Theories of Social Work

S.Rengasamy
Madurai Institute of Social Work

Social Workers
Celebrating Community Honouring Diversity

Social Work is a practical job. It is about protecting people and changing their lives, not
about giving theoretical explanations of why they got into difficulties
Social work is about social change at the individual as well as at community level.
Change is complex, diversified and risk prone. To understand it, social worker need
knowledge. imagination, comprehension & creativity.in short, a radical shift in
understanding Knowledge as process as opposed to Knowledge as product is
needed.
But our understanding of social work (especially with the faculty and students of social
work colleges in non metropolitan cities of India and students with low level mastery of
English language) is frozen with the simple definition of social work ...it is the art and
science of helping the people to help themselves.
Compilation and interpretation of social work definition accessible to the students (PD
Mishra 1994) conveys a meaning that social work is a helping assisting enabling
activity, which in turn suggests social work is seen as a benign and uncontentious
activity, willingly accepted. This understanding fails to reflect the major transformations
social work discipline has undergone as well as its global outlook. There is nothing
wrong in simplifying a concept, but if it ignores the complexities associated with the
concept, that will end our further seeking.
Whatever may be a definition of social work, it is normally based on certain perspectives
and understanding of that perspective / theory will help us to appreciate that definition.

It is this clarity that normally make one to commit in his/ her professional
responsibilities.

What is the need

of social work or
Why Social work?

Definition of
social work
generally convey

How social work

is carried out?

To whom social
work is going to
serve? or
characteristics of
its cliens

To answer these
questions one need to
know why people are
suffering. What is our
responsibilities towards
fellow human beings?
How we gain knowledge
about the human
problems? What makes
us perceive the human
problems in a particular
way? Why we subscribe
to certain methods of
solving problems? .
Social workers need to
answer these questions
before addressing others
problems. Theories &
perspectives of social
work may provide some
answers to these
questions

Why Social Work?

Life means to face the demands of day to day life and realize the self. By life tasks we mean the
responses people make as they face the demands made upon them in various life situations, such
is growing up in a family, entering school or work, raising a family, earning their daily bread,
working in the industry, problems relating to job or earning, facing illness, accidents and death.
People are dependent on social systems to realize their aspirations and to cope with their life tasks.
In order to realize their life tasks people have to interact with three kinds of resource systems in
the social environment
1. Informal or natural resource system consists of family, friends, neighbors, co workers, etc
2. Formal resource system consists of membership in organizations, trade union organizations or
other socio cultural organizations
3. Social resource system such as schools, hospitals, housing societies, police, banks etc
Why people are unable to obtain the resources, services or opportunities in the resource systems,
they need to cope with their life tasks and realize their aspirations?
1. A needed resource or service may be scarce or may not exist or may not provide appropriate
help to people who need it.
2. People may not know the existence of a resource system or may be hesitant to turn it for help
for several reasons like distance, corruption, delay or poor quality etc
3. The polices and procedures of the resource system may inhibit / prevent it access (eg. eligibility
criteria, gender, etc)
4. Several resource system may be working at cross purposes
The purpose of social work is to enable the people to use the social resources to meet their life
tasks

What do we mean by helping people to help themselves?

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Increased understanding of oneself or a situation.

Being able to make a decision
Being able to confirm a decision.
Being able to get a support for a decision.
Being able to change a situation
Adjusting to a situation that is not going to change
Being able to examine options and choosing one
Being able to discharge feelings

Compare self help with empowerment

Empowerment includes the following, or similar, capabilities:The ability to make decisions about personal/collective circumstances
The ability to access information and resources for decision-making
Ability to consider a range of options from which to choose (not just yes/no, either/or.)
Ability to exercise assertiveness in collective decision making
Having positive-thinking about the ability to make change
Ability to learn and access skills for improving personal/collective circumstance.
Ability to inform others perceptions though exchange, education and engagement.
Involving in the growth process and changes that is never ending and self-initiated
Increasing one's positive self-image and overcoming stigma
Increasing one's ability in discreet thinking to sort out right and wrong

Theory is an attempt to retrospectively explain and to

prospectively predict

What is theory?
It is important first to be clear what the term theory means in an
academic sense. Cottrell provides a useful general definition:
A theory is a set of ideas that helps to explain why something
happens or happened in a particular way, and to predict likely
outcomes in the future. Theories are based on evidence and
reasoning, but have not yet been conclusively proved.
Thompsons definition includes similar ideas:
An attempt to explaina framework for understandinga set
of ideas linked together to help us make sense of a particular
issue.
Writing about social work theory, Beckett makes a connection with
practice:
a set of ideas or principles used to guide practice which are
sufficiently coherent that they could if necessary be made
explicit in a form which was open to challenge.

It will be useful if we understand the different types of theories taught and the
logic as why are these theories imparted to the students.
It may be logical to group these theories in broader categories
e.g.
Theories of evolution,
Theories of personality (development) & learning theories,
Theories of social organization and social change, theories of
social stratification,
Theories of individual and group behavior,
Theories of deviance, crime and correction,

Theories of economic growth and development, theories of group

dynamics and leadership,
Theories of social work (clinical practice) etc.

Curriculum Development Centre in Social Work Education,

University Grants Commission, India recognized three elements of
social work curriculum
1. Values of the profession
2. Skills and methods that are developed for the professional task
3. Major theories and concepts
Objectives of teaching theories
1. Refinement of practice
2. Provision of changing theoretical inputs to the social work
knowledge base
3. Building up of new theories from the practice data
The centre has recommended to include many different theories
discretely and dispersaly but failed to do a wise selectivity of
appropriate theories to be taught rationally and coherently and
imparting knowledge of these theories compactly as an independent
course that are taught in other disciplines eg. Sociological Theories,
Modern Economic Theories, Contemporary Political Theories,
Psychological Theories

Thompson explains that there are different levels of theories.

These are:

Grand, macro-level or global theories

(sometimes known as meta-narratives), such as Marxism or
Psychoanalysis, which claim to be able to explain everything in
society, or all human behavior;
Middle-range theories which focus on a limited range of issues
for instance, labeling theory, which from a social integrationist
perspective aims to explain deviance;
Micro theories developed to explain very small-scale situations
for instance, relationships between staff and patients on a
hospital ward.

The term theory is loosely used in social work

profession. The use of social work theories in
professional literature is rather ambiguous.
Concepts, frames of reference, practice
models and philosophical propositions have
been termed as theories.

How theories help social workers?

Social workers might use theory to understand and
explain three main aspects of social work
1. The task and purpose of social work the role
of social work in society;
2. Practice theories: sometimes called social
work approaches or methods how to go about
doing social work;
3. The world of service users, including the
internal (psychological) world and the external
(social) world

In social work, the term theory covers three different

possibilities:
Provable explanations why something happens (Explanatory
Theory)

Organized description of activity in a structured form

(Models)
Ways of conceptualizing the world or a particular subject
(Perspective)

Conceptual Frameworks
Theories OF Social Work

Orienting Theories

Practice Perspectives

Theories FOR Social Work

Practice Frameworks

Practice Theories

Practice Models

Theories of social work

Focus on the profession and explain its purpose, domain, and character within the society.
They describe what the profession is all about and why it functions as it does.
Theories for social work
Focus on clients and helping activities. They explain human behaviours, the social environment,
how change occurs and how change can be facilitated by the social worker in order to benefit

Practice Frameworks
Orienting Theories
Orienting theories describe and
explain behaviour and how and
why certain problems develop.
They provide important
background knowledge and are
usually borrowed from other
disciplines such as biology,
psychology, sociology,
economics, cultural
anthropology, and the like.
Examples
include the various theories
related to human development,
personality, family systems,
socialization,
organizational functioning, and
political power, as well as
theories related to specific
types of problems
such as poverty, family
violence, mental illness, teen
pregnancy, crime and racial
discrimination.

Practice Perspective
This is a particular way of
viewing and thinking about
practice. It is a conceptual lens
through which one views social
functioning and it offers very
broad guidance on what may be
important considerations in a
practice situation. Like a camera
lens, a perspective serves to
focus on or magnify a particular
feature. Two perspectives, the
general systems perspective and
the ecosystems perspective, are
commonly used in assessing
relationships between people
and their environment.

Practice Theory
It offers both an explanation of
certain behaviours or situations
and guidance on how they can
be changed. A practice theory
serves as a road map for
bringing about a certain type of
change. Most practice theories
are rooted in one or more
orienting theories. An example
is psychosocial therapy, which is
based primarily on
psychodynamic theory and ego
psychology. Another is
behaviour therapy, which is
derived from the psychology of
learning

Practice Model
Practice Model is a set of concepts and principles used to guide
intervention activities. The term model is also used when referring to
a conceptual framework that is borrowed from one field and applied
in another, for example, the medical model (study, diagnose, treat)
and the legal model (an approach to social action and client advocacy,
involving competition and conflict among adversaries).

Framework for Social Work Practice

Social work draws from many frameworks for practice, but some of these frameworks have had
more influence on the profession of social work than others. The three influential frameworks are
The Ecosystem Perspective
This perspective focuses on the interplay between the person and his or her environment. To
understand the functioning of the individual, we must understand his or her environmental context:

Individuals exist within families

Families exist within communities and neighborhoods
Individuals, families, and neighborhoods exist in a political, economic, and cultural environment
The environment impacts the actions, beliefs, and choices of the individual
The Strengths Perspective

This perspective is built on the assumption that every individual, family, group and community has
strengths and focusing on these strengths leads to growth and overcoming difficulties.
Under this perspective, clients are generally the best experts about what types of helping strategies
will be effective or ineffective.

The Cultural Competence Perspective

This perspective is the understanding and approval of cultural distinctions, taking into account the
beliefs, values, activities, and customs of distinctive population groups.
Many cultures have prescribed ways of talking about health and the human body and these factors
impact a person's reaction and acceptance of health services.

These perspectives are consistent with a Family-Centered or Client-Centered approach, which is

central to the standards of best practice with persons with disabilities and consistent with social

How might theory be of use to social workers?

Social work, like all professions, uses theory to guide practice.
Observation: theory provides guidance on what a social worker
might need to look out for when meeting people who use services or
carers and their families.
Description: theory provides a generally understood and shared
language in which these observations can be organized and recorded.
Explanation: theory can suggest how different observations
might be linked in a framework that explains them.
Prediction: theory can indicate what might happen in the future.

Intervention: theory can provide ideas about what might bring

about a change in the situation.

The importance of theory

Theory is important, in social work and social work
education for a number of reasons because it:
Theory is the mark of a profession;
Theory can ensure accountability;
Theory can help avoid discrimination;
Theory provides a way of making sense of complexity
and uncertainty

Why should Social Workers be concerned about theory?

Observation: it tells us what to see, what to look out for
Description: it provides a conceptual vocabulary and
framework within which observations can be arranged
and organized.
A clear theoretical
perspective guides
and influences
social work
practice in five key
areas

Explanation: it suggests how different observations

might be linked and connected; it offers possible causal
relationships between one event and another
Prediction: it indicates what might happen next
Intervention: it suggests things to do to bring about
change

What do we mean by theory in social work?

Payne (1991: 52) helps us by distinguishing four types of theory

1.

Theories about social work explain the nature and role of social work in
society

2.

Theories of social work describe which activities constitute social work, set
aims for social work activities and explain why those activities are relevant
and effective in meeting the aims

3.

Theories contributing to social work are the psychological, sociological and

other theories which explain or describe personal and social behaviour
and are used to make theories of social work systematic, related to general
social science explanations and to give supporting evidence for the social
work theorys prescriptions

4.

Theories of social work practice and method prescribe in detail how the
other theories so far outlined may be applied in the interaction between
workers and clients

Is social work a teachable practice? Or does it come from

experience and creativity?
Some argue that Social work is less technical, more creative and
intuitive. Both client and social worker are important when dealing
with issues as the client is the expert of his own personal life. The
ideal theory for social work would therefore be one that encourages
deep thinking and questioning, one that respects the inherent dignity
of the client and complexity of social problems... not one that
categorizes
People believe that science can furnish means, but not ends.
Methods but not goals. So, Social workers must achieve something
other than technical proficiency, i.e. Understanding the human
condition, not science.
Social workers use contextual knowledge. Synthesis of knowledge
from many sources, including personal experience. Common sense
and wisdom on the job

Crisis Theory
Kathleen Ell
B. Gilliland & R.
James
L.G. & H. J. Parad

2
1

Cognitive
Theories
Alfred Adler
Jean Piaget

Behavioral
Theories

B.F. Skinner
Ivan Pavlov
Social-Cultural Theory
Lev Vygotsky:
11
Thomas Scheff:

Ecological System Theory

Urie Bronfenbrenner

Family Life Cycle

Theory

Empowerment Theory
E. Cox & L. Gutierrez
J. Lee, E. Canada,
8
P. Chatterjee & S.P. Robbins

Psychodynamic Theory
Sigmund Freud, Eric Erickson

9
Family Systems Strategic
Therapy
7

(Model)

Social Work Theories

Solution Focused Therapy
(Model)
12

Humanistic (Existential/
Transpersonal)

Abraham Maslow,
Carl Rogers
Carl Jung
Object Relations Theory

Margaret Mahlen, Otto

Kernberg

Structural Family Therapy

Murray Bowen, Virginia Satir

13

10

Professional
Values

Recognition &
Analyze of
Social
Processes

Research
Methodology

Knowledge about
Different
Theories regard to
Different
Social Work Fields

Knowledge &
Understanding of Legal &
administration
Procedures & Social Care
Institutions Functioning

Knowledge from
other Disciplines

Raising Awareness
about Life Long Learning
(Professional /Personal
Development)

Skills to Work
with Clients
Learning about
Different Theoretical
Approaches

Social Work Practice

Encounters pressing need
Needs personally left
Requires immediate action
Focuses on interpersonal practice

Social Policy as theory

Seeks cultural Change
Requires social action
Calla for long term strategy
Stress on strategic planning/analysis

Why do we need theories in social work?

The use of theories makes Social
Workers feel more safe & competent
in their practice, reduces feelings of
helplessness & fear of unknown

In order to see the beauty of one theory,

its important to learn about many
theories. This is how we can prevent
making an ideology out of one theory

For social workers theory is important

because it teaches social workers how to
perceive people through their resources, not
to classify them according to their
problems...its a shift from control to help.

The more social workers use theories,

less they use intuition, and it makes
social work practice more professional
and efficient

Theory, together with intuition is a way to develop

personal style of professional practice...without
theory, just with intuition, social workers would feel
like a puppet on strings.

Major Theories Used in Social Work Practice

Systems
Theory

Psychodynamic
Theory

Social Learning
Theory

Conflict Theory

Primary Perspectives

Strengths

Feminist

Eco-Systems

Current Social Work Practice Models

Problem
Solving

TaskCentered

Solution
Focused

Narrative

Cognitive
Behavioral

Crisis

In brief, social work practice models are like recipes. They are step-by-step guides
for client sessions. Perspectives represent what aspects of the session are
emphasized or highlighted in a session (i.e. questions asked or time spent).
Theories are overall explanations of the person-in-environment configuration.
Theories help explain why the problem is occurring and where the most efficient
intervention should take place.

Types of theory

Theories
explaining what
social work is

Theories
explaining how
to do social
work

Theories
explaining the
client world

Formal written accounts

defining the nature and
purposes of welfare (e.g.
upon by practitioners for
defining personal pathology,
liberal reform, Marxist,
feminist)
Formal written theories of
practice (e.g. casework,
family therapy, group work);
applied deductively; general
ideas may be applied to
particular situations
Formal written social
science theories and
empirical data (e.g. on
personality, (e.g. the
marriage, the family, race,
class, gender)

Moral, political, cultural

values drawn upon by
practitioners for defining
functions of social work

Theories inductively
derived from particular
situations; can be tested to
see if they apply to
particular situations; also
unwritten practice theories
constructed from
experience
Practitioners use of
experience and general
cultural meanings (e.g. the
family as an institution,
normal behavior, good
parenting)

Theory
A general statement about the real world whose essential truth can be supported
by evidence obtained through the scientific method. Must explain in a provable
way why something happens. Ex: Learning theory explains behavior on the basis of
what organisms have learned from the environment.
Model
Is a blueprint for action. It describes what happens in practice in a general way.
Ex: The behavioral model (based on learning theory) gives specific guidelines to for
how to effect change. If a parent complains that his child is having difficulty staying
in his own bed at night and the parent has been allowing the child to sleep in
his/her bed( thereby reinforcing the childs difficulty) the practitioner would help the
parent to extinguish the behavior by removing the reinforcement.
Perspective
A way of perceiving the world flows from a value position. Note: The perspective
will influence choice of theory and model. Note: Payne (1997) argues that social
work theory succeeds best when it contains all three elements of perspective,
theory and model.
Example: Men who batter their partners
Theory: Social learning theory men learn their violent behavior in their family of origin,
and from a culture that rewards anger and violence in men; cognitive theory what men
say to themselves in situations of stress increases their anger and their propensity to be
violent. Model: Cognitive-behavioral Perspective: Feminist

Levels & Definitions of Social Economic Development Practice in Social Work

Levels of
Practice

Major Purposes, Outcomes, or Processes

Associated with Levels of Social Work Practice

Individual &
Group
Empowerment

Through "self help," "mutual aid," and "conscientization" strategies individuals and
groups learn how to perceive and act upon the contradictions that exist in the social,
political, and economic structures intrinsic to all societies.

Conflict
Resolution

Efforts directed at reducing: (1) grievances between persons or groups; or, (2)
asymmetric power relationships between members of more powerful and less
powerful groups.

InstitutionBuilding

Refers both to the process of "humanizing" existing social institutions and that of
establishing new institutions that respond more effectively to new or emerg-ing
social needs.

CommunityBuilding

Through increased participation and "social animation" of the populace, the process
through which community's realize the fullness of their social, political, and
economic potential; the process through which communities respond more equitably
to the social and material needs of their populations.

NationBuilding

The process of working toward the integration of a nation's social, political,

economic, and cultural institutions at all levels of political organization.

RegionBuilding

The process of working toward the integration of a geo-political region's social,

political, economic, and cultural institutions at all levels of social organization.

World-Building The process of working toward the establishment of a new system of interna-tional
relationships guided by the quest for world peace, increased social jus-tice, the
universal satisfaction of basic human needs, and for the protection of the planet's
fragile eco-system.

Limitations of Theories

While considering a theory or theories, social workers also understand its limitations too:

Recognise that no single theory can explain everything:

When a person engages in an action (or inaction) the reason
for their behaviour can be rooted in a range of causes or
motives.
Related to the first point, recognise that some theoretical
approaches just don't work with some people. Applying Brief
Solution Focused Therapy can be really effective with some
people. For other people, it leaves them cold.
Always apply the value base to theory - much of the theory
used in social care practice and social work is drawn from
outside of the profession. Theory may have its roots in
education, psychology or management. As such, it may not
incorporate social work values and you should take
responsibility for applying these
Never be intimidated by theory. You use it every day.

Why do we need to apply social work theory to practice?

Whilst individual social work

theories have different
purposes, using all kinds of
theory in our work offers us,
as social workers, some
important things.
In work with individuals,
making use of the theories
which may relate to their
specific situation will give us
more direction in our work
with them.

Theories can help us to

make sense of a situation.
Using theory, we can
generate ideas about
what is going on, why
things are as they are etc.
For example the
information obtained as
part of an assessment can
seem like a jumble of
information - applying
theory can help "make
sense" of the information.

Using theory can give an explanation about why an action

resulted in a particular consequence. This can help us
review and possibly change our practice in an attempt to
make the consequences more effective.

Using theory can help to

justify actions and
explain practice to
service users, carers
and society in general.
The aim is that this will
lead to social work
becoming more widely
accountable and
ultimately more
respected.
3

It is clear then, that

theory is important in
practice - both for work
with service users and
for social work to be
more valued in society.

MODELS OF SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE

The vast majority of Social Workers function within one of four basic models of practice: the Personal Social Services
Model (PSSM); the Social Welfare Model (SWM), the Social Development Model (SDM), and the New World Order
Model (NWOM).
The Personal Social Services Model
The Personal Social Services Model (PSSM) of social development practice seeks to extend to people everywhere a range of basic social
services that are needed to either restore or enhance their capacity for social functioning. The model's primary goals are: 1) to provide
remedial and preventive services to individuals, families, and groups whose optimal social functioning is either temporarily impaired or interrupted; and 2) to extend social protection to population groups that are threatened by exploitation or degradation. The PSSM also seeks to
ensure increased sensitivity and responsiveness on the part of human service providers to the special service needs of culturally diverse
population groups.
The Social Welfare Model
The Social Welfare Model (SWM) of social work (development) practice is rooted in comparative social policy and comparative social
research. The goals associated with the SWM include: 1) self help; 2) mutual aid; 3) humanitarianism; and 4) the establishment of effective,
preferably universal, systems of formal social provision. The SWM also views developmental social welfare practice as part of the worldwide
movement that seek to promote social security and social justice for people everywhere
The Social Development Model
The Social Development Model (SDM) has its origins in community organization and community development practice and does, therefore,
promote the fullest possible participation of people in determining both the means and goals of social development. In doing so, the model
seeks to provide a framework for understanding the underlying causes of human degradation, powerlessness, and social inequality everywhere in the world. The ultimate goal of the SDM, however, is to guide collective action toward the elimination of all forms of violence and
social oppression.
The New World Order Model
The New World Order Model (NWOM) of social development practice is closely associated with the writings of "visionary" economists, political
scientists, legal scholars, and environmentalists (Brandt Commission, 1981). Major components of the NWOM are reflected in the
fundamental social, political, and economic reforms in the existing international "order" that are being sought by the United Nations (UN,
1990; UN/ESCAP, 1992b), the United Nations Development Program (UNDP, 1997), World Bank 1997) and other leading international
development assistance organizations. Elements of the NWOM also have been described by social work theoreticians.
The NWOM asserts that the most serious problems confronting humanity are rooted in the fundamental inequalities that exist in the present
world "order," i.e., in the system of international social, political, and economic institutions that govern relationships between nations and,
within nations, between groups of people. In promoting its social change objectives, the NWOM calls for the creation of a "new world order"
based on: 1) recognition of and respect for the unity of life on earth; 2) the minimization of violence; 3) the satisfaction of basic human
needs; 4) the primacy of human dignity; 5) the retention of diversity and pluralism; and 6) the need for universal participation in the process
of attaining worldwide social transformation..

Theory of
Human Behavior
SYSTEMS THEORY
Includes:
Ecological Systems
[Systems Perspective]
Includes:
Family Systems
[Systems Perspective]

Focus of Theory

Main Concepts Regarding Human Behavior

*Persons are in continual transaction with their environment

*Systems are interrelated parts or subsystems constituting an ordered whole
*Each subsystem impacts all other parts and whole system
*Systems can have closed or open boundaries
*Systems tend toward equilibrium
*Individual functioning shapes family functioning and family systems can
create pathology within the individual
*Boundaries, roles, communication, family structure influence family
functioning
*Imitation & reaction to stimulation shape behavioral learning
How individuals
develop cognitive
*Knowledge is constructed through children physically and
functioning and learn mentally acting on objects
through acting on
*Intelligence is an evolutionary, biological adaptation to
their environment
environment
*Cognitive structures enable adaptation & organization

How persons
interact with their
environment.
How the family
system affects the
individual and
family functioning
across the lifespan

BEHAVIORISM &
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Includes:
Cognitive theory,
Behavioral theory,
Social Learning theory [Social
Behavioral perspective]
PSYCHODYNAMIC
THEORY
Includes:
Classical psychodynamic theory,
Ego-psychology, Object-relations
theory,
Self-psychology
[Psychodynamic Perspective]

How inner
energies and
external forces
interact to impact
emotional
development

*Unconscious and conscious mental activity motivate human

behavior
*Ego functions mediate between individual and environment
*Ego defense mechanisms protect individuals from becoming
overwhelmed by unacceptable impulses and threats
*Internalized experiences shape personality development and
functioning
*Healing occurs through attention to transferences and the
treatment relationship

Theory of
Human Behavior

Focus of Theory

Main Concepts Regarding Human Behavior

PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENTAL
THEORY
[Developmental
Perspective]

How internal & external

forces shape life
development, generally
by life stages

TRANSPERSONAL
THEORY
[Developmental
Perspective; built upon
Humanistic Perspective]

*Focuses on meaning, connection, and purpose

How the spiritual and
religious aspects of human *Some people achieve developmental level beyond the personal (egoexistence can be
based) level into transpersonal (beyond self or ego) levels of
understood
consciousness and functioning.
How spiritual
*There is an inherent tendency to express innate potentials for love,
development builds upon creativity, and spirituality
and goes beyond bio*There is a difference between psychopathological phenomena and
psychosocial development spiritual growth experiences
How persons
*Antecedents, consequences, personal expectations, and interpretation shape and
maintain behavior in the present
minimize costs
*Self-interest determines social exchange
and maximize
rewards through *Unequal resources determine power inequities and reciprocity is essential
social exchange
*Six propositions:
--Success proposition --Stimulus proposition --Value proposition --Deprivationsatiation -- proposition --Aggression-approval proposition --Rationality proposition

SOCIAL EXCHANGE
THEORY
[Rational Choice
Perspective]

SOCIAL
CONSTRUCTIONISM
[Social Constructionist
Perspective]

How socio cultural

and historical
contexts shape
individuals and the
creation of
knowledge
How individuals
create themselves

*Human development occurs in defined & qualitatively different stages that

are sequential & may be universal
*Individual stages of development include specific tasks to be completed &
crises to be managed
*Time & social context shape & individualize the meaning of life stages

*All experience is subjective and human beings recreate themselves through an

on-going, never static process
*Knowledge is created through an interplay of multiple social and historical
forces
*Social interaction is grounded in language, customs, cultural and historical
contexts
*All phenomenon, including the sciences, must be approached with doubt in
order to understand how people construct reality
*Humans are self-interpreting beings

Theory of
Human Behavior
SYMBOLIC
INTERACTIONISM

Focus of Theory
How the self is
influenced and shaped
by social processes
and the capacity to
symbolize

Main Concepts Regarding Human Behavior

*Human action is caused by complex interaction between and within

individuals
[Social Constructionist
*Dynamic social activities take place among persons and we act according to
Perspective]
how we define our situation
*We act in the present, not the past
*Individuals are actors on the stage and take on roles, interacting with the
environment
*All societies perpetuate some forms of oppression & injustice and structural inequity
CONFLICT
How power
THEORY
structures & power *Power is unequally divided & some groups dominate others
*Social order is based on manipulation and control by dominant groups
[Conflict
disparities impact
Perspective]
peoples lives
*Social change is driven by conflict, with periods of change interrupting periods of
stability
*Life is characterized by conflict not consensus
*Groups are open, dynamic systems with both change and conflict present
CONTINGENCY How individuals &
THEORY
groups gain power, *Groups are stratified, with different and unequal levels of power and control
[Systems
access to resources, *High discrimination and low privilege equals low opportunity
Perspective]
& control over their *Oppression occurs when upward mobility is systematically denied
lives, often through *The social context must be critiqued and deconstructed
collective action
*Assumptions for analyzing organizations:
--there is no best way to manage organizations
--there must be a match between the environment and internal resources
--the design of the organization must fit with the environment