers are taken up. Of these,
sarikta (lover' code language) is most significant and revealing one, as it
has been treated by none of the other authors in the field, including
vtsyyana. The topics taken up in subsequent chapters are - aphrodisiacs,
hava (gestures of the beloved), classification of males and females
according to the size of their organs, types, of nayikas, erogenous zones
and their relation to lunar dates, nadiksbhaNa (exciting sensitive nerves),
kissing, scratching, biting, licking and sucking. In the 28th chapter

44

Padmasri describes the postures for sexual union, which he has termed as
karanas. He has classified these Karanas into the following categories,
with the number of varieties mentioned with each- Uttana (upturned-24),
Parsva (by sides-7), ,4sin (sitting-2), Adhamukha (with face down-2) and
Utthita (standing-7). Equally interesting is Pagadmasri's study of female
'behaviour in his'treatment of Vmcarita (tricksof ladies). In the last
chapter of his work, entitled Sutdaya (birth of a son) he has given
prescriptions for removing barrenness of women.
Jayadva

Jayadva wrote a small work on Kmasstra, entitled Ratimanjari, giving a

gist of various topics of the Sstra just ln 60 verses. This Jayadva must be
different from the famous saint-poet of the same name who is known to
have composed one of the finest lyric poems in world literature, i.e.
Gitagavindam and also it is unlikely that another Jayadva, the wellknown rhetorician and dramatist has authored this treatise on Kmastra.
The author of this treatise is utterly lacking in the poetic skills and
perceptions of both these Jayadvas. Looking to the contents of
Ratimanjari, the present Jayadva seems to have followed Jyotirisa.
The following topics are briefly treated by him - classification of nayikas
based of jati (class), classification of nyakas in relation to them,
erogenous zones and suitable lunar dates connected to them, limbs of the
female body fit for kissing, the,:method of performing sexual intercourse
together with the description of 16 postures, scratching and biting,
squeezing and sucking, catching hold of locks, characteristics of male and
female organs with their qualities and defects, and ends his treatise with
the description of coital postures, only 16 in number.
Dvarja

Dvarja, who also calls himself Praudhadvarja Mahrja, wrote

Ratiratnapr-ad i pik (RRP). The work is divided into seven chapters, and
closely follows Kkkka in its scheme. Dvarja has referred to Nand i sa,
Gauniputra (Gaunikputra), Vtsyyana, Mallanga, Kkkka, Muni
Kvida and Gunapatka. He has acknowledged the sources for the first and
the sixth chapters as the views of Gauniputra and Nandiksvara
45

respectively, and has largely depended on Kkkka for his treatment of

various other topics. The fourfold classification of nayika into categories
like Padmini, Sankhini was according to him given by Nandisa and
Gauniputra. Besides the classification of females according of Vtsyyana,
he gives another classification according to Gunapatka --viz. ath
(loose) , Madhya-(medium) and Ghana (straitened). He has given another
classification according to prakrti (nature) of females into categories like
Gaja, Rksasa etc. Dvarja exhibits his versatility'in classifications and
evolving new categories which we will discuss subsequently.
Rjnaka Ruyyaka

Rjnaka Ruyyaka is a celebrated author in the field of Alarikrastra

(Poetics). His AIarikrasarvasva is one of the most important texts on
Alarikra (Poetics and rhetorics). He is known to have authored six other
works. One of them is Sahrdayalll (sports of a connoisseur). Ruyyaka
does not deal with the conventional topics of Kmasstra. He has simply
elaborated upon the concept of utkarsa (excellence) of the body.
Ngarikat is attained by the knowledge of this utkarsa and by being a
connoisseur. This utkarsa or excellence according to Ruyyaka is generated
by gunas (qualities), alarikras (ornaments), jlvita (youth) and parikara
(expression of beauty). Ruyyaka's treatment of these four constituents of
excellence is an original contribution to the theory in the field of aesthetics
and erotic, as we do not find these categories enumerated in any other text.
He has defined ten Gunas or qualities- RD-pa (explitness of lining in the
limbs), Varna (colour), Prabh (luster), Rga (liveliness), Abhijtya
(delicacy), Vllsit (sportive gestures), Lvanya (exuberance of delightful
beauty), Laksana (proportion), Chy (subtle reflection of beauty) and
Saubhgya (charmingness). Ruyyaka has included costumes and cosmetics
also in his treatment of Alarikra.
Sridhara
Sridhara's treatise on erotic is not available. Snigadharapaddhati contains
a section on verses describing categories of women in terms of gods, demi-

46

gods etc. These verses are attributed to one Sridhara. Sridhara must have
flourished before 1300 AD.
Kalynamalla

Kalynamalla (KM) composed Anargaranga (AR) to please his patron Lad

Khan, who was ruler of Oudh and belonged to Lodhi dynasty. He
flourished in 16th century. KM was minister to Ladkhan Lodhi. Grandson
of king Trilkacandra and son of Gajamalla, he claims to have been born
in lunar dynasty of Ksatriyas, and calls himself Bhapamuni:i.e., a sage
amonsgt the kings (AR, 1.4-6) He has also written Sulaimaccaritam on the
story of Solomon, the son of David, from old Testament.
Kalynamalla's AR is an important contribution to the study of erotic. It is
divided into 10 sthalas (chapters). The following topics have been
discussed in the first five sthalas- - classification of Nyaka and Nyik,
days and times most congenial for sexual 'excitement, classification of
men and women according to the size of their organs, different types of
sexual unions, characteristics of three types of men, characteristics of
women as per their age, humour etc., different types of female organs and
characteristics of ladies of belonging to different provinces. The sixth
sthala gives ways and means to lead a woman to orgasm, aphrodisiacs for
both sexes, depilatory powders, hair- growing oils and the ways for
stiffening loose and sagging breasts. The seventh sthala prescribes the
ways for laying charms on women by making marks and use of collyrium,
powders, pills, incense, sacred incantations etc. Use of cosmetics and
deodorants is also described here. The eighth sthala takes up selection of
bride and bride-groom, ladies with whom sexual relations are prohibited,
female messengers, ladies difficult to be seduced, places and times for
union etc. Sthala ninth gives various types of embraces, kisses, scratching
with nails, biting by teeth, catching the locks etc, and sthala tenth describes
different coital postures, with cre.ams, finally the work ends with the
description of eighth, types of nyiks.
Virabhadradva

47

Virabhadradva was the ruler of Vaghla dynasty and son of Rmacandra.

He modelled his treatise Kandarpacdmani on Vtsyyana's Kmasutra
but composed it in verse form. Kandarpacdmani was written in VS 1633
(1576 AD). It has seven Adhikaranas or books. The whole scheme and
contents of these seven books are exactly in accordance with Kmasutra so
that Kandarpacdmani appears more or less a commentary on
Vtsyyana,
Other authors
A number of other works on erotic in Sanskrit are known only from the
commentaries on Kvyas. Rghavabhatta, a celebrated commentator on
Klidsa's works, has utilised a work Rativilsa. He has also referred to a
work Madani days in the same commentary. Kumbha in his commentary
on Gitagvinda has referred to a Kmasarvasva. Another work,
Ratisarvasva, has been quoted by Mallintha in his Sanjivani on Klidsa's
Mghadta (102). K6kkaka has referred to Gunapatka, who must have
been held as one of the authorities on Kmasstra, Mallintha perhaps
refers to him as Patka in his Sanjivani on Raghuvamsa (VI11.92).
Nyaka-Nyik-Bhda or classification of heroes and heroines developed
as a branch of Poetics and esthetics is closely related to Kmasstra.
Hundreds of texts were produced on this subject. Ksmndra and
Dmdara are two celebrated names in the history of classical Sanskrit
poetry whose names are invariably linked to the studies on Kmasstra,
eventhough we are not in possession of any independent treatises on
Kmasstra by them. Both of them are great poets.
Ksamndra has prepared a gist of Vtsyyana's Kmastra which is
unfortunately lost. But he extensively elaborates upon some of the topics
related to Kmasstra in some of his works of fiction or didactic poetry.
His Caturvargasarigraha is a poem dealing with four objectives of life
(dharma, artha, kma and mksa). In the third section of this work entitled
'Kmaprasams', he deals with kma. Here Ksmndra has made only
some general observations emphasising over kma as a value in human
life. Darpadalanam is another work by Ksmndra. It is of didactic nature.
48

Here he has elaborated upon the evils generated by the pride arising out of
kma. Dmdara wrote a unique epic (Mahkvya) entitled Kuttanimatam
(advice from a bawd). Dmdara was minister with king Jayp i da of
Kashmir (755-786 AD). He boldly unveils drab realities of Indian society,
particularly of the life of courtesans. Dmdara had made an intensive
study of Vtsyana's work, which is reflected throughout his poem particularly in mploying technical terms used in Kmastra. Dmdara
has especially borrowed the concepts and ideas of the VI book of
Kmastra dealing with courtesans. He has used the same technical terms
and has elaborated upon the following issues related to the world of
courtesansKntnuvartanam (a courtesan's suitable behaviour to please the
lover), Arthgampayh (Ways for acquiring wealth by the courtesans),
Viraktaiirigni (signs of lover becoming indifferent), Viraktapratipattih
(knowing an indifferent lover), Nisksanaprakrh (ways to get rid of a
lover), Vis' rnapratisandhanam (reconciliation), Lbhavis' sh (Special
gains), ArthnarthnubandhaSamsayavicrah (Calculating Gains and
Losses, Successiveness and Doubts).
All these authors hold V. as a foremost authority. Ng has profusely derived
from books two, five and seven of KS, whereas PS also is based on books
two, three, five and seven. Most of these authors overlook book IV of KS
which deals with housewives, economy of a middle class Indian family
and various sociological perspectives.

10. V and his successors on Eroticism

Book two of KS forms the core from the point of view of sexual union and
it is this part which the successors of V have mostly adopted from KS and
they have also added their own innovations therein. Here we present a
comparative study of V and his successors in the field with regards to
various ways and practices under sexual union.
Embrace (Alingana)

Embrace is the first activity by which the lovers contact each other to
communicate their feelings of mutual bond. V divides embrace into two
groups -- the first group is for the novices and the second for the mature
49

lovers. He prescribes four types of embrace in the first group. They are
meant for the lovers who have getting acquainted with each other and have
not yet enjoyed a physical union. Of these, mild contact is to be practiced
casually by making some excuse while passing towards the beloved; breast
pressure is to be practiced while sitting or standing in privacy in which the
female partner also takes an initiative by pressing with her breasts, rubbing
is one step further of these and finally comes pressure. Rubbing assumes
the proportions of pressure when the man on the base of a wall or a
column presses his beloved hard. These last two are for the lovers who
have come to understand each others' gestures.
To the second group belong the embraces that are to be combined with
sexual intercourse. These embraces are - creeper embrace (Latvstitaka ),
tree climbing (Vrksdhiradhaka) sesame and rice embrace (Tilatandulaka)
and water and milk embrace (Niraksiraka)- The lady would wrap the man
like a creeper encircles around a $la tree, and would bent her face to kiss;
then would raise her face whistling or remaining attached to him and
would eye him in an enchanting way-- this is creeper embrace. Pressing
one foot by one of her foot, and climbing on the thighs by the other (foot)
or wrapping him, keeping one hand wrapped on his back, and bending his
shoulder by the second (hand), making a bit low cooing sound she
attempts to climb on him for kissing - this is tree-climbing embrace. These
two types of embraces are practiced while standing and before copulation.
Both the lovers closely embrace each other while lying on bed by crossing
the thighs and the hands as if engaged in a fight- this is sesame and rice
embrace. When the lovers as if they have become blind in passion and are
not caring for any excess enter each other when the lady is in the lap of the
lover or is sitting face to face with him or lying on the bed -- this is water
and milk embrace. These two are to be practiced at the time of making a
passionate love. .
Besides these, thre are four additional types of embraces, which are based
on joining a specific limb by one of the lovers with the specific limb of the
other.The pincer-embrace (Orpaghana), the lovers press one or both
thighs of each other by all might: After pressing the thigh by the thigh, the
50

lady with her hair dishevelled, and hands outstretched should lie on the
man with the purpose of scratching by nails, attacking and kissing- this is
hip-thigh embrace (Jaghanpaghanam). After penetrating the chest of the
man by her bosoms, the lady would then put her weight there - this is
bosom-embrace (Stanlitigana). After joining the face with the face of the
lover, the lady would join his eyes by hers and press his forehead by hersthis is forehead embrace (Laltik).
Kkkka agrees with Vtsy-dyana's eight-fold division of embrace or Alir
gana, and he also classifies embrace into two groups- With unexperienced
(Ajtasmara) and with experienced (Jtasmara) . Only first four types
should be practiced with unexperienced, whereas with _the second group
all the eight types can be practiced. Padmari (Ng XXIV.1-9), Jytirivara.
(PS, IV.31-40), Praudhadvarya (RRP, 11.4-27) and Kalynamalla (AR,
IX.1-10) reproduce Vtsyyana's classifications and definitions without
much difference.
Kiss (Cumbana)

The kiss ignites the fire of love, it is the first step for initialisation of sex.
Dealing with kiss, V has first specified the parts of the body to be
subjected to kissing. The kiss can be done on the forehead, hairs, cheeks,
eyes, the chest, the bosoms, the lips and inside of the mouth. (tongue etc.).
He . also discusses the different practices of the men in different regions
with regards to their choice of these parts.
V has classified the kiss in=the following groups - Kisses for the virgin,
mutual kisses, responding kisses and special kisses. Three types of kisses
belong to the first group -restrained (Nimittaka), trembling (Sphuritaka)
and probing (Ghattitaka). The beloved puts her, mouth on the mouth of the
man but does not make any effort-this is restrained kiss. Loosening her
bashfulness a little, she desires to to suck the lip entered into her mouth
and flickers her lip but does not dare to go ahead- this is trembling kiss.
Covering his eyes by her hands, her eyes having been closed, she sucks his
lip a bit and rubs it with her tongue-- this is probing kiss.

51

Mutual kisses are to be practiced by mature lovers- they are? face to

,face .kiss (Sama), grabbing with. pressure (Pidita), tickling kiss (Ancita)
and soft kiss (Mrdu ). The following are the responding kisses- (i) if the
beloved kisses (at the lower lip) , he should also respond by kissing (the
upper lip). This is kissing of the upper lip (Uttaracumbitaka). (ii) Catching
by the pincer of the lips, the woman kisses both the lips of the man, this is
cupping kiss (Samputaka) to be applied by a woman, or by man if he does
not have moustache grown above.his lip. In this blockage (made by
woman), if the other one rubs her teeth, the Tlu or the tongue by his
tongue-- then it is called the tongue tilting kiss (Jihvyuddham). This also
explains the taking up of the face or teeth by force or giving them.
Special kisses are these- (a) kiss in sleep, (b) disturbing or diverting kiss,
(c) awakening kiss (d) suggestive kiss (e) transferred kiss and (f) disguised
kiss. The beloved seeing the lover asleep is filled with passion and love
kisses him. This is A. The kiss is applied to disturb the sleep of the lover
who is inattentive (as he is otherwise involved), who has been quarreling,
who is paying attention elsewhere, who has gone to sleep. This is B. The
lover or husband returns home late in the night and the wife or beloved has
already gone to sleep, the kiss is implanted by him to express his regret.
This is C. The kiss as a gesture is applied to the reflection of the beloved in
mirror, to her shadow on the wall or in water. This is D. A child related to
the beloved, a picture or the image belonging to her is kissed. This is E..
Most subtle of all, the one of the lovers kisses the other by some excuse
without letting her or him know that she or he has been kissed. This is F, V
as a keen observer of lovers' behaviour has described-the occasions for this
kiss showing how and why it is done.
V has described various nonsense activities- quarrels, purposeless or
meaningless shouting, bets, gambling etc. which go along with th activity
of kissing or embracing and which work like catalysts for making the
lovers involved to each other.
Kkkka agreeing with Vtsyyana, further suggests that restrained
(Nimittaka), trembling (Sphuritaka) and probing (Ghattitaka) are to be
52

given to maidens by man and not vise-versa ( RR, VII. 1-9). His
commentator Kn`c i ntha has added a new variety of kiss- begged
(Abhyarthita). Padmasri (Nag XXI,1-4, XXV.1-5) says that kiss, with all
these varieties, can be of two types - with sound (Saabda) and without
sound (Nihsabda). Yasdhara also admits that some sound does arise in in
cupping kiss. Jyatiria says that kiss can be applied with a whistling sound
(PS, IV.41-48). Jayadva in his Ratimaiijari enlists the following parts of
female body liable to be kissed- eyes, cheeks, heart, sides, neck, naval,
mouth, thighs, upper part of thighs, bosoms and labia. Dvarja proposes
14 types of kisses all in all, adding a new variety called Dvigrha (kissing
the lower lip after dragging it with the pincer of thumb and index finger).
(RRP, 111.28-48).
Scratches (Nakhacchdya )

Scratching by nails as well . as striking, hitting or slapping are sports to be

practiced by mature and seasoned lovers, who have tasted other sports as
described above. V recommends scratching when the passion is at its
height. He also suggests the occasions when this should be altogether
avoided. It is to be practiced when lovers develop intimacy with each other
The armpits, the bosoms, the throat, the back, the shanks and the thighs are
the places earmarked for it . The lovers having capability for furious speed
in sexual intercourse keep the tops of the nails in their left hands
sharpened, with one point or two or three points to cause more pain to the
beloved -and thus enhance mutual employment.
According to Vtsayyana, scratching by nails is of eight typescchuritaka (mild scratch which does not leave a mark, just gives the
feel-)f a touch, and is made on chin or bosoms etc.), Ardhacandra
(crescent- crooked mark made by the mails on the neck, dr on the
bosoms,), Mandala (circle-- combining two crescents-- to be applied on the
lower part of the belly, on the pit of the hips, and on the joints of the
thighs) Rkh (line scratch which can be applied on any part of the body) ,
Vyghranakha (tiger's claw- when the line scratch is made in zigzag; to be
applied on the bosom or face ), Mayrapda (peacock's foot-- lining made
by the five nails around the tip of the bosom), , asaplutaka (leaping rabbit)
53

and Utpalapatraka (lotus leaf) - made on the top of the bosom and on the
hips. The four or three Lkhs (lining) are to be made on the thighs, on the
top of the bosoms of the beloved at the time of proceeding on a journey by
the man- this is token of remembrance- or memento (Smraniyaka) .
Kbkkka (RR, VIII.1-6) lists the same anatomical parts, but describing the
varieties of scratch, he omits the tiger's claw and the token of
remembrance. Also, he does not eulogise scratch the way V does.
Padmasri (Ng. XXII.1-5) describes eight types of scratch but omits tokenof remembrance. Jytirisa (PS IV.49-58) includes forehead also in the list
of limbs for scratching; and he also leaves out the tiger's claw and renames
Smaraniyaka (the token of remembrance) as Darduraka. Kalynamalla
(AR IXX.22-29) also omits Tiger's claw and like K5kk-dka, he also does
not praise Scratch.
Bites (Dantacchdya)

Eight types of biting by teeth are described by V. Gdhaka (concealed) is a

mark to be detected by light red colour only. The same becomes
Ucchnaka (canine bite) when pressed hard. concealed (Gdhaka), swollen
(Ucchnaka) and dot (Bindu)-- these three are to be applied on the middle
of the lower lip. Canine bite and coral (Pravlamani) are to be applied on
the cheek. Kissing the earring (or the part of ear where earring is put on)
and scratching by nails and biting by teeth -these are the ornaments of the
left cheek. Dot is achieved by biting a little bit of skin by two teeth only
and coral is achieved by jointly biting of teeth and the lips repeatedly. The
series made at various parts of the body by coral is called chain of gems
(Manim/). Making several dots on one part of the body is series of dots
(Bindm5l5). These two can be made on the neck, armpits, joints of thighs
(close to the private parts. Series of dots can be made on the forehead and
the thighs also. Broken cloud (Khandbhraka) is round in shape and of
unequal size (strong in the middle and weak around) and it should be
applied on top of the bosoms only. Several long series of marks by teeth
close to each otner, leaving reddish skin in the gaps are called -gnawing of
wild boar (Varhacarvitaka). The last two are to be practiced by the men of
furious speed.
54

Kkkka (RR, 1X.1-4) reproduces the eight types as enumerated by

Vtsyyana and also discusses the qualities of teeth, Padmasrai (Ng.
XX111.1-4) and Praudhadvarya (RRP, IV.59-63) list the same eight
types.
Combinations and Coital postures (Samvsanaprakras )

V has described 64 types of arts, and there are 64 topics in his text. The
number sixty four has its own significance in Tntrika or esoteric
tradition., Several other Sstras adopt this as a magic number. There are 64
diseases in Ayurvda, 32 Arngahras and 64 Hastas in Ntcyasstra, 64
Y6ginis in Tantra and so on. It is because of a mythical value attached to
this number that the myth of V's having laid down 64 so-called Asanas or
coital positions came to prevail and his successors also accepted it.
V is also fascinated by the number sixty four. He repeatedly refers to
Ctuhsastika Ygas - sixty four combinations several times in his text, and
even goes to the extant of offering a eulogy to the number sixty four (see
KS, 1.3.13, 16;.11.10.34, 111.3.21, IV.2.44). Dmdara in his Kuttan i
mata (verse 487) calls the courtesans as adept in sixty four types of acts
(Catuhsastikarmakusalnm).
In fact, V has not used the word Asana anywhere for various positions
which the lovers adopt during sexual act, neither does he accept the myth
of 64 for the coital positions. Off course, B5bravya before him has insisted
that there are eight steps to sexual intercourse and each of these have eight
varities, and this he did to equate the division with the division, of Rgvda
into eight Astakas. Embracing (Alirigana), kissing (Cumbana), scratches
(Nakhacchdya), biting .(Dasanacchdya), lying together (Samvsana),
inarticulate sounds (Sitkrta),, reverse position (Purusyita) and oral sex
(Ouparistaka) have been further divided into eight sub-sections each, and
in this way they become sixty four.V ignores this absurd division.
V has classified man into three categories the view point of the
measurement of the penis, - the hare, the bull and the stallion. There are
three categories of woman as per the size of their vagina- i.e., the doe, the
mare and the elephant. The permutations and combinations of these three
55

types of men with the three categories of women yield nine types of
copulations asunder A. Equal matching
(1)

The 'hare' in intercourse with the 'doe'

(2)

the 'bull' in intercourse with the 'mare'

(3)

the 'stallion' in intercourse with the elephant woman.

B. Unequal matching - 6 varieties.
B (i) male - dominated ( High matching )

(4)

the 'stallion' in intercourse with the 'mare'

(5)

the 'bull' in intercourse with the 'doe'

B(ii) male - dominated (higher matching)

(6)

the 'stallion' in intercourse with 'doe'

C (i) Female dominated (Low matching)

(7)

the 'hare' in intercourse with the 'mare'

(8)

the 'bull' in intercourse with the elephant woman

C (ii) Female dominated (Lower matching)

(9)

the 'hare' in intercourse with the elephant woman

Authors like Dvarja have gone to the extant of specifying the exact
measurements of the male and female organs as per their length and
breadth. They are 6, 9 and 12 Arigula resectively.9RRR,ii.7-32)
Of these, 1-3 of A are the ideal ones, and B(i) and B(ii) are preferable to
C(i) and C(ii). From the point of view of time- scale of sex act, the man is
also of three types- quickly finishing, taking longer and taking very long
time. Again, the sex act is of different types from the point of view of the
nature of experience that a man or a woman undergoes through it. These
56

combinations according to Pramna or the size of sex organs considered

with the time and experience yield innumerable varieties. Y says that these
nine varieties make 27 types of combination for each category of man and
woman and then these 27 can be further multiplied by the permutations to
make as many as 729 vanities. V is not for classifying and counting these
numbers of sex act. "It is not possible to decide the number of the varieties
of sexual act (arising out of the permutations and combinations of nine
types of intercourse generated out of size, time and the experience"- he
says- "Because such varieties will be too many in number. A man should
apply his own discretion logic for entertaining the sexual partner in all
these varieties". (KS II.1.33-34)
V here distinguishes between rati (conjugal love) and surata (sex act).
There are seven stages of rati- rasa, rati, priti, bhva, raga, vga and
sampti. These are the psychic states. There are five stages of the sex actsamprayga, rata, rahah, sayana and mhana. There are nine types of
intercourse on the basis of time and the ultimate experience. V has not
used any spefific term for the state of orgasm and ejaculation. Caraka has
called it visrsti literally meaning release, and later authors like Dvarja
also deal with the process of visrsti. Dvarja has elaborated upon the
concept of sahasrabhaga, which is a very significant contribution of the
later authors to the study of sexual behaviour. Sahasrabhaga, means
simulateneous attainment of orgasm exactly at the same moment by both
the partners. Dvarja says that Muni (V?) has equated the state of
sahasrabhaga to mukti or salavation (RRP, IV.20-25). The concept of
sahasrabhaga however is conspicuous by its absence in V. Of all the coital
positions, only samarata can lead to the bliss of sahasrabhaga (RRP,
IV.26).
V has prescribed coital positions to suit various combinations of men and
women in equal, high and low types of intercourse. Three positions are
advisable for high and higher types- to enable a 'doe' to expand her vagina.
They are- swelling (Utphallaka), yawning (Vijrmbhitaka) and Indrnitaka.
The first is practiced by keeping the head low and raising the thighs, the
second by raising the thighs with a slant and accepting the male organ also
57

in this slanting position; the third by joining the shanks and the thighs and
putting then along with both the sides (towards the arm-pits).
Four types of positions are recommended for low and lower types of
copulations- Samputaka (cupping) pressing (Piditaka), wrapping
(Vstitaka) and gripping (Vdavaka). In first, the feet of both man and
woman are stretched in a straight way (and then joined) either by clubbing
while lying on sides) or clubbing while one lying on the other with face to
face; iri second is extension of the first with man pressing the thighs of the
woman hard- In third, the woman places one of her thighs on the other.
Gripping the penis inside tightly by the female partner makes the fourth
position. V has discussed spooning (face to face) and sitting positions also.
In fact there is no end to the multiplications and numerous possibilities of
combinations in coital positions. V himself suggests time and again that
the lovers should apply their own discretion and choose what suits them.
There are several queer positions. Westerners and modern readers find
them impossible' and even ridiculous. V has just given sketches of such
positions to suggest the immense possibilities in love-games. Simmilarly
ten additional positions according to Suvarnanbha are also described. Of
these, positions like Bhugnaka (upward turning of the woman's thighs)
Jrmbhitaka (yawning posture)-- the man holding her feet above on his
shoulders, Utpiditaka (pressure on top)-- the woman shrinking her legs and
folding them and placing them on chest of the man- these may be
practiceable but there are more difficult postures, like Vnudritaka where
one leg of the woman is on the shoulder of the man and another lying
stretched straight way and this is done with exchange (of legs). Even more
cumbersome is Slcitaka, where one leg of the woman is on the head of
the man and another lying stretched straight way.
It is impossible to give exact number of these peculiar positions. V has
defined them according to ancient masters and his followers have
contributed by multiplying their numbers. More complicated postures
consist of doing the sex act as per practice of different animals. V has
dropped hints about some such practices, while his followers like
58

Kkkka, KM and others have painted colourful pictures of them. Sex

with two women or sexual orgy in a.community have also been taken up.
Purusyita

Apart from these, the- most attractive activity which we also find depicted
with varied colours in sesuous poetry of Sanskrit, is Purusyita or the
woman assuming man's role. V and his followers are keen on encouraging
the woman to perform the reverse pose. The woman herself should initiate
this game and man is also advised to cooperate with her when she is
engaged in displaying her skills. V has given a graphic description of
several activities to be performed by a man engaged in the purusyita type
of intercourse and to be adopted by a woman also when she has assumed a
man's role (KS /1.8.6-17). He has also defined 10 sexual strokes here.
They are to be practiced by a man, but can be imitated by a woman when
she is performing purusyita. Of these, Upasrptaka is soft joining,
Rotating-the penis in all directions with the help of the hand is Manthana
or churning. After lowering the thighs of the woman, the man hits them
from above - this is Hula - the dagger. The -reverse of it with a rapid
pressing is Avamardana (grinding down). After entering the penis, the man
keeps on pressing it hard for long-- this is Piditaka. After bringing =up theupper part of the thigh and then letting it fall- with a dash, this is Nirghta
(hitting with force). Making too much of stroke only on one side of the
vagina-- this is Varhaghta (boar's thrust). Making too much of stroke on
both sides of the vagina by turn is Vrsghta (bull's thrust), Once put inside
the penis is made to rub there twice, thrice or four times without taking it
out- this Ctakavilasita (bird's sport). Samputa or cup is made at the time
of orgasm, as explained earlier. All these should be applied by turn or
optionally in accordance with the suitability to the concerned lady.
In lady's assuming man's role the following [three] combinations are used
as extra- Sandamsa (grip), Bhramaraka (spinning top) and Prarkhlita
(swinging). Gripping the penis inside rubbing and pressing it for long - this
is Sandamsa. With penis inside, the woman rotates like a wheel- this is
Bhramaraka, it is acquired by practice. The other (partner- the man) should

59

uplift the upper part of (his) thighs at this time.The upper part of the thighs
is made to swing on all sides- this is Prrrkhlita (swinging).
Later authors have made V's classifications more eleborate. KM describes
five types of coital positions- lying on back (12 varities), lying by sides(3
varieties), sitting (ten varities), standing (3 varieties) and bending low. The
last one incorporates various unusual positions described by V (AR, X.130).
Slapping (Prahanana) and moaning (Sitkira)

Slapping, massaging and even hitting or thrashing forms an important part

of sexual activity. li is one of the contradictions of love and sexual union
that pain enhances pleasure. Vtsyyana has given a very apt description
of sexual union by comparing it with dual or combat. Especially the
female partner sometimes likes to be treated with force by her lover. Ovid
says that force pleases a woman and she feels grateful to ravish against
whom she struggles (Arts Amatoria, lib.l' quoted in S.C.Upadhyaya,
Introduction, p. 23). "A lover who does not heap blows on his beloved is
not lover at all" Lucian says (Q. Ibid.). Pain enhances the pleasure. Sexual
union thus becomes a source of rasa- the summom bonum of life, which
encompasses the totality of human-experience- pleasure and happiness,
pain and sorrow, joy and depression. The lovers laugh at the pain caused
by the hitting and they weep due to overflow of joy.
The act of lovemaking is rightly compared with the act of fighting a war.
The sexual intercourse also comprises fight between the lover and the
beloved. The activities of scratching, biting by teeth, hitting, slapping or
even attacking the body of the lover or the beloved are parts of this fight.
The last three activities are treated under the topic Prahanana or strokes,
obviously, they cause physical pain leading the lovers to cry, shriek or
moan out of pain. These cries are therefore rightly treated by V along with
the slapping under the caption Stanana or inarticulate sounds.
The parts of the body subjected to slapping serve as the medium for this
quarrel. These are- the shoulders, the head, the cavity between the bosoms,
the back, upper part of thighs and the sides. The attack (to be made on
60

these limbs) is of four types- back palm (Apahastaka), outstretched palm

(Prasrtaka), the fist (Musti) and flat palm (Sarnata'aka). They are to be
employed successively, considering the woman's-responses.
The erotic articulations accompanied with the moaning are of eight types.
The following seven are the meaningless words or sounds uttered out of
the pain caused by the attack- the nasal sound (H176kra), humming
(Stanita), cooing (Kjita), crying (Rudita), panting (Stkrta), shrieking
(Dtkrta) and sobbing (Phtkrta) . The words like '0 mother!, stop, stop!'
are also to be uttered to denote the sense of forbidding or helplessness by
the woman. Optionally, the woman may also use the sounds of pigeons,
cuckoo, wood parrot, bee, Ctake, swan, duck and quail. The man should
attack the woman by fist at the back when she is sitting on his lap. At that
time the woman as if being jealous, should make the sounds of humming,
weeping and cooing or may respond by counter attack. The penis having
entered inside, the man should attack at the cavity of the bosoms of the
woman by upturned palm. This slapping should be started at slow pace in
the beginning, to be increased gradually till the end. There is no rule
regarding the sounds of heem, heem etc., to be made by the woman to
denote her pain. They come as sponteneous responses to slapping. KM
reads Dtkrta as Utkrta, and SOtkrta as Sitkrta. He retains only five
varieties of inarticulate sounds from V, avoiding cooing-(Kjita), crying
(Rudita), and shrieking (Dtkrta) and sobbing (PhOtkrta)
At the height of passion, when the hitting becomes tolerable due to
practice, the sounds for' making the appeal for forbidding, leaving or
stopping, or the words like O mother etc. can be mixed by the woman with
the activities of breathing with pain, weeping, humming and cooing. At the
moment of calming of passion; the hitting of upper part of thighs, and
sides should be done quickly till the end. There the cooing of quail and
swans should be made rapidly.
K6kk6ka (RR X.51-62) has used the term tdana for hitting or slapping.
He has also described the places of hitting , i.e., back, sides, upper part of
thighs, between the breasts and head.
61

The later writers have used the word sitkra (lit., whistling "sound) far
inarticulate sound, but they do not substantially differ from V in
enumerating the varieties of strokings and inarticulate sounds both. Sitkra
or inarticulate sound results from hitting (prahanana), it is the sound made
by the beloved out of pain, involving thrashing, thumping, fisting and even
punching. Jytisvara (PS V.29.30) says that when a man finding his sexual,
partner not satisfied by a light hearted union bites her lips repeatedly and
she shrieks in pain. A woman exited by Citrarata (queer coital positions)
makes sounds resembling to cuckoo etc.
Praudhadva connects these varieties of sitkrta or inarticulate sound with
the status of pain, helplessness, fondness and harshness of the activity
inflicting the pain. He also adds a new variety Kkurata. KM gives five
varieties of sitkrta or inarticulate sound .
Grip (Grahana)

Grahana or grip is an innovation by later writers. V does not treat it as a

separate category. Padmasri (Ng XXXV.1-2) prescribes four types of
Grahana or grip- Baddhamusti (all limbs firmly clasped), Vstitaka (locks
of hair are caught by twisting them around the fingures), Kridgranthika
(fingures entwined in fingures) and Samakrsti (pinching at neck and
breasts by thumb and index fingure)
Sporting with hair (Kacagraha)

Kacagraha means holding the locks of hair of the beloved and pulling
them. It is a sport described by several Sanskrit poets. V has not described
as an independent category, two of his followers however, have taken up
Kacagraha-Kkkka (RR 11.2) and Padmasri (Ng XX.3) just refer to it.
Praudhadva says that man should pull the locks of hair of his lady love on
full moon day. It is quite possible that these latter authors have borrowed
the idea of Kacagrahana from the tradition of Ntyasstra. Bharatamuni
has described how a lover would catch hold of the ends of locks, hands or
the end of the garment of an angry beloved to please her, from the point of
view of a dramatic performance (NS, XXII.283- 286), holding the locks is
treated as prolonged activity.

62

Rubbing (Mardana)

Mardana or rubbing also has not been taken up independently by V.

Harihara in his Smaradipik gives a list of six parts of female body where
this should be applied - both the arms, both the breasts, vagina and naval.
Padmasri describes four types of rubbing- dipaka -- rubbing by fists,
Sprstaka- palm touching all over; Kampitaka- rubbing by a quivering hand
and Samakrama- rubbing all the limbs with even pressure.
Entering the tongue (Jihvpravesa)

V has included this sport in the varieties of kiss; tongue tilting kiss
(Jihvyuddha) being the last amongst them. Some of the later authors have
given an independent treatment to Jihvapravsa or entering the tongue.
Padmasri (Ng XXXIV.1-7) describes three types of entering of the tongueSaci (with the tongue pointed and contracted), Pratata (with broadened
tongue stretched inside the mouth) and Kampita (with the tongue quivering
inside).
Sucking (Ciasana )

Csana or sucking has also not been taken up separately by V. Padmasri

(Ng XXXIV.1-7) describes four types of sucking- Osthavimrstaka (sucking
the tip of the tongue), Cumbitaka (hurried sucking), Ardhacumbitaka
(sucking after first biting the lip) and Samputaka (cupping or mutual
sucking). This is limited to sucking at lips by lips. But Harihara in his
Smaradipika has described another sport named Rasapna in which he has
prescribed other parts of the body also for sucking, i.e. - breasts, mouth
and nipples besides lips and tongue.
Exciting the nerves (Ndiksbhana)

Ndiksbhana means touching and manipulating the clitoris for exciting

the female partner. V no where explicitly mentions this activity,
eventhough reading between the lines, Y finds KS 11.8.18 implicit with
treatment on exciting the nerves which, according to him the other authors
have taken up. It is from Kkkka that we find the authors on Kmassatra
dealing with Ndiksbhana. Kkkka says that in the centre of Bhaga
there is Madanagamanadla- .a cluster of nerves, which if exited by the
index and middle fingures creates a wave of sensation in the female body.
63

This is a centre variously designated by the successors of V; they have

called it madanasadana (Kma's abode), madanacchatra (Kma's canopy)
or madasir (Kma's head). Padmasri (Ng XVIII-XIX) says that there is a
special nerve in this madanasadana, and it is connected with 24 important
nerves of the body. He also gives a ksbhanamantra (Mantra for exciting)
with three letters to be recited by male. Other authors also understand the
sensitive nature of this part of vagina but have given different names for it.
Jytirisvara (PS VI.1-4) and Praudhadvar ya (RRP IV.35-39) mentions
three nerves - Samirana, Cndramsi and Gauri which function at this
centre. KM (AR, IV.32-35) also discusses the significance of this part of
female body and calls it Madanacchatra or Prnatchatra. Dvarja locates
Madangradl inside the vagina. It resembles the shape of male organ.
Kmtapatra is in fact clitoris.
Sport of elephant's trunk (Karikarakrid)

Karikarakrid (literally meaning sport of an elephant's trunk) is also an

innovation of the successors of V, like Ndiksabhana. V refers to exciting
the vagina like an elephant playing with his trunk (KS, 11.8.19, 22 and
11.9.38), an activity under lady's assumption of man's, role and oral sex.
His followers however, develop it as an independent sport. They speak
about manipulating the entire area inside the vagina by fingures so that
secretions start profusely. Vtsyyana has off course treated the topic very
briefly by calling it Mardanaksbhana (exciting by rubbing). Kkkka has
variously named it as Hastaksbhalil (the sport by exiting through hand
or palm), Karagkhyga (a device by palm), and
Manmathgramudrbharigakrid (the sport of unlocking the house of
love). Both Jyotirisvara and Kalynamalla call it Matarigalilyita (sports of
the elephant). Kkkka enumerates four types of this sport- Karikara
(elephant's sport), Phanibhga (serpent's hood), Ardhndu (half-moon) and
Kdrn rikusa (the goad of the god of love). (RR, X.8). Padmasri (Ng.
XXXVI.1-2) has termed this sport as Arigulirata- sexual activity by fingers
and has also discussed how and how many fingures should be inserted
inside the vagina. It is Karana if only the index fingure is inserted; when
the index fingure is kept behind the middle fingure then it is Kanaka;
64

reverse of Kanaka is Vikanaka; it is Patka if both these fingures are

outstretched and inserted; it becomes Trisla if the ring finger is also
joined with the two; and finally if these three fingures are inserted in a
jointly then it is Phanibhga.
Sports from woman's side -- Santdita

Categorising and systematising woman' sports during sex activity is also

an innovation of the later authors who followed V. V has off course
discussed what a woman should do or is expected to do in response to a
man's approaches, advances or propositions, but he has not as much taken
care of the initiatives which they aught to take, except in the treatment of
Purusyita (reverse pose or lady assuming a man's role). Jytirisa, however
extends a lady's role by prescribing santdita (hitting by a lady) as one of
the sex sports. It is to be combined with the practice of the reverse pose. It
is divided by him into the following categories- (i) santdita- giving blows
of the fist on the chest of the man (ii) patk- slapping by palm (iii)
kundala- pinching with the thumb and the middle fingure (iv) bindumlrepeated attacks by thumb only.
Kalynamalla has also described this sport by a lady, but he has named it
as Tdana. He has also renamed the Kundala of Jytirisa as Kuntala
(which off course s a mistake of the copyist). Rest of the varieties in KM
are the same as in Jytirsa.
Types of lovers (NTtyakanvikbhda
V's concept of lovers (Nyaka and Nyik) comes from his study of social
life of human behaviour. The citizen (ngaraka) off course enjoys the focal
position in this world view. In 1.1V of KS he has elaborately dealt with the
life - style, daily routine of this ngaraka. He sets the norms and standards
for the life-style of ngaraka including his food, wines and beverages to be
by him, his recreations, his friends and associates as well his recreations
and festivities in which he participates.
it is here that V also lays down the concept of Ysinmaitri - friendship
with a lady, Angaraka has many ladies as his friends and allies.

65

Nyikbheda or the classifications of the types of women is another topic

dealt by the successors of Vatsyyana extensively. Off course, the whole
treatment is based on the patriarchal view of woman, woman as viewed as
an object of love by man. Vatsyyana has also given his own classification
of the lovers - the nyaka and the nyik, on the basis of their sex organs
and their social status. The first basis results in too crude classifications,
and the second one yields too broad generalisations. A more subtle
classification is given by later authors based on all the three aspects of
human existence- physical, psychological and spiritual. Accordingly
Nyiks or beloveds as defined by Kokkoka (RR, Jtyadhikra, 10-19),
Dvarja (RRR, 1.5-24) and other authors are of four types(1) Padmini- (the Lotus Woman) Lotus is a symbol of beauty,. tenderness
as well as the auspiciousness and purity. Padmini or the Lotus Woman
stands for all the values attached to womanhood. She is all tenderness and
virtue and has a delicate body emanating.the odour of lotus. She is the
most desirable of all types of heroines. She has a charming face and
attractive figure, with eyes like that of a fawn; three exquisite folds
encircling her naval, and a slender waist; She has a very sweet and
delightful voice like the cooing of cuckoo. She is endowed with spiritual
qualities; and the piousness of her appearance fills men with divinity. Her
favourite colour is white. She is sexually exited on second, third and fifth
dates of lunar calander and like to have sex in lotus pose especially in last
quarter of night.
2. Citrini (the art woman) - Citrini or the art woman is of medium stature,
slim in body. She has black and luxuriant hair and restless eyes. Her lips
are red like the ripe Bimba fruit, She has conch-shaped large neck; She has
buxom hips, plump breasts and supple body. Her voice attracts like the
cooing of a peacock. She is lady of refinement and good taste. Her
secretions during sexual intercourse smell of honey. She is sexually exited
on sixth, eighth and tenth days of lunar calendar and like to have sex
especially in last quarter of night.

66

(3)

Sarikhini (the conch woman) - She is thin, tall and stout. Blue veins are
visible on her body through the fawny skin. She has long legs and big
arms, Her waist is thick, and breasts are small. She has long and tilted face,
Her voice is harsh. Her favourite colour is red. She is selfish and cunning,
but assumes a polite nature. In her heart of heart she is hard to please,
malicious and vicious. She likes to be bitten during sexual intercourse. and
her secretions have alkine smell. She is sexually exited on the first,
eleventh and the thirteenth days of lunar calendar and like to have sex
especially in third quarter of night.

(4)

Hastini or the Elephant Woman- She is lowest of all the heroines. She is
short, fat and ugly. She has thick lips, short neck, and broad mouth. Her
eyes are small; She may be of dark or bright complexion, but if bright, she
appears rather pale or lusterless. She uncouth in speech and gait. She is
sexually exited onfourth, seventh, ninth, fourteenth and fifteenth days of
lunar calander and especially likes sex in third quarter of night.
Like the Nyik or lady, Nyaka or lovers are also of four types. V has also
referred to three types of man, but his classification again is based just on
the size of their penises. Later authors have retained the nomenclature
from V, but some of them have added one more variety to equate with the
fourfold classifications of the heroines. They, however connect these four
categories with psychological and physical traits. Padmasri in his Nag
(IV.2-7) has defined three types of man as under

(1)

Saga (the hare) - He has slender waist, hands, feet and back, possessed
of sweet voice, has even and teeth, lustrous body and round face. He
appears always happy and has self-respect too, His semen emanates an
odour. He is gracious as well as strong with large eyes, and a manly face.
He is virtuous and energetic.

(2)

Vrsa (the bull) - Vrsa or the bull has fattish neck, attractive gait, red
palms, and static gaze. He is buxom and lucky. also rough and short
tempered. He loves music but has a vulgar taste. He is powerful and
strongheaded, but not wise and scrupulous.

67

(3)- Asva (the stallion) - Mva or the stallion is ugly and unshapely. He has
large and coarse hair; uneven teeth and scally chest. He has long fingures,
ears and head and fat thighs. He is rough and strongly built.
Some authors have added one more variety - the buck (Mrga) after the
hare.
He is handsome and delicate with large eyes.
Like these three types of man, Padmasri has also enumerated the
characteristics of three types of woman - the doe, the mare and the
elephant. Accordingly a doe has delicate body and beautiful thick hair, her
complexion is light dark, her limbs provide a coolness like rays of moon,
her teeth are well-set, she speaks in low tones, she takes very light diet, her
discharges during sexual intercourse emanate perfume. she is wet inside
the mouth. A 'mare' has fair complexion, hard breast, knees a little bent,
and large thighs, she has hot body, he hands are long and delicate.
Elephant woman is short in stature, fat and has large teeth, she is very
talkative and fickle.
Authors like Dvarja have further classified the heroines on the basis of
their physique. Accordingly they are grouped in three categories - Sthla,
Madhya and Ghana. The first is slim, and the last is fat, and the middle one
presents a combination of both. AH these three heroines undergo seven
stages as per their growth in age, i.e. - Kanya (eight years), RhinT(nine
years), Gauri(ten years), Bala (eleven to sixteen years), Taruni (seventeen
to thirty years), Praudha (between thrty to fifty years) and Vrddh (above
years) (RRP, 11.36-41)
V's broad based' concept of Nayikabhda with its three categories (see
Kamastra and Natyasastra above) however provided a basis to the whole
tradition of discourses on this subject. Dhanika, a celebrated author on
dramaturgy actually cites him in this context in his commentary on
Daarapaka (11.45). The authors on poetics, aesthetics further enlarged the
scope of classification of heroes and heroines, so that Nayakanayikabhda
was cultivated as an independent discipline. Kmastra remained the basis
68

for the whole threadbare analysis and various types of nayikas- their
number reaching to some thousands, because all the theorists start by
accepting his basic division of Nyik into the categories of Svakiya
( married to the man) and Parakiya (not married to the man), and Samanya
(the courtesan) and also into Jystha (the senior wife) and Kanistha (the
junior wife). These authors have extensively dealt with female messengers
(Dti) and KS remains for them a source book here also.
Erogenous Zones and erogenous dates

V has evinced a subtle understanding of the anatomy and physiology of

human body, but he has not considered the inner circles of the body which
with a mere touch can be aroused. Also, the Tntric cult has cast hardly
any impact on his KS. His followers however, were considerably
influenced by astrological, astronomical considerations as well as the
Tntric view. They shave therefore discussed the erogenous Zones, i.e. the
limbs of female body touching which excites a lady for sexual pleasure.
Accordingly, Padmini is most excitable on first 5 days, except the third day
of both the bright and dark lunar fortnights. Citrin i is most suitable on the
four even dates, commencing from sixth; Sarikhini on 3rd, 7th, 11th and
13th; Hastin i on remaining two day of a fortnight. These authors have also
specified what limbs should be caressed or touched on particular dates.
These dates are defined in accordance with two fortnights (Paksas)- the
white fortnight (Suklapaksa) and black fortnight (Krsnapaksa). In our
calendar these two fortnight are related to the moon's increase or decrease,
but in the present context the white fortnight starts the day when a woman
has menstruation, and on completion of fifteen days after that, the black
fortnight starts. KM in his AR has prescribed a somewhat diffferent
calander, according to which, the fourth, second, first and fifth are most
suited for entertaining a Padmini; the art woman Citrini enjoys sex most on
eighth, twelvth, tenth and sixth days of lunar fortnights, Sarikhin i or
conch woman rejoices it on eleventh, seventh, third and thirteenth days
and for the elephant woman full moon day, forteenth day, ninth day are
suitable. says in his AR- women are sexually aroused on the days of black
and white fortnight by touching the partition of hair on forehead, eyes,
69

lower lip, checks, neck, the sides, chests, breast, the naval, waist, the
vagina, the knees, the ankles and feet on the left from below to top and on
right side from top to bottom. Padmasr.i also says that in the white
fortnight Kma resides in the left parts of the body and in the black
fortnight on the right parts. The author of Smakadpik has summed up the
treatment of Erogenous Zones and erogenous dates as under[[The place of Kama varies according to the dates of white fortnight and
dark fortnight on feet, ankles, thighs, vagina, naval, bosoms, heart, sides,
neck, lips, temples, eyes, ears, forehead and head. It lives on the right
limbs of man and left limbs of woman, but the position is reverses in dark
fortnight. On first day it is on the thumb of foot, on the second day on the
ankle, on third on the thighs, on fourth on the clitoris, on fifth on the naval,
on sixth on the breasts, on seventh on the heart, on eighth on the sides, on
ninth on the neck, on tenth on the lips, on eleventh on the temples, on
twelfth in the eyes, on thirteenth on the ears, on fourteenth on the forehead
and on full moon day at the top-knot of the head.]]
After this the mantra to be chanted is specified, starting with Om and
reciting all the 16 vowels with nasal Anusvra sound. Padmasri has also
attempted an inner view of nerves inside vagina. He says that there are 24
nerves in the vagina, which are responsible for sexual arousal. The point
where they end is called Kmacchatra (cupid's umbrella) or clitoris. Of
other nerves which incite sexual desire, there are two in the face, two in
the eyes, one in throat,and one at the back of the thumb. Apart from these,
there are six great nerves in the vulva, which are named as Sati, Asati,
Subhag, Durbhag, Putri and Duhitrini. The last two are deep inside
vagina, Sati lies on the left of vulva, and Asati on its right. Subhag and
Durbhag are located at a little distance inside the vaginal canal. Sati is
excited by simple embrace, Asati by caressing both armpits, Subhag by
kissing, and Durbhag by caressing the waist. Putri is excited by kissing on
the face, while Duhitrini is agitated by caressing buttocks.
Dvarja has extensively dealt with the parts of female body to be
manipulated on specific dates to enhance sexual pleasure (RRR, I. 26-67).
70

Sankta lovers' code language

Sankta or lovers' code lnguage is another lively theme which the later
authors have taken up. The code language of lovers developed through
ages accumulating sociological, literary and artistic tenets of respective
times. Padmasri in his Ng (chapters VI-VII) has treated Sarikta or lovers
code language under the following heads- (i) Suggestive words - The
words are loaded with meanings which only the lovers can understand. A
man is hinted upon by using words synonymous of a fruit, a women with
words relating to flowers, family by the words like sprout, different casts
by different fruits and so on. (ii) Physical gestures - palms are joined to
suggest affirmation, middle finger is put on the index finger for asking the
time for meeting; thumb is used to denote-the east, index fingure for south,
middle fingure for west, and so on. (iii) Communications by treatments these include presenting a perfumed article, betel nut, cardamom, nutmeg,
and cloves etc for excessive love, different precious stones are used for
denoting loss of love . (iv) Communication by garlands- red flowers are
worn to suggest love, saffron for communicating indifference, and a
garland woven by black thread is worn to communicate refusal of love,
and so on. (v) Communication through betel- the folds of betel leaves
indicate different feelings. Five types of folds were used to suggest love,
suffering etc. (vi) Communication through garments - a perforated garment
suggests pining of the heart, a red colour on it suggests love, and saffron
indifference and so on.

11. Vatsyyana in the contemporary context

V comes very close to modern approach to sex and love. In a sharp
contrast to puritans and the authors of Smrtis or Dharmasstras, who
regard any physical contact between two sexes as a sin unless it is
performed for progeny, he speaks of sex as a means for feeling the joy and
bliss of life for a better understanding between man and woman and for
realising love. Sex is not at all a taboo for him and for modern
psychologists and social scientists. Sex leads to discovering the beauty and
joy in the mundane and desolatory. Like D.H.Lawrence, who said- "I want

71

men and women to be able to think about sex fully, completely, honestly
and clearly", V wants his fellow men to think and talk abut sex freely.
If love is the summon bonum of life, one needs specific practices and way
of life to discover it. Modern Psychologists regards normal love as a result
of complicated fetichism or erotic symbolism, which is multidimensional
and ever changing in its details. Tade (1990) says- 'constancy in love is
rarely anything else but a voyage of exploration and ever new discoveries,
The most faithful lover does not love the women in the same way for two
days in succession'.
This is exactly what V had said nearly two thousand years ago. He
believes that even true love requires variety, and it is here that the masters,
well-wishers and works like KS come to the rescue and help of lovers.
V also talks of perversions like masturbation, sodomy and lesbianism.
They are to him aberrations, abnormalities and diversions. He does not
condemn them, rather, like a scientist, attempts. analysis of the conditions
leading to them.
However unlike Freud, V does not hold sex as a phenomenon which
pervades each and every layer of human psyche neither does he advocate
psychoanalytic therapy. Sigmond Freud was basically a neurologist, who
also delved in the field of phycho-therapy Later on during his career, he
proposed an erotic origin for several forms of nervous disorder, and was
accused of reductionism and even obscenity. He heralds a new era in
modern psychology, initiating the methods of psychoanalytic therapy,
based "on the fundamental assumption that there are no uncaused
accidents in mental life, but aims at removal of obstructions to free action
and at the establishments of mental balances"
Trying to form a universal theory of human mind, Freud attached undue
importance to a very physical aspect of life, i.e. sex. Freud is accused of a
sort of a preoccupation and even obsession with sexuality. He insists that
sexuality surfaces within human psyche immediately after birth. A child
has sexual urges in embryonic stage, his or her craving for love and
72

attention from his parents is just a mark of his or her sexuality. Freud
insists on contrariety of sexual passion in making of men's minds. He also
regarded love for one of the parents and hatred for the other as the
essential constituent of the stock of sexual impulses. He regards it a the
destiny of all human beings."It is the fate of all of us perhaps to direct our
first sexual impulse towards our mother and our first hatred and or first
murderous wishes against our father". He has connected this murderous
instinct and desire for the mother with the so-called 'Oedipus complex' and
even goes to the extant of finding incestuous feelings in great tragic heroes
like Hamlet. He insisted that Oedipus complex is universal. Freud also
applied his idea of sex deep rooted in human psyche since childhood to his
analysis of dreams. According to him a dreamer dreams of his life of
infantile wishes. These wishes manifest in dreams in disguised forms.
They wander on the borders of consciousness wearing a variety of masks.
He builds his massive granite blocks of psychoanalysis from conflict,
defence and repression.
The concepts and applications of sex have undergone tremendous
distortions in all cultures. Most of the human beings remain pre-ocoupied
with the idea of sex, but feel uneasy and uncomfortable to talk about it.
Divested of its sublimity, sex is being confined to low gossips and cheap or
vulgar talks. Sex is being wrestled as a devil or being worshipped as a god.
V strikes a balancing note, by accepting sex as sex as well as relating it to
spiritual; as well as materialistic values. Healthy sex leads to a harmony
between body and soul, between physical life and spiritual life.
Love is inborn. But sensuality can be cultivated. Sensuality makes the
experience of sex live and joyous. It makes a man or a woman alive to the
rhythms of the body, and to create music of life out of it.
Charlotte Davis Kasl echoes V's concept of Kama when she
says--"Sexuality is something we each possess and have available for our
pleasure whether or not we are with a partner. Being alive to one's
sexuality and being at ease with one's own eroticism is a part of being a
fully integrated person and having free flowing energy. It is not dependent
73

on having a sexual partner, or even on being sexually active. In fact as a

woman becomes integrated with herself having a primary partner loses its
"do- or-die' importance, She realises that a partner would be nice, but that
a mate is not crucial to a fulfilling, harmonious life, The erotic can be
associated with living fully, being guided by our greatest wisdom and
ultimately having an ecstatic love affair with the miracles of life."
(Charlotte Davis Casl: Woman, Sex and Addiction, 1990,.'p.6)
Sex is always intertwined with cultural values. It is an expression of
eternal love. It is an appropriation of human potential, and correct
application of which can be transformed into supreme bliss. Spirituality
transforms sex into a blissful and wholesome experience. Modern
psychologists agree that there is a 'holy centre' in the complex nature of
human consciousness. It leads a human being to lead a life of honesty and
integrity. Love springs from it, and this love finds expression in sex act
also. This incalcation of spirituality and emergence out of love ultimately
makes sex something extremely valuable and imbued with rich human
experience. Also, sex can be subjected to degradation and be used as an
addiction. Misuse of sex creates a vacuum within human consciousness, it
severs relations with the other (partner) and it may leave a person in the
state of hopelessness, exhaustion and frustration.
Like modern psychologists and experts of sexology, V takes into account
various aspects of sex in relation to human life, i.e., Sex embodying
spirituality, sex emanating from complexes, anger, hatred etc.; sex coming
out from vacuum or aloofness, sex performed as mere routine, a duty, an
unwilling submission to some other, sex done with a desire to feel
important, to exhibit power; sex as an escape from reality for relief from
tension and to hide feelings. Devoid of its spiritual value, sex may become
an obsession and an addiction. Charlotte Davis Kasl defines addictive sex
as follows- "Addictive sex is time spent attempting to have orgasm with
another's body , often while fantasising someone else, It objectifies oneself
and another person. It is skin touching skin in search of a 'high'. After
'high', participants feel lonely, empty and often disgusted. (Charlotte Davis
Casl: Woman, Sex and Addiction, 1990,. p.10)
74

Co-dependency in sex occurs when a woman has sex she does not truly
desire, in order to maintain a relationship. or placate a partner. Sex is used
as an addictive for escape, for outlet of complexes and to fulfill the desire
to be important or powerful. It becomes and addiction when a man or a
woman become powerless to stop it. Addictive sex leads to fantasies.
Fantasies about some one else can keep the relationship going, although
the fantasy lover becomes more real than the actual partner. Keeping a
fantasy alive for years is like keeping a booze in the closet, to be pulled out
to ease the pain." (Charlotte Davis Casl: Woman, Sex and Addiction, 1990,
p.64)
Fantasies create an altered state of consciousness, they may be useful or
damaging, depending on the content and how they are used. A person may
dig into them or start them on will, they may provide a reverie or a
pleasant interlude." (Charlotte Davis Casl: Woman, Sex and Addiction,
1990,. p.64)
As for very minute, divisions of coital positions, kissing embraces etc.
which Vtsyyna and his followers have laid down, they appear to be too
hair-splitting and more than necessary to modern taste. However,
ideologically they stand on a very sound footing. A modern researcher on
sex almost echoes V's concept when she says- 'Couples have different
tastes and different sexual patterns in regard to frequency, time, and ways
they like to make love. What is most important is that sex reflects each
individual's warmth and care for the other. It affirms but is not relied on to
create their bond' (Charlotte Davis Casl: Woman, Sex and Addiction,
1990,. p.147).
The holistic approach of V is reflected in the idea of integrated sexuality
put forward by modern psychologists, where sex is viewed as an intimate
and toying experience and a means to enhance mutual confidence and
care , rather than as an addiction. (Ibid, 291, 317)

12. Manuscripts and Editions of Kmastra

There are manuscripts of Kmastra and other Sanskrit works on erotic in
the libraries of Bhandfarkar Oriental Institute, Pune, Adyar Library,
75

Anandashrarm Society, Royal Asiatic Society etc. In some of the mss. the
author is named as .Ghtakamukha, whereas in some the work has laos
been termed as Nandistra. In a ms. at Bikaner Smudrika has been treated
as a part of Kmasstra. There is an illustrated ms,. of Kmasstra
compiled from various sources at SML, Tanjore (no. 11002).
The first English translation of KS was published in 1883. The name of Sir
Richard Francis Burton was given as the translator, but the work was done
by Forster Fitzgeerald Arbuthnot. Only in some editions Arbuthnot's name
was mentioned as translator on the title page. This translation is seriously
flawed and suffers from many drawbacks as it is done without an authentic
knowledge of the text. Some more translations which came out, were
based only on Burton's translation. Two translations in French (1883,
1891) were published, they were
based on Burton's rendering. The German translation by Richard Schimidt
(1897) is accurate to a large extant and it is the first sincere attempt at the
study of V's text in original. Schimidt has used Latin terms for sex
positions as described in Book Il as a cover up. Exactly one hundred years
after Schmidt's work, another translation by Klaus Marius came out (1987)
presenting a faithful rendering of Kmastra in German. An English
rendering of the French translation by Alain Denielou (1992) has also been
published in 1994. Both the French version and its rendering take a lot of
liberty with V's text.
The Gay Kamsutra by Colin Spencer deliberately distorts the whole
perspective of V's text, It turns V. as a exponent of perverse practices and
abnormal behaviours in sex. Most of the other translations, except the
latest by Doniger and Kakar (2003) are based on Burton's translation.
It seems that D & K have not thoroughly gone into V's text, and one of
them (Kakar) has largely depended on Hindi commentary by Devadatta
Shastri (DDS) for translations and comments. Some misrepresentarions by
DDS therefore have crept in in their translation: In the notes appended
with this edition, I have pointed out some such misrepresentations here.

76

The present edition

An edition of the complete text of KS with an authentic translation has
been in need for the past two centuries. The present edition is being
presented to partially meet this long standing requirement. The text has
been edited on the basis of Nirnaya Sagar Edition. Readings at a number of
places have been corrected and readings accepted by Yasdhara, Goswami
and others have been noted. In the notes in Part III of this volume,
references from Arthastra, Smrtis and other texts are given for
comparison. An index of proper names, technical terms and topics from
the text of Kmastra has been added with equivalents in English. I have
tried to make the English translation as faithful as possible. The whole text
of KS is written with a scientific perspective, and it has been my attempt to
present V's perspective in the translation, without making it any more
obscure and to present an easy reading. It may appear rather crude at some
places, but I have preferred straightforward explanations to ambiguity.
As discused in section V of this introduction, I do not treat the verses or
kriks in isolation to the prose part of the text, therefore both the prose
and verse parts have been rendered as a running matter bringing out
continuity of thought. D & K have searched poetry in the verse part and
have invested their translation with some what extra poetic excellence
adding a bit dec'or in the text.
There is a lot of confusion in all translations about the names of herbs,
plants and medicines cited in Book VII. I have given botanical and
scientific names for these in part Ill of this volume, and also their names in
Indian dialects..
It is hoped that this edn. will promote the study of scientific perspectives
of Indian tradition.

77

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
Texts of Kmastra
-- Ed. by Pt. Durgaprasad with Yasdhara's commentary Jayamangal,
Nirnaya Sagar Press, Bombay, 1887
-- Ed. by Damodar Shastri, with Jayamangal of Yadhara, Kashi
Sanskrit Series, Benares, 1929
---Edn. with Jayamangal of Yadhara and Hindi commentary
Purusrthaprabh by pt. Mdhavacharya, two volumes, 1999, Khemraj
Shrikrishnadas, Mumbai.
-- Text pub. under the title 'Kmasstra attributed to Ghtakamukha',
Moradabad with Hindi translation 1899.
Kanysamprayuktakam ( a section of Kmastra), edited by Vasudev
Shastri, Tiruchi, 1943.
-- Edn. with Jayamangal and Hindi commentary by Devadatta Shastri,
Chowkhambha Sanskrit Sansthan Varanasi (VI Edn. 1999)
-- Text with commentary of Yadhara and Hindi commentary Jay by
Ramanand Sharma, Bitthaldas Sanskrit Series, 29, Chowkhambha Sanskrit
Sansthan, Varanasi, 1964, Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, 2001
-- Text printed in Bengali script and published from Calcutta in 1909
-- Text Printed in Telugu script with commentary in Telugu and published
from Madras in 1924
Translations in English
1.

By Richard Burton and F.F.Arbuthnot, Foreward by Santaram Rao,

New York, E.P. Dutton & Co., 1962. reprint R.K. Champion, London,
1963.

2.

By W.G.Archer, Herge, Allen and Unwin, Lodnon, 1963.

3.

By John Muirhead-Gould, Pather Books, London, 1963.

78

4.

By Rangaswami Ayengar, Punjabi Sanskrit Book Depot, Lahore, 1921

5.

English trans. Hindu Kamshastra Society,1883

6.

Complete translation from the original by S.C.Upadhyaya, with forward

by Motichandra, Taraporewala's treasure House, 210, D.B.Nauroji Rd.,
Mumbai, 1961.

7.

Vtsyyana : Kmastra- (Oxford World Classics Series)- trans. IZy

Wendy Donifer and Sudhir Kakar, 2002.
9. German trans. with com. Jayamangal, by R. Schmidt, Leipzig in 1897
and reprinted in 1916, Barsdorf, Berlin, VI edn., 1920.
Other Sanskrit Texts
Atharvavda- Trans. into English by William Dwight Whitney, revised by
Charles
74
r
Introduction
Rockwell Lanman, Harvard Oriental Series. reprint Motilal Benarasidas,
New Delhi, 1993.
Anarigarariga of Kalynamalla, Lodnon, 1885; Chowkhmbha Sanskrit
Sansthan, Varanasi, IV Edn. 1999.
Kmakalvilasa : Punynanda, trans. and corn. by Arthur Avalon (Sir John
Woodroffe) Ganesh & Co., Madras, 1961.
Kuttanimatam- Dmdara, pub. in Kvyaml part III (Nirnaya Sagar
Press, Bomby). Caturvargasarigrahah- by Ksmndra, pub. in Kvyaml
part V (Nirnaya Sagar Press, Bombay).
Daaarpa of Dhananjaya Eng. translation by George C.O.Haal, Motilal
Benarasidass, New Delhi, 1962.

79

Ntyagdstra of Bharatamuni- pub. in 4 volumes from Oriental Institute

Vadodara. Manusmrti- with Manvarthamuktdvali of KullOkabhatta ed. by
Jagadishlal Shastri, Motilal Benarasidass, New Delhi, 2000.
Ratiratnapradipik : Praudhadvarja, Ed. K.R. Iyengar, Mysore, 1923;
Krishnadas Academy, Varanasi, 2002
Vsavadatt - Subandhu, Ed. with Eng. trans. by L.H.Gray, Notilal
Banarasidass, Delhi, 1962.
Samayamtrk- by Ksmndra. pub. in Kvyaml part X (Nirnaya Sagar
Press, Bomby, 1925).
Sahrdayalil- Rjnaka Ruyyaka; pub. in Kvyaml part V (Nirnaya
Sagar Press, Bomby).
Reference works
Arvind and Shanta Kale : Tantra : The secret Power of Sex, Jaico
Publishing House, Bombay, 1977.
Chak/adar, H.C. : Studies in Vtsyyana's Kmastra, Calcutta, 1929.
Colabvala, F.D.: Tantra -- the Erotic Cult, Orient PaperBacks, New Delhi,
1976. Comfort A. : Kkasstra and other medieval writings on love,
Lodnon, 1964.
De, Sushi! Kumar : Ancient Indian Erotics and Erotic literatuere, Firma
K.L. Mukhopadhyaya, 1959.
Erich Fromm : Art of Loving- Perrrenial Library, Harper & Row
Publishing, New York, Richardson Laurel Wa/um : Dynamics of Sex and
Gender (II Ed.), Hughton Mifflin Co., Boston, 1981.
Sharma R.K. : carakasamhit A Sample Survey, Rashtriya Sanskrit
Sansthan, New Delhi, 1995
Thomas P.: Kmakalpa or the Hindu Ritual of Love, Traporewala's
treasure House, 210, D.B.Nauroji Rd., Mumbai, 13th edn., 1963

80

Warder, A.K. : Indian Kvya:Literature (Vol. I-VI) Motilal BenarasiDass,

New Delhi. Williams Moniar- Sanskrit English Dictionary, Motilal
Benarassidas, Delhi, reprint 1995.

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ABBREVIATIONS
A. -Atharvaveda
AR- Anarigarariga (by Kalynamalla)
AS - Arthasstra of Kautalya, Ed. R.P.Kangle, Pt. I, Motilal Benarasidass,
Delhi, 1986 Comp. - compare
DDS- Devadatta Shastri, Hindi commentator of Vtsyyana's Kmastra D
& K - Wendy Doniger and Sudhir Kakar (translators of Kmastra )
Ed. - edited by.
Edn. - Edition.
IKL- Indian Kvya Literature by A.K. Warder
KM - Kalynamalla, author of Anarigarariga
KS - Kmastra of Vtsyyana.
JM- Jayamarigala ( Sanskrit commentary on Kmastra of Vtsyyana. )
Lit. - literally
MS- Manusmrti
MW- Moniar Williams (Sanskrit English Dictionery)
Ng. - Ngarasarvasva (by Padmarijnna.)
NCCL - New Catalogus Catalogorum, Vols. 1-13, Ed. by Dr. V Raghavan.
NS - Ntyasstra of Bharatamuni
PS- Pancasyaka (by Jytirisa Kavikhara )
RR- Ratirahasya (of K5kkaka)
RRP - Ratiratnapradipika (by Praudhadavarja Maharaja)
TCRI - The Contemporary Research Indica, Biannual Journal of Inquiry,
Research & Ideas, Jaipur.

82

Tr. - translation
V- Vtsyyana.
Y- Yasdhara, author of Jayamarigal
YS- Yjnavalkyasmrti

83