Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Physics Formulary: by Ir. J.C.A. Wevers
Physics Formulary: by Ir. J.C.A. Wevers
Dear reader,
This document contains a 108 page LATEX file which contains a lot equations in physics. It is written at advanced
undergraduate/postgraduate level. It is intended to be a short reference for anyone who works with physics and
often needs to look up equations.
This, and a Dutch version of this file,
(johanw@xs4all.nl).
Johan Wevers
Contents
Contents
Physical Constants
1 Mechanics
1.1 Point-kinetics in a fixed coordinate system . . . . . . . .
1.1.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2 Polar coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Relative motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Point-dynamics in a fixed coordinate system . . . . . . .
1.3.1 Force, (angular)momentum and energy . . . . .
1.3.2 Conservative force fields . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.3 Gravitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.4 Orbital equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.5 The virial theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 Point dynamics in a moving coordinate system . . . . .
1.4.1 Apparent forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2 Tensor notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5 Dynamics of masspoint collections . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.1 The centre of mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.2 Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6 Dynamics of rigid bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6.1 Moment of Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6.2 Principal axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6.3 Time dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7 Variational Calculus, Hamilton and Lagrange mechanics
1.7.1 Variational Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7.2 Hamilton mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7.3 Motion around an equilibrium, linearization . . .
1.7.4 Phase space, Liouvilles equation . . . . . . . .
1.7.5 Generating functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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II
3 Relativity
3.1 Special relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1 The Lorentz transformation . . . . . . . .
3.1.2 Red and blue shift . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.3 The stress-energy tensor and the field tensor
3.2 General relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.1 Riemannian geometry, the Einstein tensor .
3.2.2 The line element . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.3 Planetary orbits and the perihelion shift . .
3.2.4 The trajectory of a photon . . . . . . . . .
3.2.5 Gravitational waves . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.6 Cosmology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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13
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4 Oscillations
4.1 Harmonic oscillations . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Mechanic oscillations . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Electric oscillations . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Waves in long conductors . . . . . . .
4.5 Coupled conductors and transformers
4.6 Pendulums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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5 Waves
5.1 The wave equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Solutions of the wave equation . . . . . . . .
5.2.1 Plane waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.2 Spherical waves . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.3 Cylindrical waves . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.4 The general solution in one dimension
5.3 The stationary phase method . . . . . . . . .
5.4 Green functions for the initial-value problem .
5.5 Waveguides and resonating cavities . . . . .
5.6 Non-linear wave equations . . . . . . . . . .
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6 Optics
6.1 The bending of light . . . . . .
6.2 Paraxial geometrical optics . .
6.2.1 Lenses . . . . . . . .
6.2.2 Mirrors . . . . . . . .
6.2.3 Principal planes . . . .
6.2.4 Magnification . . . . .
6.3 Matrix methods . . . . . . . .
6.4 Aberrations . . . . . . . . . .
6.5 Reflection and transmission . .
6.6 Polarization . . . . . . . . . .
6.7 Prisms and dispersion . . . . .
6.8 Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . .
6.9 Special optical effects . . . . .
6.10 The Fabry-Perot interferometer
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24
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29
7 Statistical physics
7.1 Degrees of freedom . . . . . . .
7.2 The energy distribution function
7.3 Pressure on a wall . . . . . . . .
7.4 The equation of state . . . . . .
7.5 Collisions between molecules . .
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7.6
III
8 Thermodynamics
8.1 Mathematical introduction . . . . . .
8.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3 Thermal heat capacity . . . . . . . . .
8.4 The laws of thermodynamics . . . . .
8.5 State functions and Maxwell relations
8.6 Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.7 Maximal work . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.8 Phase transitions . . . . . . . . . . .
8.9 Thermodynamic potential . . . . . . .
8.10 Ideal mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.11 Conditions for equilibrium . . . . . .
8.12 Statistical basis for thermodynamics .
8.13 Application to other systems . . . . .
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9 Transport phenomena
9.1 Mathematical introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2 Conservation laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3 Bernoullis equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4 Characterising of flows by dimensionless numbers .
9.5 Tube flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.6 Potential theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.7 Boundary layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.7.1 Flow boundary layers . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.7.2 Temperature boundary layers . . . . . . . .
9.8 Heat conductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.9 Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.10 Self organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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10 Quantum physics
10.1 Introduction to quantum physics . . . . . . .
10.1.1 Black body radiation . . . . . . . . . .
10.1.2 The Compton effect . . . . . . . . . .
10.1.3 Electron diffraction . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2 Wave functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3 Operators in quantum physics . . . . . . . . .
10.4 The uncertainty principle . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5 The Schrodinger equation . . . . . . . . . . .
10.6 Parity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.7 The tunnel effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.8 The harmonic oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.9 Angular momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.10 Spin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.11 The Dirac formalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.12 Atomic physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.12.1 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.12.2 Eigenvalue equations . . . . . . . . .
10.12.3 Spin-orbit interaction . . . . . . . . .
10.12.4 Selection rules . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.13 Interaction with electromagnetic fields . . . .
10.14 Perturbation theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.14.1 Time-independent perturbation theory
10.14.2 Time-dependent perturbation theory .
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11 Plasma physics
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2 Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3 Elastic collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.2 The Coulomb interaction . . . . . . .
11.3.3 The induced dipole interaction . . . .
11.3.4 The centre of mass system . . . . . .
11.3.5 Scattering of light . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4 Thermodynamic equilibrium and reversibility
11.5 Inelastic collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.5.1 Types of collisions . . . . . . . . . .
11.5.2 Cross sections . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.6 Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.7 The Boltzmann transport equation . . . . . .
11.8 Collision-radiative models . . . . . . . . . .
11.9 Waves in plasmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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13 Theory of groups
13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.1.1 Definition of a group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.1.2 The Cayley table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.1.3 Conjugated elements, subgroups and classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.1.4 Isomorfism and homomorfism; representations . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.1.5 Reducible and irreducible representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2 The fundamental orthogonality theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2.1 Schurs lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2.2 The fundamental orthogonality theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2.3 Character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3 The relation with quantum mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3.1 Representations, energy levels and degeneracy . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3.2 Breaking of degeneracy by a perturbation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3.3 The construction of a base function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3.4 The direct product of representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3.5 Clebsch-Gordan coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3.6 Symmetric transformations of operators, irreducible tensor operators .
13.3.7 The Wigner-Eckart theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.4 Continuous groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.4.1 The 3-dimensional translation group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.4.2 The 3-dimensional rotation group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.4.3 Properties of continuous groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.5 The group SO(3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.6 Applications to quantum mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.6.1 Vectormodel for the addition of angular momentum . . . . . . . . . .
13.6.2 Irreducible tensor operators, matrixelements and selection rules . . .
13.7 Applications to particle physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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71
71
71
71
71
72
72
72
72
72
72
73
73
73
73
74
74
74
75
75
75
75
76
77
77
77
78
79
14 Nuclear physics
14.1 Nuclear forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.2 The shape of the nucleus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.3 Radioactive decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.4 Scattering and nuclear reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.4.1 Kinetic model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.4.2 Quantum mechanical model for n-p scattering . . . . . . . .
14.4.3 Conservation of energy and momentum in nuclear reactions
14.5 Radiation dosimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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81
81
82
82
83
83
83
84
84
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85
85
85
86
86
87
87
88
89
89
90
90
92
93
93
94
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VI
15.13.3 Quantumchromodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.14 Path integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.15 Unification and quantum gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16 Astrophysics
16.1 Determination of distances . . . .
16.2 Brightness and magnitudes . . . .
16.3 Radiation and stellar atmospheres
16.4 Composition and evolution of stars
16.5 Energy production in stars . . . .
The -operator
The SI units
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94
95
95
96
96
96
97
97
98
99
100
Physical Constants
Name
Number
Number e
Eulers constant
Symbol
Value
Unit
3.14159265358979323846
e
2.71828182845904523536
n
= lim
1/k ln(n) = 0.5772156649
n
k=1
Elementary charge
Gravitational constant
Fine-structure constant
Speed of light in vacuum
Permittivity of the vacuum
Permeability of the vacuum
(40 )1
e
G,
= e 2 /2hc0
c
0
0
1.60217733 10 19
6.67259 10 11
1/137
2.99792458 10 8
8.854187 1012
4 107
8.9876 109
C
m3 kg1 s2
Plancks constant
Diracs constant
Bohr magneton
Bohr radius
Rydbergs constant
Electron Compton wavelength
Proton Compton wavelength
Reduced mass of the H-atom
h
h = h/2
B = eh/2me
a0
Ry
Ce = h/me c
Cp = h/mp c
H
6.6260755 10 34
1.0545727 1034
9.2741 1024
0.52918
13.595
2.2463 1012
1.3214 1015
9.1045755 1031
Js
Js
Am2
A
eV
m
m
kg
Stefan-Boltzmanns constant
Wiens constant
Molar gasconstant
Avogadros constant
Boltzmanns constant
kW
R
NA
k = R/N A
5.67032 10 8
2.8978 103
8.31441
6.0221367 1023
1.380658 1023
Wm2 K4
mK
Jmol 1 K1
mol1
J/K
Electron mass
Proton mass
Neutron mass
Elementary mass unit
Nuclear magneton
me
mp
mn
mu =
N
9.1093897 1031
1.6726231 1027
1.674954 1027
1.6605656 1027
5.0508 1027
kg
kg
kg
kg
J/T
D
M
T
RA
MA
TA
Tropical year
AU
lj
pc
H
1392 106
1.989 1030
25.38
6.378 106
5.976 1024
23.96
365.24219879
1.4959787066 10 11
9.4605 10 15
3.0857 1016
(75 25)
m
kg
days
m
kg
hours
days
m
m
m
kms 1 Mpc1
1
12
12 m( 6 C)
m/s (def)
F/m
H/m
Nm2 C2
Chapter 1
Mechanics
1.1 Point-kinetics in a fixed coordinate system
1.1.1 Definitions
The position r, the velocity v and the acceleration a are defined by: r = (x, y, z), v = (x,
y,
z),
a = (
x, y, z).
The following holds:
s(t) = s0 + |v (t)|dt ; r(t) = r0 + v (t)dt ; v (t) = v0 + a(t)dt
When the acceleration is constant this gives: v(t) = v 0 + at and s(t) = s0 + v0 t + 12 at2 .
For the unit vectors in a direction to the orbit e t and parallel to it e n holds:
et =
dr
v
v
et
=
et = en ; en =
|v |
ds
|et |
vQ
Chapter 1: Mechanics
2
F ds =
F cos()ds
1
= L
= r F ; and
The torque is related to the angular momentum L:
= r p = mv r, |L|
= mr2 . The following equation is valid:
L
U
Fi = 0 and i = 0.
Hence, the conditions for a mechanical equilibrium are:
=
The force of friction is usually proportional to the force perpendicular to the surface, except when the motion
starts, when a threshold has to be overcome: F fric = f Fnorm et .
r1
F ds = 0 U = U0
F ds
r0
So the work delivered by a conservative force field depends not on the trajectory covered but only on the
starting and ending points of the motion.
1.3.3 Gravitation
The Newtonian law of gravitation is (in GRT one also uses instead of G):
m1 m2
Fg = G 2 er
r
The gravitational potential is then given by V = Gm/r. From Gauss law it then follows: 2 V = 4G3.
dt
For the radial position as a function of time can be found that:
2
dr
L2
2(W V )
2 2
=
dt
m
m r
The angular equation is then:
1
r 2
L2
mr
2(W V )
2 2
dr
0 =
L
m
m r
0
r 2 eld
arccos 1 +
1
r
1
r0
1
r0
+ km/L2z
5
, or: x2 + y 2 = (5 x)2
1 + cos( 0 )
with
5
2W L2
5
k
L2
; 2 = 1 + 2 3 2 = 1 ; a =
=
2
2
G Mtot
G Mtot
a
1
2W
a is half the
length of the long axis of the elliptical orbit in case the orbit is closed. Half the length of the short
axis is b = a5. is the excentricity of the orbit. Orbits with an equal are of equal shape. Now, 5 types of
orbits are possible:
5=
1
2
k
dU
r
= 12 n U if U = n
dr
r
pairs
mv
er
4. Centrifugal force: Fcf = m 2rn = Fcp ; Fcp =
r
Chapter 1: Mechanics
dt
x
dt
The chain rule gives:
d2 x
d dx
d
=
=
2
dt dt
dt
dt
so:
x
x d
x
dt
d
x d
x d2 x
+
=
x
dt2
dt dt
x
x
2 x d
x
x
x d
d x
=
=
dt x
x
x
dt
x
x
dt
d2 x
x
x d2 x
2 x d
=
+
dt2
x
dt2
x
x
dt
d
x
dt
m
d2 x
= F
dt2
d2 x
dx dx
+
2
dt
dt dt
= F
The apparent forces are taken from he origin to the effect side in the way
dx dx
.
dt dt
m1
m2
The motion within and outside the centre of mass can be separated:
inside = inside
outside = outside ; L
L
p = mvm ; Fext = mam ; F12 = u
1.5.2 Collisions
With collisions, where B are the coordinates of the collision and C an arbitrary other position, holds: p = mv m
=
is constant, and T = 12 mvm2 is constant. The changes in the relative velocities can be derived from: S
p=
C = CB
S,
p S
=constant and L
w.r.t. B is constant.
(vaft vbefore ). Further holds L
m
V
r n dV =
2
r n dm
2
Further holds:
Li = I ij j ; Iii = Ii ; Iij = Iji =
mk xi xj
Object
Cavern cylinder
I = mR 2
Massive cylinder
I = 12 mR2
I = 14 mR2
Halter
I = 12 R2
Cavern sphere
I = 23 mR2
Massive sphere
I = 25 mR2
I=
1
2
12 ml
I = 13 ml2
I=
1
2
12 m(a
I = ma 2
+ b2 )
Ii Ij
if I1 I2 I3 .
Ik
d L
= L
dt
The torque T is defined by: T = F d.
b
L(q, q,
t)dt = 0 with (a) = (b) = 0 and
du
dx
=
d
(u)
dx
Chapter 1: Mechanics
H
dpi
=
dt
qi
Coordinates are canonical if the following holds: {q i , qj } = 0, {pi , pj } = 0, {qi , pj } = ij where {, } is the
Poisson bracket:
A B
A B
{A, B} =
qi pi
pi qi
i
The Hamiltonian of a Harmonic oscillator is given by H(x, p) = p 2 /2m + 12 m 2 x2 . With new coordinates
(, I), obtained by the canonical transformation x = 2I/m cos() and p = 2Im sin(), with inverse
= arctan(p/mx) and I = p2 /2m + 12 mx2 it follows: H(, I) = I.
The Hamiltonian of a charged particle with charge q in an external electromagnetic field is given by:
H=
2
1
+ qV
p q A
2m
This Hamiltonian can be derived from the Hamiltonian of a free particle H = p 2 /2m with the transformations
and H H qV . This is elegant from a relativistic point of view: this is equivalent to the
p p q A
transformation of the momentum 4-vector p p qA . A gauge transformation on the potentials A
corresponds with a canonical transformation, which make the Hamilton equations the equations of motion for
the system.
,
qi i pi
i
H
H
so v =
qi pi
pi qi
i
3
=0
t
pdq = constant
Qi = Qi (qi , pi , t)
Pi = Pi (qi , pi , t)
one can derive the following Hamilton equations with the new Hamiltonian K:
dQi
K
=
;
dt
Pi
K
dPi
=
dt
Qi
dF1 (qi , Qi , t)
, the coordinates follow from:
dt
F1
F1
F1
; Pi =
; K =H+
qi
Qi
t
dF2 (qi , Pi , t)
, the coordinates follow from:
2. If pi qi H = P i Qi K(Pi , Qi , t) +
dt
pi =
F2
F2
F2
; Qi =
; K=H+
qi
Pi
t
3. If p i qi H = Pi Q i K(Pi , Qi , t) +
qi =
dF3 (pi , Qi , t)
, the coordinates follow from:
dt
F3
F3
F3
; Pi =
; K =H+
pi
Qi
t
4. If p i qi H = Pi Qi K(Pi , Qi , t) +
qi =
dF4 (pi , Pi , t)
, the coordinates follow from:
dt
F4
F4
F4
; Qi =
; K=H+
pi
Pi
t
Chapter 2
p0 /Vol, r = 1 + e , with e =
np20
30 kT
the magnetization M
and the magnetic flux density B
depend on each other
The magnetic field strength H,
according to:
0 nm20
= 0 (H
M
= m/Vol,
+M
) = 0 r H,
B
r = 1 + m , with m =
3kT
Q1 Q2
= F
er ; E
2
40 r r
Q
The Lorentzforce is the force which is felt by a charged particle that moves through a magnetic field. The
) = l(I B
).
origin of this force is a relativistic transformation of the Coulomb force: FL = Q(v B
The magnetic field in point P which results from an electric current is given by the law of Biot-Savart, also
known as the law of Laplace. In here, dl I and r points from dl to P :
P =
dB
0 I
dl er
4r2
If the current is time-dependent one has to take retardation into account: the substitution I(t) I(t r/c)
has to be applied.
2
ds and A
= 1B
r.
E
2
10
Here, the freedom remains to apply a gauge transformation. The fields can be derived from the potentials as
follows:
= V A , B
= A
E
t
= v E.
Further holds the relation: c 2 B
= A
f
A
f
V =V +
t
and B
do not change. This results in a canonical transformation of the Hamiltonian. Further,
so the fields E
the freedom remains to apply a limiting condition. Two common choices are:
and V : V = ,
+ 1 V = 0. This separates the differential equations for A
1. Lorentz-gauge: A
2
c t
0
= 0 J.
A
= 0. If = 0 and J = 0 holds V = 0 and follows A
from A
= 0.
2. Coulomb gauge: A
dW
= w = HdB + EdD
dVol
The energy density can be expressed in the potentials and currents as follows:
d3 x , wel = 1 V d3 x
wmag = 12 J A
2
r r |) 3
1
r r |) 3
exp(ik|
exp(ik|
J(r )
A(r ) =
d
(
r
d r
r
,
V
(
r
)
=
)
4
|r r |
4
|r r |
A derivation via multipole expansion will show that for the radiated energy holds, if d, r:
2
k2
dP
J (r )eikr d3 r
=
2
d
32 0 c
The energy density of the electromagnetic wave of a vibrating dipole at a large distance is:
p20 sin2 () 4
ck 4 |
p |2
, P =
2
2
4
32 0 r c
120
S
=E
H
= cWev . The irradiance is the
The radiated energy can be derived from the Poynting vector S:
|t . The radiation pressure p s is given by ps = (1 + R)|S
|/c,
time-averaged of the Poynting vector: I = | S
where R is the coefficient of reflection.
w = 0 E 2 =
p20 sin2 () 4
sin2 (kr t) ,
16 2 0 r2 c4
wt =
11
The first term arises from the displacement current, the second from the conductance current. If k is written in
the form k := k + ik it follows that:
!
!
1
1
k = 12 1 + 1 +
and k = 12 1 + 1 +
()2
()2
= E exp(k n r ) exp(i(k n r t)). If the material is a good conductor,
This results in a damped wave: E
.
the wave vanishes after approximately one wavelength, k = (1 + i)
2
2.6 Multipoles
Because
1
1
=
|r r |
r 0
l
r
Q kn
Pl (cos ) the potential can be written as: V =
r
4 n rn
ext , and
1. The electric dipole: dipole moment: p = Qle , where e goes from to , and F = (
p )E
W =
p Eout .
3
p r
Q
out
Electric field: E
p
. The torque is: = p E
4r3
r2
out
2. The magnetic dipole: dipole moment: if r A: = I (Ae ), F = ( )B
2
mv
out
, W =
B
|| =
2B
3 r
out
Magnetic field: B =
For most conductors holds: J = E/,
where is the resistivity.
12
d
. If the current
If the flux enclosed by a conductor changes this results in an induced voltage V ind = N
dt
flowing through a conductor changes, this results in a self-inductance which opposes the original change:
dI
Vselnd = L . If a conductor encloses a flux holds: = LI.
dt
N I
where l is the length, R the radius
The magnetic induction within a coil is approximated by: B =
2
l + 4R2
and N the number of coils. The energy contained within a coil is given by W = 12 LI 2 and L = N 2 A/l.
The capacity is defined by: C = Q/V . For a capacitor holds: C = 0 r A/d where d is the distance between
the plates and A the surface of one plate. The electric field strength between the plates is E = / 0 = Q/0 A
where is the surface charge. The accumulated energy is given by W = 12 CV 2 . The current through a
dV
.
capacity is given by I = C
dt
For most PTC resistors holds approximately: R = R 0 (1 + T ), where R0 = l/A. For a NTC holds:
R(T ) = C exp(B/T ) where B and C depend only on the material.
If a current flows through two different, connecting conductors x and y, the contact area will heat up or cool
down, depending on the direction of the current: the Peltier effect. The generated or removed heat is given by:
W = xy It. This effect can be amplified with semiconductors.
The thermic voltage between 2 metals is given by: V = (T T 0 ). For a Cu-Konstantane connection holds:
0.2 0.7 mV/K.
In an electrical net with only
In = 0,
stationary
currents, Kirchhoffs equations apply: for a knot holds:
along a closed path holds:
Vn = In Rn = 0.
i
i i
i
i
i
Chapter 3
Relativity
3.1 Special relativity
3.1.1 The Lorentz transformation
The Lorentz transformation (x , t ) = (x (x, t), t (x, t)) leaves the wave equation invariant if c is invariant:
2
2
1 2
2
2
2
1 2
2
+
+
=
+
+
x2
y 2
z 2
c2 t2
x2
y 2
z 2 c2 t2
This transformation can also be found when ds 2 = ds2 is demanded. The general form of the Lorentz
transformation is given by:
( 1)(x v )v
x v
v t , t = t 2
x = x +
|v|2
c
where
1
=
2
1 v2
c
W
= px
, W = (W vpx )
c
Q
(1 2 )er
40 r2 (1 2 sin2 ())3/2
+ v B
) , B =
E = (E
v E
B
2
c
Length, mass and time transform according to: t r = t0 , mr = m0 , lr = l0 /, with 0 the quantities
in a co-moving reference frame and r the quantities in a frame moving with velocity v w.r.t. it. The proper
time is defined as: d 2 = ds2 /c2 , so = t/. For energy and momentum holds: W = m r c2 = W0 ,
14
i
u := dx /dt is: U = (u , ic). For particles with nonzero restmass holds: U U = c2 , for particles
with zero restmass (so with v = c) holds: U U = 0. The 4-vector for energy and momentum is given by:
p = m0 U = (pi , iW/c). So: p p = m20 c2 = p2 W 2 /c2 .
v cos()
f
= 1
.
f
c
This can give both red- and blueshift, also to the direction of motion.
2. Gravitational redshift:
M
f
= 2.
f
rc
3. Redshift because the universe expands, resulting in e.g. the cosmic background radiation:
R0
0
=
.
1
R1
$
1 #
F F + 14 g F F
2
c
The conservation laws can than be written as: T = 0. The electromagnetic field tensor is given by:
F =
A
A
x
x
2
ds
ds ds
Chapter 3: Relativity
15
2. The principle of equivalence: inertial mass gravitational mass gravitation is equivalent with a
curved space-time were particles move along geodesics.
3. By a proper choice of the coordinate system it is possible to make the metric locally flat in each point
xi : g (xi ) = :=diag(1, 1, 1, 1).
=
,
,
for
Euclidean
spaces
this
reduces
to:
jk
2 xk
xj
xl
xj xk x
l
T + R
T , k aij =
are the Christoffel symbols. For a second-order tensor holds: [ , ]T = R
j il
i
l
i
i l
l
l
ij
ij
i lj
k aj kj al + kl aj , k aij = k aij ki alj kj ajl and k a = k a + kl a + kl a . The following
holds: R
=
+ .
, which is symmetric: R = R .
The Ricci tensor is a contraction of the Riemann tensor: R := R
The Bianchi identities are: R + R + R = 0.
G =
8
T
c2
8
(T 12 g T )
c2
For empty space this is equivalent to R = 0. The equation R = 0 has as only solution a flat space.
The Einstein equations are 10 independent equations, which are of second order in g . From this, the Laplace
equation from Newtonian gravitation can be derived by stating: g = + h , where |h| 1. In the
stationary case, this results in 2 h00 = 83/c2 .
8
T
c2
where is the cosmological constant. This constant plays a role in inflatory models of the universe.
The most general form of the field equations is: R 12 g R + g =
x
k x
k
.
i
x xj
k
The external Schwarzschild metric applies in vacuum outside a spherical mass distribution, and is given by:
1
2m 2 2
2m
2
ds = 1 +
dr2 + r2 d2
c dt + 1
r
r
Here, m := M /c2 is the geometrical mass of an object with mass M , and d 2 = d2 + sin2 d2 . This
metric is singular for r = 2m = 2M/c 2 . If an object is smaller than its event horizon 2m, that implies that
its escape velocity is > c, it is called a black hole. The Newtonian limit of this metric is given by:
ds2 = (1 + 2V )c2 dt2 + (1 2V )(dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 )
where V = M/r is the Newtonian gravitation potential. In general relativity, the components of g are
associated with the potentials and the derivatives of g with the field strength.
The Kruskal-Szekeres coordinates are used to solve certain problems with the Schwarzschild metric near
r = 2m. They are defined by:
16
r > 2m:
r < 2m:
r
r
1 exp
cosh
2m
4m
r
r
1 exp
sinh
2m
4m
t
4m
r
t
r
exp
sinh
1
=
2m
4m
4m
t
4m
r
t
r
exp
cosh
1
2m
4m
4m
r = 2m: here, the Kruskal coordinates are singular, which is necessary to eliminate the coordinate
singularity there.
The line element in these coordinates is given by:
ds2 =
32m3 r/2m 2
e
(dv du2 ) + r2 d2
r
follows that within the surface R E = m + m2 a2 cos2 (de ergosphere) no particle can be at rest.
"
To" find a planetary
orbit, the variational problem ds = 0 has to be solved. This is equivalent to the problem
"
ds2 = gij dxi dxj = 0. Substituting the external Schwarzschild metric yields for a planetary orbit:
du d2 u
m
du
3mu
+
+
u
=
d d2
d
h2
where u := 1/r and h = r 2 =constant. The term 3mu is not present
classical solution. This term can
in the
M
h2
in the classical case also be found from a potential V (r) =
1+ 2 .
r
r
The orbital equation gives r =constant as solution, or can, after dividing by du/d, be solved with perturbation
theory. In zeroth order, this results in an elliptical orbit: u 0 () = A + B cos() with A = m/h2 and B an
arbitrary constant. In first order, this becomes:
B2
B2
cos(2)
u1 () = A + B cos( ) + A +
2A 6A
where = 3m2 /h2 is small. The perihelion of a planet is the point for which r is minimal, or u maximal.
This is the case if cos( ) = 0 2n(1 + ). For the perihelion shift then follows: = 2 =
6m2 /h2 per orbit.
Chapter 3: Relativity
17
h 12 h
it follows that h = 0 if the gauge condition h /x = 0 is satisfied. From this, it
follows that the loss of energy of a mechanical system, if the occurring velocities are c and for wavelengths
the size of the system, is given by:
2
G d3 Qij
dE
= 5
dt
5c i,j
dt3
with Qij =
"
3.2.6 Cosmology
If for the universe as a whole is assumed:
1. There exists a global time coordinate which acts as x 0 of a Gaussian coordinate system,
2. The 3-dimensional spaces are isotrope for a certain value of x 0 ,
3. Each point is equivalent to each other point for a fixed x 0 .
then the Robertson-Walker metric can be derived for the line element:
ds2 = c2 dt2 +
R2 (t)
2
2
2
2 (dr + r d )
kr
r02 1 2
4r0
R 2 + kc2
R 2 + kc2
2R
8p
83
+
+
=
and
=
2
2
2
R
R
c
R
3
3
where p is the pressure and 3 the density of the universe. If = 0 can be derived for the deceleration
parameter q:
RR
43
=
q=
2
3H 2
R
where H = R/R
is Hubbles constant. This is a measure of the velocity with which galaxies far away are
moving away from each other, and has the value (75 25) kms 1 Mpc1 . This gives 3 possible conditions
for the universe (here, W is the total amount of energy in the universe):
1. Parabolical universe: k = 0, W = 0, q = 12 . The expansion velocity of the universe 0 if t .
The hereto related critical density is 3 c = 3H 2 /8.
2. Hyperbolical universe: k = 1, W < 0, q <
positive forever.
1
2.
3. Elliptical universe: k = 1, W > 0, q > 12 . The expansion velocity of the universe becomes negative
after some time: the universe starts collapsing.
Chapter 4
Oscillations
4.1 Harmonic oscillations
i(t)
cos(t ),
The general form of a harmonic oscillation is: (t) = e
is the amplitude. A superposition of several harmonic oscillations with the same frequency results in
where
another harmonic oscillation:
i cos(i t) =
cos( t)
with:
i sin(i )
2 =
tan() =
and
i cos(i )
x(t)dt =
2 + 2
j>i
i
j cos(i j )
dn x(t)
x(t)
and
= (i)n x(t).
i
dtn
m(02
F
F
, and for the velocity holds: x =
2
) + ik
i Cm + k
0
. The quantity Z = F/x is called the impedance of the system. The quality of the system
0
Cm
is given by Q =
.
k
The frequency
with minimal |Z| is called velocity resonance frequency. This is equal to 0 . In the resonance
curve |Z|/
Cm is plotted against /0 . The width of this curve is characterized by the points where |Z()| =
|Z(0 )| 2. In these points holds: R = X and = Q 1 , and the width is 2 B = 0 /Q.
where =
The stiffness of an oscillating system is given by F/x.The amplitude resonance frequency A is the frequency
where iZ is minimal. This is the case for A = 0
1 12 Q2 .
The dampingfrequency D is a measure for the time in which an oscillating system comes to rest. It is given
1
. A weak damped oscillation (k 2 < 4mC) dies out after T D = 2/D . For a critical
by D = 0 1
4Q2
damped oscillation (k 2 = 4mC) holds D = 0. A strong damped oscillation (k 2 > 4mC) drops like (if
k 2 4mC) x(t) x0 exp(t/ ).
Chapter 4: Oscillations
19
Zi , Ltot =
Li ,
1
1
Z0
, Z = R(1 + iQ)
=
, Q=
Ctot
C
R
i
i
L
1
.
and 0 =
C
LC
dL dx
.
dx dC
=
V2
I1
iL2 + Rload
L2
N2
4.6 Pendulums
The oscillation time T = 1/f , and for different types of pendulums is given by:
Oscillating spring: T = 2 m/C if the spring force is given by F = C l.
Physical pendulum: T = 2 I/ with the moment of force and I the moment of inertia.
Torsion pendulum: T = 2
I/ with =
Mathematical pendulum: T = 2
lum.
2lm
the constant of torsion and I the moment of inertia.
r4
l/g with g the acceleration of gravity and l the length of the pendu-
Chapter 5
Waves
5.1 The wave equation
The general form of the wave equation is: u = 0, or:
2 u
1 2u
2u 2u 2u
1 2u
=
+ 2 + 2 2 2 =0
2
2
2
v t
x
y
z
v t
where u is the disturbance and v the propagation velocity. In general holds: v = f . By definition holds:
k = 2 and = 2f .
In principle, there are two types of waves:
1. Longitudinal waves: for these holds k v u.
2. Transversal waves: for these holds k v u.
The phase velocity is given by v ph = /k. The group velocity is given by:
d
dvph
k dn
= vph + k
= vph 1
vg =
dk
dk
n dk
where n is the refractive index of the medium. If v ph does not depend on holds: v ph = vg . In a dispersive
medium it is possible that vg > vph or vg < vph , and vg vf = c2 . If one wants to transfer information with
a wave, e.g. by modulation of an EM wave, the information travels with the velocity at with a change in the
electromagnetic field propagates. This velocity is often almost equal to the group velocity.
For some media, the propagation velocity follows from:
Pressure waves in a liquid or gas: v = /3, where is the modulus of compression.
For pressure waves in a gas also holds: v = p/3 = RT /M.
Pressure waves in a thin solid bar with diameter << : v = E/3
waves in a string: v = Fspan l/m
!
g 2
2h
Surface waves on a liquid: v =
+
tanh
2
3
where h is the depth of the liquid and the surface tension. If h holds: v gh.
n
i=1
sin(ki xi )
Chapter 5: Waves
21
=0
v 2 t2
r2
with general solution:
u(r, t) = C1
f (r vt)
g(r + vt)
+ C2
r
r
r
=0
v 2 t2
r r
r
This is a Bessel equation, with solutions which can be written as Hankel functions. For sufficient large values
of r these are approximated by:
u
N
m
2 u(x, t)
=
b
u(x, t)
m
t2
xm
m=0
where bm IR. Substituting u(x, t) = Aei(kxt) gives two solutions j = j (k) as dispersion relations.
The general solution is given by:
a(k)ei(kx1 (k)t) + b(k)ei(kx2 (k)t) dk
u(x, t) =
Because in general the frequencies j are non-linear in k there is dispersion and the solution cannot be written
any more as a sum of functions depending only on x vt: the wave front transforms.
i=1
dki2
22
f (x )Q(x, x , t)dx +
P (x, x , t) =
Further holds the relation: Q(x, x , t) =
1
2 [(x
( 1
2v
0
x vt) + (x x + vt)]
if |x x | < vt
if |x x | > vt
P (x, x , t)
t
2 E
1) = 0
n (E
1) = K
n (H2 H
x, t) =
x, t) = E(x,
y)ei(kzt) and B(
In a waveguide holds because of the cylindrical symmetry: E(
i(kzt)
B(x, y)e
. From this one can now deduce that, if B z and Ez are not 0:
Bz
Bz
i
i
Ez
Ez
k
k
Bx =
=
B
+
y
2 k 2 x
y
2 k 2 y
x
Bz
Bz
i
i
Ez
Ez
+
k
k
Ex =
Ey =
2 k 2
x
y
2 k 2
y
x
Now one can distinguish between three cases:
1. Bz 0: the Transversal Magnetic modes (TM). Boundary condition: E z |surf = 0.
Bz
2. Ez 0: the Transversal Electric modes (TE). Boundary condition:
= 0.
n surf
For the TE and TM modes this gives an eigenvalue problem for E z resp. Bz with boundary conditions:
2
2
+ 2 = 2 with eigenvalues 2 := 2 k 2
x2
y
This gives a discrete solution ! with eigenvalue !2 : k = 2 !2 . For < ! , k is imaginary
and the wave is damped. Therefore, ! is called the cut-off frequency. In rectangular conductors the
following expression can be found for the cut-off frequency for modes TE m,n of TMm,n :
2
! =
(m/a)2 + (n/b)2
Chapter 5: Waves
23
3. Ez and Bz are zero everywhere: the Transversal electromagnetic mode (TEM). Than holds: k =
and vf = vg , just as if here were no waveguide. Further k IR, so there exists no cut-off
frequency.
In a rectangular, 3 dimensional resonating cavity with edges a, b and c the possible wave numbers are given
n1
n2
n3
, ky =
, kz =
This results in the possible frequencies f = vk/2 in the cavity:
by: kx =
a
b
c
n2y
v n2x
n2z
f=
+
+
2 a2
b2
c2
For a cubic cavity, with a = b = c, the possible number of oscillating modes N L for longitudinal waves is
given by:
4a3 f 3
NL =
3v 3
Because transversal waves have two possible polarizations holds for them: N T = 2NL .
dispersive
This equation is for example a model for ion-acoustic waves in a plasma. For this equation, soliton solutions
of the following form exist:
d
u(x ct) =
cosh2 (e(x ct))
with c = 1 + 13 ad and e2 = ad/(12b2 ).
Chapter 6
Optics
6.1 The bending of light
For the refraction at a surface holds: n i sin(i ) = nt sin(t ) where n is the refractive index of the material.
Snells law is:
n2
1
v1
=
=
n1
2
v2
If n 1, the change in phase of the light is = 0, if n > 1 holds: = . The refraction of light in a
material is caused by scattering from atoms. This is described by:
n2 = 1 +
fj
ne e 2
2 2 i
0 m j 0,j
where ne is the electron density and f j the oscillator strength, for which holds:
that vg = c/(1 + (ne e2 /20 m 2 )). From this the equation of Cauchy can be derived: n = a 0 + a1 /2 . More
n
ak
general, it is possible to expand n as: n =
.
2k
k=0
r r .
The path, followed by a light ray in material can be found from Fermats principle:
2
2
dt =
n(s)
ds = 0
c
2
n(s)ds = 0
1
=
v
b
R
where |v| is the distance of the object and |b| the distance of the image. Applying this twice results in:
1
= (nl 1)
f
1
1
R2
R1
where nl is the refractive index of the lens, f is the focal length and R 1 and R2 are the curvature radii of both
surfaces. For a double concave lens holds R 1 < 0, R2 > 0, for a double convex lens holds R 1 > 0 and
R2 < 0. Further holds:
1 1
1
=
f
v
b
Chapter 6: Optics
25
D := 1/f is called the dioptric power of a lens. For a lens with thickness d and diameter D holds to a good
approximation: 1/f = 8(n 1)d/D 2 . For two lenses placed on a line with distance d holds:
1
1
1
d
=
+
f
f1
f2
f1 f2
In these equations the following signs are being used for refraction at a spherical surface, as is seen by an
incoming light ray:
Quantity
R
f
v
b
+
Concave surface
Converging lens
Real object
Virtual image
Convex surface
Diverging lens
Virtual object
Real image
6.2.2 Mirrors
For images of mirrors holds:
1 1
2
h2
1
= + = +
f
v
b
R
2
1
1
R v
2
where h is the perpendicular distance from the point the light ray hits the mirror to the optical axis. Spherical
aberration can be reduced by not using spherical mirrors. A parabolical mirror has no spherical aberration for
light rays parallel with the optical axis and is therefore often used for telescopes. The used signs are:
Quantity
R
f
v
b
+
Concave mirror
Concave mirror
Real object
Real image
Convex mirror
Convex mirror
Virtual object
Virtual image
N1
r r r
O N2
m11 1
m22 1
, h2 = n
m12
m12
6.2.4 Magnification
The linear magnification is defined by: N =
b
v
syst
none
where sys is the size of the retinal image with the optical system and none the size of the retinal image
without the system. Further holds: N N = 1. For a telescope holds: N = f objective /focular. The f-number
is defined by f /Dobjective.
26
6.4 Aberrations
Lenses usually do not give a perfect image. Some causes are:
1. Chromatic aberration is caused by the fact that n = n(). This can be partially corrected with a lens
which is composed of more lenses with different functions n i (). Using N lenses makes it possible to
obtain the same f for N wavelengths.
2. Spherical aberration is caused by second-order effects which are usually ignored; a spherical surface
does not make a perfect lens. Incomming rays far from the optical axis will more bent.
3. Coma is caused by the fact that the principal planes of a lens are only flat near the principal axis. Further
away of the optical axis they are curved. This curvature can be both positive or negative.
4. Astigmatism: from each point of an object not on the optical axis the image is an ellipse because the
thickness of the lens is not the same everywhere.
5. Field curvature can be corrected by the human eye.
6. Distorsion gives abberations near the edges of the image. This can be corrected with a combination of
positive and negative lenses.
E0i
E0i
E0i
where E0r is the reflected amplitude and E 0t the transmitted amplitude. Then the Fresnel equations are:
r
=
t
=
tan(i t )
sin(t i )
, r =
tan(i + t )
sin(t + i )
2 sin(t ) cos(i )
2 sin(t ) cos(i )
, t =
sin(t + i ) cos(t i )
sin(t + i )
Chapter 6: Optics
27
6.6 Polarization
The polarization is defined as: P =
Ip
Imax Imin
=
Ip + Iu
Imax + Imin
where the intensity of the polarized light is given by I p and the intensity of the unpolarized light is given by
Iu . Imax and Imin are the maximum and minimum intensities when the light passes a polarizer. If polarized
light passes through a polarizer Malus law applies: I() = I(0) cos 2 () where is the angle of the polarizer.
The state of a light ray can be described by the Stokes-parameters: start with 4 filters which each transmits half
the intensity. The first is independent of the polarization, the second and third are linear polarizers with the
transmission axes horizontal and at +45 , while the fourth is a circular polarizer which is opaque for L-states.
Then holds S 1 = 2I1 , S2 = 2I2 2I1 , S3 = 2I3 2I1 and S4 = 2I4 2I1 .
The state of a polarized light ray can also be described by the Jones vector:
E0x eix
E=
E0y eiy
= (1, 0), for the vertical P -state E
= (0, 1), the R-state is given by
For the
horizontal P -state holds: E
1
1
E = 2 2(1, i) and the L-state by E = 2 2(1, i). The change in state of a light beam after passage of
1 . For some types of optical equipment the Jones matrix M
2 = M E
optical equipment can be described as E
is given by:
1 0
Horizontal linear polarizer:
0 0
0 0
Vertical linear polarizer:
0 1
1 1
1
Lineair polarizer at 45
2
1 1
1 0
1
i/4
-
plate,
fast
axis
vertical
e
4
0 i
1 0
1
i/4
e
4 - plate, fast axis horizontal
0 i
1 i
1
Homogene circular polarizor right
2
i 1
1 i
1
Homogene circular polarizer left
2
i 1
28
For visible light usually holds dn/d < 0: shorter wavelengths are stronger bent than longer. The refractive
index in this area can usually be approximated by Cauchys formula.
6.8 Diffraction
Fraunhofer diffraction occurs far away from the source(s). The Fraunhofer diffraction of light passing through
multiple slits is described by:
2
2
sin(u)
sin(N v)
I()
=
I0
u
sin(v)
where u = b sin()/, v = d sin()/. N is the number of slits, b the width of a slit and d the distance
between the slits. The maxima in intensity are given by d sin() = k.
The diffraction through a spherical aperture with radius a is described by:
I()
=
I0
J1 (ka sin())
ka sin()
2
The diffraction pattern of a rectangular aperture at distance R with length a in the x-direction and b in the
y-direction is described by:
2
2
sin( )
sin( )
I(x, y)
=
I0
where = kax/2R and = kby/2R.
When X rays are diffracted at a crystal holds for the position of the maxima in intensity Braggs relation:
2d sin() = n where d is the distance between the crystal layers.
Close at the source the Fraunhofermodel is invalid because it ignores the angle-dependence of the reflected
waves. This is described by the obliquity or inclination factor, which describes the directionality of the secondary emissions: E() = 12 E0 (1 + cos()) where is the angle w.r.t. the optical axis.
Diffraction limits the resolution of a system. This is the minimum angle min between two incident rays
coming from points far away for which their refraction patterns can be detected separately. For a circular slit
holds: min = 1.22/D where D is the diameter of the slit.
For a grating holds: min = 2/(N a cos(m )) where a is the distance between two peaks and N the
number of peaks. The minimum difference between two wavelengths that gives a separated diffraction pattern
in a multiple slit geometry is given by / = nN where N is the number of lines and n the order of the
pattern.
Chapter 6: Optics
29
in the plane through the transmission direction and the optical axis. Dichroism is caused by a different
absorption of the ordinary and extraordinary wave in some materials. Double images occur when the
incident ray makes an angle with the optical axis: the extraordinary wave will refract, the ordinary will
not.
Retarders: waveplates and compensators. Incident light will have a phase shift of = 2d(|n 0
ne |)/0 if an uniaxial crystal is cut in such a way that the optical axis is parallel with the front and back
plane. Here, 0 is the wavelength in vacuum and n 0 and ne the refractive indices for the ordinary and
extraordinary wave. For a quarter-wave plate holds: = /2.
The Kerr-effect: isotropic, transparent materials can become birefringent when placed in an electric
The difference in refractive index in the two directions
field. In that case, the optical axis is parallel to E.
2
is given by: n = 0 KE , where K is the Kerr constant of the material. If the electrodes have an
effective length 5 and are separated by a distance d, the retardation is given by: = 2K5V 2 /d2 ,
where V is the applied voltage.
The Pockels or linear electro-optical effect can occur in 20 (from a total of 32) crystal symmetry classes,
namely those without a centre of symmetry. These crystals are also piezoelectric: their polarization
The retardation in a Pockels cell is
changes when a pressure is applied and vice versa: P = pd + 0 E.
3
= 2n0 r63 V /0 where r63 is the 6-3 element of the electro-optic tensor.
The Faraday effect: the polarization of light passing through material with length d and to which a
magnetic field is applied in the propagation direction is rotated by an angle = VBd where V is the
Verdet constant.
Cerenkov
radiation arises when a charged particle with v q > vf arrives. The radiation is emitted within
a cone with an apex angle with sin() = c/c medium = c/nvq .
PP
PP
q
Screen
Focussing lens
The width of the peaks at half height is given by = 4/ F . The finesse F is defined as F = 12 F . The
maximum resolution is then given by f min = c/2ndF .
Source
Lens
Chapter 7
Statistical physics
7.1 Degrees of freedom
A molecule consisting of n atoms has s = 3n degrees of freedom. There are 3 translational degrees of freedom,
a linear molecule has s = 3n 5 vibrational degrees of freedom and a non-linear molecule s = 3n 6. A
linear molecule has 2 rotational degrees of freedom and a non-linear molecule 3.
Because vibrational degrees of freedom account for both kinetic and potential energy they count double. So,
for linear molecules this results in a total of s = 6n 5. For non-linear molecules this gives s = 6n 6. The
average energy of a molecule in thermodynamic equilibrium is E tot = 12 skT . Each degree of freedom of a
molecule has in principle the same energy: the principle of equipartition.
The rotational and vibrational energy of a molecule are:
Wrot =
2
h
l(l + 1) = Bl(l + 1) , Wvib = (v + 12 )
h 0
2I
The vibrational levels are excited if kT h, the rotational levels of a hetronuclear molecule are excited if
kT 2B. For homonuclear molecules additional selection rules apply so the rotational levels are well coupled
if kT 6B.
where
=
/ /m is the most probable velocity of a particle. The average velocity is given by v =
. 2kT
2/ , and v 2 = 32 2 . The distribution as a function of the absolute value of the velocity is given by:
4N
mv 2
dN
= 3 v 2 exp
dv
2kT
The general form of the energy distribution function then becomes:
c(s)
P (E)dE =
kT
1
(l 1)!
2. Odd s: s = 2l + 1: c(s) =
2l
(2l 1)!!
E
kT
12 s1
E
exp
dE
kT
31
3
d N=
1
4 n v.
2
2mv cos()d3 N
, so p = n E
A
3
2
3 n E
Here, ns is the number of moles particles and N is the total number of particles within volume V . If the own
volume and the intermolecular forces cannot be neglected the Van der Waals equation can be derived:
an2
p + 2s (V bns ) = ns RT
V
There is an isotherme with a horizontal point of inflection. In the Van der Waals equation this corresponds
with the critical temperature, pressure and volume of the gas. This is the upper limit of the area of coexistence
between liquid and vapor. From dp/dV = 0 and d 2 p/dV 2 = 0 follows:
Tcr =
8a
a
, pcr =
, Vcr = 3bns
27bR
27b2
3
8,
Scaled on the critical quantities, with p := p/pcr , T = T /Tcr and Vm = Vm /Vm,cr with Vm := V /ns holds:
p +
3
(Vm )2
# 1$ 8
Vm 3 = 3 T
Gases behave the same for equal values of the reduced quantities: the law of the corresponding states. A virial
expansion is used for even more accurate views:
p(T, Vm ) = RT
1
B(T ) C(T )
+
+
+
Vm
Vm2
Vm3
The Boyle temperature T B is the temperature for which the 2nd virial coefficient is 0. In a Van der Waals gas,
this happens at T B = a/Rb. The inversion temperature T i = 2TB .
The equation of state for solids and liquids is given by:
V
1
= 1 + p T T p = 1 +
V0
V
V
T
T +
p
1
V
V
p
p
T
32
ULJ = 4M
r
r
with a minimum M at r = rm . The following holds: D 0.89r m . For the Van der Waals coefficients a and b
and the critical quantities holds: a = 5.275N A2 D3 M, b = 1.3NA D3 , kTkr = 1.2M and Vm,kr = 3.9NA D3 .
A more simple model for intermolecular forces assumes a potential U (r) = for r < D, U (r) = U LJ for
D r 3D and U (r) = 0 for r 3D. This gives for the potential energy of one molecule: E pot =
3D
U (r)F (r)dr.
D
with F (r) the spatial distribution function in spherical coordinates, which for a homogeneous distribution is
given by: F (r)dr = 4nr 2 dr.
Some useful mathematical relations are:
n x
x e
0
dx = n! ,
2n x2
x e
0
2
(2n)!
dx =
,
x2n+1 ex dx = 12 n!
n!22n+1
0
Chapter 8
Thermodynamics
8.1 Mathematical introduction
If there exists a relation f (x, y, z) = 0 between 3 variables, one can write: x = x(y, z), y = y(x, z) and
z = z(x, y). The total differential dz of z is than given by:
z
z
dx +
dy
dz =
x y
y x
By writing this also for dx and dy it can be obtained that
x
y
z
= 1
y z
z x
x y
Because dz is a total differential holds
dz = 0.
A homogeneous function of degree m obeys: m F (x, y, z) = F (x, y, z). For such a function Eulers
theorem applies:
F
F
F
+y
+z
mF (x, y, z) = x
x
y
z
8.2 Definitions
The isochoric pressure coefficient: V
1
=
p
p
T
V
1 V
V
p T
1 V
The isobaric volume coefficient: p =
V T p
1 V
The adiabatic compressibility: S =
V
p S
The isothermal compressibility: T =
S
T X
H
The specific heat at constant pressure: C p =
T p
U
The specific heat at constant volume: C V =
T V
The specific heat at constant X is: C X = T
34
For an ideal gas holds: C mp CmV = R. Further, if the temperature is high enough to thermalize all internal
rotational and vibrational degrees of freedom, holds: C V = 12 sR. Hence Cp = 12 (s + 2)R. For their ratio now
follows = (2 + s)/s. For a lower T one needs only to consider the thermalized degrees of freedom. For a
Van der Waals gas holds: CmV = 12 sR + ap/RT 2.
In general holds:
Cp CV = T
p
T
V
T
= T
p
V
T
2
p
p
V
0
T
Because (p/V )T is always < 0, the following is always valid: C p CV . If the coefficient of expansion is
0, Cp = CV , and also at T = 0K.
d Qrev
= 0.
T
d Qirr
< 0.
T
T 0
S
X
=0
T
From this it can be concluded that the thermal heat capacity 0 if T 0, so absolute zero temperature
cannot be reached by cooling through a finite number of steps.
U
H = U + pV
F = U TS
G = H TS
dU = T dS pdV
dH = T dS + V dp
dF = SdT pdV
dG = SdT + V dp
Chapter 8: Thermodynamics
35
U
V
=T
T
p
T
p ,
V
H
p
=V T
T
V
T
p
for an enlarged surface holds: d W rev = dA, with the surface tension. From this follows:
F
U
=
=
A S
A T
8.6 Processes
The efficiency of a process is given by: =
Work done
Heat added
Cold delivered
Work added
"2
1
36
T2
|Q2 |
=1
:= C
|Q1 |
T1
The Carnot efficiency C is the maximal efficiency at which a heat machine can operate. If the process is
applied in reverse order and the system performs a work W the cold factor is given by:
=
|Q2 |
T2
|Q2 |
=
=
W
|Q1 | |Q2 |
T1 T2
G
m = Gm and
r
Sm = Sm
Sm
=
T0
where r is the transition heat of phase to phase and T 0 is the transition temperature. The following
holds: r = r and r = r r . Further
Gm
Sm =
T p
so G has a twist in the transition point. In a two phase system Clapeyrons equation is valid:
S Sm
dp
r
= m
=
dT
Vm Vm
(Vm Vm )T
For an ideal gas one finds for the vapor line at some distance from the critical point:
p = p0 er/RT
There exist also phase transitions with r = 0. For those there will occur only a discontinuity in the second
derivates of Gm . These second-order transitions appear at organization phenomena.
A phase-change of the 3rd order, so with e.g. [ 3 Gm /T 3 ]p non continuous arises e.g. when ferromagnetic
iron changes to the paramagnetic state.
Chapter 8: Thermodynamics
37
G
ni
V =
c
ni
i=1
V
ni
:=
nj ,p,T
c
ni Vi
i=1
xi dVi
where xi = ni /n is the molar fraction of component i. The molar volume of a mixture of two components
can be a concave line in a V -x 2 diagram: the mixing contracts the volume.
The
system. It can be derived that
thermodynamic potentials are not independent in a multiple-phase
ni di = SdT + V dp, this gives at constant p and T :
xi di = 0 (Gibbs-Duhmen).
i
Each component has as much s as there are phases. The number of free parameters in a system with c
components and p different phases is given by f = c + 2 p.
xi ln(xi ).
For the thermodynamic potentials holds: i = 0i + RT ln(xi ) < 0i . A mixture of two liquids is rarely ideal:
this is usually only the case for chemically related components or isotopes. In spite of this holds Raoults law
for the vapour pressure holds for many binary mixtures: p i = xi p0i = yi p. Here is xi the fraction of the ith
component in liquid phase and y i the fraction of the ith component in gas phase.
A solution of one component in another gives rise to an increase in the boiling point T k and a decrease of
the freezing point T s . For x2 1 holds:
Tk =
RTk2
RT 2
x2 , Ts = s x2
r
r
with r the evaporation heat and r < 0 the melting heat. For the osmotic pressure of a solution holds:
0
= x2 RT .
Vm1
component holds:
i = i = i .
38
1 g ni
i
ni !
The most probable distribution, that with the maximum value for P , is the equilibrium state. When Stirlings
equation, ln(n!) n ln(n) n is used, one finds for a discrete system the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution.
The occupation numbers in equilibrium are then given by:
N
Wi
ni = gi exp
Z
kT
The state sum Z is a normalization constant, given by: Z =
gi exp(Wi /kT ). For an ideal gas holds:
i
Z=
V (2mkT )3/2
h3
The entropy can then be defined as: S = k ln(P ) . For a system in thermodynamic equilibrium this becomes:
S=
U
+ kN ln
T
Z
N
+ kN
U
+ k ln
T
ZN
N!
V (2mkT )3/2
N h3
Chapter 9
Transport phenomena
9.1 Mathematical introduction
An important relation is: if X is a quantity of a volume element which travels from position r to r + dr in a
time dt, the total differential dX is then given by:
dX =
X
X
X
dX
X
X
X
X
X
dx +
dy +
dz +
dt
=
vx +
vy +
vz +
x
y
z
t
dt
x
y
z
t
X
dX
=
+ (v )X .
dt
t
d
where the volume V is surrounded by surface A. Some properties of the operator are:
div(v ) = divv + grad v
div(u v ) = v (rotu ) u (rotv )
div grad = 2
rot grad = 0
div rotv = 0
Here, v is an arbitrary vector field and an arbitrary scalar field. Some important integral theorems are:
2
Gauss:
(v n )d A =
(divv )d3 V
( et )ds =
(n grad)d2 A
(rotv n )d2 A
(rotv n )d2 A = 0
Ostrogradsky:
2
(n v )d A =
(rotv )d3 A
2
(grad)d3 V
(n )d A =
""
ds.
40
T can be split in a part pI representing the normal tensions and a part T representing the shear stresses:
T = T + pI, where I is the unit tensor. When viscous aspects can be ignored holds: divT= gradp.
When the flow velocity is v at position r holds on position r + dr:
v (dr ) =
v (r )
*+,-
translation
dr (gradv )
+,
*
rotation, deformation, dilatation
The quantity L:=gradv can be split in a symmetric part D and an antisymmetric part W. L = D + W with
1 vi
vj
1 vi
vj
Dij :=
, Wij :=
+
2 xj
xi
2 xj
xi
When the rotation or vorticity
= rotv is introduced holds: W ij = 12 ijk k .
represents the local rotation
1
velocity: dr W = 2 dr.
For a Newtonian liquid holds: T = 2D. Here, is the dynamical viscosity. This is related to the shear stress
by:
vi
ij =
xj
For compressible media can be stated: T = ( divv )I + 2D. From equating the thermodynamical and
mechanical pressure it follows: 3 + 2 = 0. If the viscosity is constant holds: div(2D) = 2v + grad divv .
The conservation laws for mass, momentum and energy for continuous media can be written in both integral
and differential form. They are:
Integral notation:
1. Conservation of mass:
t
3d V + 3(v n )d2 A = 0
3
3
2
3
2. Conservation of momentum:
f0 d V + n T d2 A
3v d V + 3v (v n )d A =
t
3
1 2
( 2 v + e)3d V + ( 12 v 2 + e)3(v n )d2 A =
3. Conservation of energy:
t
2
3
(v f0 )d V + (v n T)d2 A
(
q n )d A +
Differential notation:
1. Conservation of mass:
3
+ div (3v ) = 0
t
2. Conservation of momentum: 3
3. Conservation of energy: 3T
v
+ (3v )v = f0 + divT = f0 gradp + divT
t
de p d3
ds
=3
= divq + T : D
dt
dt
3 dt
is
Here, e is the internal energy per unit of mass E/m and s is the entropy per unit of mass S/m. q = T
the heat flow. Further holds:
e
E
e
E
=
, T =
=
p=
V
1/3
S
s
so
e
h
CV =
and Cp =
T V
T p
with h = H/m the enthalpy per unit of mass.
41
From this one can derive the Navier-Stokes equations for an incompressible, viscous and heat-conducting
medium:
divv
v
+ 3(v )v
3
t
T
+ 3C(v )T
3C
t
2 T + 2D : D
with C the thermal heat capacity. The force F on an object within a flow, when viscous effects are limited to
the boundary layer, can be obtained using the momentum law. If a surface A surrounds the object outside the
boundary layer holds:
F = [pn + 3v (v n )]d2 A
Pr =
a
Strouhal: Sr =
Fourier:
Prandtl:
v2
gL
vL
Peclet: Pe =
a
L
Nusselt: Nu =
Froude: Fr =
v
c
vL
Reynolds: Re =
v2
Eckert:
Ec =
cT
Mach:
Ma =
Here, = /3 is the kinematic viscosity, c is the speed of sound and L is a characteristic length of the system.
follows from the equation for heat transport y T = T and a = /3c is the thermal diffusion coefficient.
These numbers can be interpreted as follows:
Re: (stationary inertial forces)/(viscous forces)
42
dp 4
R
8 dx
4R3 dp
3
dx
2
For flows at a small Re holds: p = v and divv = 0. For the total force on a sphere with radius R in a
flow then holds: F = 6Rv. For large Re holds for the force on a surface A: F = 12 CW A3v 2 .
For gas transport at low pressures (Knudsen-gas) holds: V =
(v et )ds =
(rotv ) nd2 A =
( n )d2 A
For non viscous media, if p = p(3) and all forces are conservative, Kelvins theorem can be derived:
d
=0
dt
For rotationless flows a velocity potential v = grad can be introduced. In the incompressible case follows
from conservation of mass 2 = 0. For a 2-dimensional flow a flow function (x, y) can be defined: with
AB the amount of liquid flowing through a curve s between the points A and B:
AB
B
B
= (v n )ds = (vx dy vy dx)
A
43
1
1
=
, v =
=
r
r
r
r
Q
ln(r) so that vr = Q/2r, v = 0.
For source flows with power Q in (x, y) = (0, 0) holds: =
2
vr =
If for the thickness of the boundary layer holds: L holds: L/ Re. With v the velocity of the main
flow it follows for the velocity v y the surface: vy L v . Blasius equation for the boundary layer is,
with vy /v = f (y/): 2f + f f = 0 with boundary conditions f (0) = f (0) = 0, f () = 1. From this
follows: CW = 0.664 Re1/2
.
x
The momentum theorem of Von Karman for the boundary layer is:
0
d
dv
(v 2 ) + v
=
dx
dx
3
where the displacement thickness v and the momentum thickness v 2 are given by:
vx
The boundary layer is released from the surface if
vx
y
= 0. This is equivalent with
y=0
12v
dp
=
.
dx
2
44
with D = 2/3c. At x = D the temperature variation is in anti-phase with the surface. The onedimensional solution at = 0 is
1
x2
T (x, t) =
exp
4at
2 at
This is mathematical equivalent to the diffusion problem:
n
= D2 n + P A
t
where P is the production of and A the discharge of particles. The flow density J = Dn.
9.9 Turbulence
The time scale of turbulent velocity variations t is of the order of: t = Re/Ma2 with the molecular
time scale. For the velocity of the particles holds: v(t) = v + v (t) with v (t) = 0. The Navier-Stokes
equation now becomes:
v
p
divSR
+ (v ) v =
+ 2 v +
t
3
3
/
.
where SR ij = 3 vi vj is the turbulent stress tensor. Boussinesqs assumption is: ij = 3 vi vj . It is
stated that, analogous to Newtonian media: S R = 23t D. Near a boundary holds: t = 0, far away of a
boundary holds: t Re.
d
=
+ J(, ) = 2
dt
t
With J(, ) the Jacobian. So if = 0, is conserved. Further, the kinetic energy/mA and the enstrofy V
are conserved: with v = (k)
For a (semi) two-dimensional flow holds:
E ()
E(k, t)dk = constant , V ( )
From this follows that in a two-dimensional flow the energy flux goes towards large values of k: larger structures become larger at the expanse of smaller ones. In three-dimensional flows the situation is just the opposite.
Chapter 10
Quantum physics
10.1 Introduction to quantum physics
10.1.1 Black body radiation
Plancks law for the energy distribution for the radiation of a black body is:
w(f ) =
1
1
8hf 3
8hc
, w() =
3
5
hf
/kT
hc/kT
c
e
e
1
1
Stefan-Boltzmanns law for the total power density can be derived from this: P = AT 4 . Wiens law for the
maximum can also be derived from this: T max = kW .
h
(1 cos ) = + C (1 cos )
mc
dx and (x, t) =
(k, t) =
(x, t)e
(k, t)eikx dk
h
h
These waves define a particle with group velocity v g = p/m and energy E = h
.
The wavefunction can be interpreted as a measure for the probability P to find a particle somewhere (Born):
dP = ||2 d3 V . The expectation value f of a quantity f of a system is given by:
3
f d3 Vp
f (t) =
f d V , fp (t) =
This is also written as f (t) = |f |. The normalizing condition for wavefunctions follows from this:
| = | = 1.
2 (A1 ) d3 V
46
cn = un |. If the system is in a state described by , the chance to find eigenvalue a n when measuring A is
given by |c n |2 in the discrete part of the spectrum and |c n |2 da in the continuous part of the spectrum between
a and
a + da. The matrix element
A ij is given by: Aij = ui |A|uj . Because (AB)ij = ui |AB|uj =
|un un | = 1.
ui |A |un un |B|uj holds:
n
2 2
h
+ U = E = ih
2m
t
The linear combination of the solutions of this equation give the general solution. In one dimension it is:
iEt
(x, t) =
+ dE c(E)uE (x) exp
h
h
( )
2im
P (x, t)
The following conservation law holds:
= J(x, t)
t
The current density J is given by: J =
10.6 Parity
The parity operator in one dimension is given by P(x) = (x). If the wavefunction is split in even and
odd functions, it can be expanded into eigenfunctions of P:
(x) = 12 ((x) + (x)) + 12 ((x) (x))
*
+,
- *
+,
+
even:
odd:
[P, H] = 0. The functions + = 12 (1 + P)(x, t) and = 12 (1 P)(x, t) both satisfy the Schrodinger
equation. Hence, parity is a conserved quantity.
47
A=
1
2 mx
p2
+ 1 m 2 x2 = 12 h
+ A A
2m 2
ip
and A =
+
2m
1
2 mx
ip
2m
n
u0 with u0 =
mx2
m
exp
h
2h
h.
with En = ( 12 + n)
Lz = ih
= ih x
y
y
x
The ladder operators L are defined by: L = Lx iLy . Now holds: L2 = L+ L + L2z hLz . Further,
+ i cot()
ei
L = h
48
10.10 Spin
For the spin operators are defined by their commutation relations: [S x , Sy ] = ihSz . Because the spin operators
do not act in the physical space (x, y, z) the uniqueness of the wavefunction is not a criterium here: also half
odd-integer values are allowed for the spin. Because [L, S] = 0 spin and angular momentum operators do not
have a common set of eigenfunctions. The spin operators are given by S
= 1 h , with
x =
0 1
1 0
, y =
0 i
i 0
, z =
1 0
0 1
The eigenstates of S z are called spinors: = + + + , where + = (1, 0) represents the state with
spin up (Sz = 12
h) and = (0, 1) represents the state with spin down (S z = 12 h). Then the probability
to find spin up after a measurement is given by | + |2 and the chance to find spin down is given by | |2 . Of
course holds |+ |2 + | |2 = 1.
due to its spin, given by M
= egS S/2m,
The electron will have an intrinsic magnetic dipole moment M
with gS = 2(1 + /2 + ) the gyromagnetic ratio. In the presence of an external magnetic field this gives
B.
The Schrodinger equation then becomes (because /x i 0):
a potential energy U = M
i
h
egS h
(t)
=
B(t)
t
4m
y ,
z ). If B
= Bez there are two eigenvalues for this problem: for E = egS hB/4m =
with = (
x ,
h. So the general solution is given by = (ae it , beit ). From this can be derived: S x = 12 h cos(2t)
h sin(2t). Thus the spin precesses about the z-axis with frequency 2. This causes the normal
and Sy = 12
Zeeman splitting of spectral lines.
The potential operator for two particles with spin 12 h is given by:
V (r) = V1 (r) +
1
(S1 S2 )V2 (r) = V1 (r) + 12 V2 (r)[S(S + 1) 32 ]
2
h
1 2
m 2 c2
02 =
2
2
c t
m0 c
m0 c
x
h
x
where the Dirac matrices are given by: { , } = + = 2 (In general relativity this becomes
2g ). From this it can be derived that the are hermitian 4 4 matrices given by:
0 ik
I 0
, 4 =
k =
0 I
ik
0
With this, the Dirac equation becomes:
m0 c
(x, t) = 0
x
h
where (x) = (1 (x), 2 (x), 3 (x), 4 (x)) is a spinor.
49
Pl
(x) = (1 x2 )m/2
'
d|m| & 2
(1)m n! x m dnm x n
e x
(x 1)l , Lm
(e x )
n (x) =
|m|
(n m)!
dxnm
dx
n1
l=0
Eigenvalue
Range
Hop = E
En = e4 Z 2 /820 h2 n2
n1
Lz = ml h
l ml l
L2op Ylm
= L Ylm
L = l(l + 1)
h
l<n
Szop = Sz
Sz = ms h
ms = 12
2
Sop
= S2
S 2 = s(s + 1)
h2
s=
1
2
3
1
4n j +
1
2
The fine structure in atomic spectra arises from this. With g S = 2 follows for the average magnetic moment:
av = (e/2me )g
where g is the Lande-factor:
M
hJ,
g =1+
J
S
j(j + 1) + s(s + 1) l(l + 1)
=1+
J2
2j(j + 1)
For atoms with more than one electron the following limiting situations occur:
50
1. L S coupling: for small atoms the electrostatic interaction is dominant and the state can be characterized by L, S, J, mJ . J {|L S|, ..., L + S 1, L + S} and mJ {J, ..., J 1, J}. The
spectroscopic notation for this interaction is: 2S+1 LJ . 2S + 1 is the multiplicity of a multiplet.
2. j j coupling: for larger atoms the electrostatic interaction is smaller than the L i si interaction of
an electron. The state is characterized by j i ...jn , J, mJ where only the j i of the not completely filled
subshells are to be taken into account.
The energy difference for larger atoms when placed in a magnetic field is: E = g B mJ B where g is the
Lande factor. For a transition between two singlet states the line splits in 3 parts, for m J = 1, 0 + 1. This
results in the normal Zeeman effect. At higher S the line splits up in more parts: the anomalous Zeeman effect.
Interaction with the spin of the nucleus gives the hyperfine structure.
2
2
1
2 eV = h 2 + e B
L
+ e A2 eV
(
p + eA)
2
2
2
2
where is the reduced mass of the system. The term A 2 can usually be neglected, except for very strong
= Bez it is given by e2 B 2 (x2 + y 2 )/8.
fields or macroscopic motions. For B
= A
f , V = V + f /t is applied to the potentials the wavefunction
When a gauge transformation A
is also transformed according to = eiqef /h with qe the charge of the particle. Because f = f (x, t), this
is called a local gauge transformation, in contrast with a global gauge transformation which can always be
applied.
cnk ()k
n = N () n +
k=n
(1)
(2)
51
(1)
and this is put into the Schrodinger equation the result is: E n = n |H1 |n and
m |H1 |n
c(1)
if m = n. The second-order correction of the energy is then given by:
nm =
0
En0 Em
| k |H1 |n |2
k |H1 |n
En(2) =
. So to first order holds: n = n +
k .
0
0
En Ek
En0 Ek0
k=n
k=n
In case the levels are degenerated the above does not hold. In that case an orthonormal set eigenfunctions ni
is chosen for each level n, so that mi |nj = mn ij . Now is expanded as:
(1)
n = N ()
i ni +
cnk
i ki +
k=n
(1)
0
0
Eni = Eni
+ Eni is approximated by E ni
:= En0 . Substitution in the Schrodinger equation and taking dot
(1)
product with ni gives:
i nj |H1 |ni = En j . Normalization requires that
|i |2 = 1.
i
follows:
c(1)
n (t)
=
i
h
t
n |V (t )|k exp
dt
ms = +1
+
(1)+ (2)
1
S =
2[
(1)
(2)
+
(2)
(1)]
ms = 0
+
2
(1) (2)
ms = 1
Because the total wavefunction must be antisymmetric it follows: total = S A or total = A S .
52
10.15.2 Molecules
The wavefunctions of atom a and b are a and b . If the 2 atoms approach each other there are two
possibilities:
the total wavefunction approaches the bonding function with lower total energy B = 12 2(a + b ) or
|H|
.
|
The energy calculated with this method is always higher than the real energy if is only an approximation for
the solutions of H = E. Also, if there are more functions to be chosen,
the function which gives the lowest
energy is the best approximation. Applying this to the function =
ci i one finds: (Hij ESij )ci = 0.
This equation has only solutions if the secular determinant |H ij ESij | = 0. Here, Hij = i |H|j and
Sij = i |j . i := Hii is the Coulomb integral and ij := Hij the exchange integral. S ii = 1 and Sij is
the overlap integral.
The first approximation in the molecular-orbital theory is to place both electrons of a chemical bond in the
bonding orbital: (1, 2) = B (1)B (2). This results in a large electron density between the nuclei and
therefore a repulsion. A better approximation is: (1, 2) = C 1 B (1)B (2) + C2 AB (1)AB (2), with C1 = 1
and C2 0.6.
In some atoms, such as C, it is energetical more suitable to form orbitals which are a linear combination of the
s, p and d states. There are three ways of hybridization in C:
1. SP-hybridization: sp = 12 2(2s 2pz ). There are 2 hybrid orbitals which are placed on one line
under 180 . Further the 2p x and 2py orbitals remain.
2. SP2 hybridization: sp2 = 2s / 3 + c1 2pz + c2 2py , where (c1 , c2 ) {( 2/3, 0), (1/ 6, 1/ 2)
, (1/ 6, 1/ 2)}. The 3 SP2 orbitals lay in one plane, with symmetry axes which are at an angle of
120 .
3. SP3 hybridization: sp3 = 12 (2s 2pz 2py 2px ). The 4 SP3 orbitals form a tetraheder with the
symmetry axes at an angle of 109 28 .
k
(i)
ck k , holds:
(A)kk = Tr(A)
ri |i i |. The probability to find
where lk = ck cl . is hermitian, with Tr() = 1. Further holds =
eigenvalue an when measuring A is given by nn if one uses a basis of eigenvectors of A for { k }. For the
time-dependence holds (in the Schrodinger image operators are not explicitly time-dependent):
ih
d
= [H, ]
dt
53
For a macroscopic system in equilibrium holds [H, ] = 0. If all quantumstates with the same energy are
equally probable: P i = P (Ei ), one can obtain the distribution:
Pn (E) = nn =
eEn /kT
with the state sum Z =
eEn /kT
Z
n
The thermodynamic quantities are related to these definitions as follows: F = kT ln(Z), U = H =
indistinguishable particles which obey the Pauli exclusion principle the possible number of states is given by:
P =
1
k
gk !
nk !(gk nk )!
This results in the Fermi-Dirac statistics. For indistinguishable particles which do not obey the exclusion
principle the possible number of states is given by:
P = N!
1 g nk
k
nk !
This results in the Bose-Einstein statistics. So the distribution functions which explain how particles are
distributed over the different one-particle states k which are each g k -fold degenerate depend on the spin of the
particles. They are given by:
gk
N
1. Fermi-Dirac statistics: integer spin. n k {0, 1}, nk =
Zg exp((Ek )/kT ) + 1
gk ln[1 + exp((Ei )/kT )].
with ln(Zg ) =
gk
N
2. Bose-Einstein statistics: half odd-integer spin. n k IN , nk =
Zg exp((Ek )/kT ) 1
with ln(Zg ) = gk ln[1 exp((Ei )/kT )].
nk = N ,
Here, Zg is the large-canonical state sum and the chemical potential. It is found by demanding
and for it holds: lim = EF , the Fermi-energy. N is the total number of particles. The Maxwell-Boltzmann
T 0
With the Fermi-energy, the Fermi-Dirac and Bose-Einstein statistics can be written as:
1. Fermi-Dirac statistics: nk =
gk
.
exp((Ek EF )/kT ) + 1
2. Bose-Einstein statistics: nk =
gk
.
exp((Ek EF )/kT ) 1
Chapter 11
Plasma physics
11.1 Introduction
ne
ne + n0
where ne is the electron density and n 0 the density of the neutrals. If a plasma contains also negative charged
ions is not well defined.
The degree of ionization of a plasma is defined by: =
The probability that a test particle collides with another is given by dP = ndx where is the cross section.
The collision frequency c = 1/c = nv. The mean free path is given by v = 1/n. The rate coefficient
K is defined by K = v. The number of collisions per unit of time and volume between particles of kind 1
and 2 is given by n 1 n2 v = Kn1 n2 .
The potential of an electron is given by:
!
e
r
0 kTe Ti
0 kTe
V (r) =
with D =
exp
2
40 r
D
e (ne Ti + ni Te )
ne e 2
because charge is shielded in a plasma. Here, D is the Debye length. For distances < D the plasma
cannot be assumed to be quasi-neutral. Deviations of charge neutrality by thermic motion are compensated by
oscillations with frequency
!
pe =
ne e 2
me 0
The distance of closest approximation when two equal charged particles collide for a deviation of /2 is
1/3
2b0 = e2 /(40 12 mv 2 ). A neat plasma is defined as a plasma for which holds: b 0 < ne
D Lp .
Here Lp := |ne /ne | is the gradient length of the plasma.
11.2 Transport
Relaxation times are defined as = 1/ c . Starting with m = 4b20 ln(C ) and with 12 mv 2 = kT it can be
found that:
e2 me ln(C )
ne e 2
=
=
me ei
6 320 (kTe )3/2
55
The diffusion coefficient D is defined by means of the flux by = nvdi = Dn. The equation
of continuity is t n + (nvdi ) = 0 t n = D2 n. One finds that D = 13 v v. A rough estimate gives
D = Lp /D = L2p c /2v . For magnetized plasmas v must be replaced with the cyclotron radius. In electrical
= e(ne e + ni i )E
with = e/mc the mobility of the particles. The Einstein
fields also holds J = neE
ratio is:
kT
D
=
e
Because a plasma is electrically neutral electrons and ions are strongly coupled and they dont diffuse independent. The coefficient of ambipolar diffusion D amb is defined by = i = e = Damb ne,i . From this
follows that
kTe /e kTi /e
kTe i
Damb =
1/e 1/i
e
In an external magnetic field B 0 particles will move in spiral orbits with cyclotron radius = mv/eB 0
and with cyclotron frequency = B 0 e/m. The helical orbit is perturbed by collisions. A plasma is called
magnetized if v > e,i . So the electrons are magnetized if
me e3 ne ln(C )
e
2
=
<1
ee
6 30 (kTe )3/2 B0
Magnetization of only the electrons is sufficient to confine the plasma reasonable because they are coupled
Combined with the
to the ions by charge neutrality. In case of magnetic confinement holds: p = J B.
two stationary Maxwell equations for the B-field these form the ideal magneto-hydrodynamic equations. For
a uniform B-field holds: p = nkT = B 2 /20 .
=
If both magnetic and electric fields are present electrons and ions will move in the same direction. If E
2
Er er + Ez ez and B = Bz ez the E B drift results in a velocity u = ( E B )/B and the velocity in the
r, plane is r(r,
, t) = u +
(t).
= 2b
ra
r2
dr
b2
W (r)
r2
E0
ra
b
56
I( =
Because the influence of a particle vanishes at r = D holds: = (2D b20 ). Because dp = d(mv) =
mv0 (1 cos ) a cross section related to momentum transfer m is given by:
(1 cos )I()d = 4b20 ln
m =
1
sin( 12 min )
= 4b20 ln
D
b0
:= 4b20 ln(C )
ln(v 4 )
v4
where ln(C ) is the Coulomb-logarithm. For this quantity holds: C = D /b0 = 9n(D ).
|e|p
e2
p er
,
W
(r)
=
40 r2
80 r2
2(40 )2 r4
2e2
holds: = 2b
(40 )2 12 mv02
ra
r2
dr
b2
b4
+ a4
2
r
4r
If b ba the charge would hit the atom. Repulsing nuclear forces prevent this to happen. If the scattering
angle is a lot times 2 it is called capture. The cross section for capture orb = b2a is called the Langevin
limit, and is a lowest estimate for the total cross section.
m2 sin()
m1 + m2 cos()
1
2
2 m2 v2
1
2
2 m1 v1
2m1 m2
(1 cos())
(m1 + m2 )2
57
forward
back
back
h3
nx
eEkin /kT
gx (2mx kT )3/2
where g is the statistical weight of the state and n/g := . For electrons holds g = 2, for excited states usually
holds g = 2j + 1 = 2n2 .
With this one finds for the Boltzmann balance, X p + e
X1 + e + (E1p ):
nB
gp
p
=
exp
n1
g1
Ep E1
kTe
+
And for the Saha balance, X p + e + (Epi )
X1 + 2e :
nSp
n+
h3
1 ne
= +
exp
gp
g1 ge (2me kTe )3/2
Epi
kTe
Because the number of particles on the left-hand side and right-hand side of the equation is different, a factor
g/Ve remains. This factor causes the Saha-jump.
From microscopic reversibility one can derive that for the rate coefficients K(p, q, T ) := v pq holds:
K(q, p, T ) =
Epq
gp
K(p, q, T ) exp
gq
kT
m1 m2 (v1 v2 )2
2(m1 + m2 )
58
Z 2 e4 Eq,q+1
(40 )2 E(E)2pq
4a20 Ry
1
1
Ep
E
ln
1.25E
Ep
A[1 B ln(E)]2
1 + CE 3.3
11.6 Radiation
In equilibrium holds for radiation processes:
np Apq + np Bpq (, T ) = nq Bqp (, T )
* +, +,
+,
*
*
emission
stimulated emission
absorption
Here, Apq is the matrix element of the transition p q, and is given by:
8 2 e2 3 |rpq |2
with rpq = p |r |q
3h0 c3
For hydrogenic atoms holds: A p = 1.58 108 Z 4 p4.5 , with Ap = 1/p = Apq . The intensity I of a line is
Apq =
given by Ipq = hf Apq np /4. The Einstein coefficients B are given by:
Bpq =
c3 Apq
Bpq
gq
and
=
8h 3
Bqp
gp
q
Apq .
59
2 2 ln(2)kTi
=
c
mi
This broadening results
in a Gaussian line profile:
ne
C(ne , Te )
2/3
3/2 cm3 .
with for the H- line: C(n e , Te ) 3 1014 A
The natural broadening and the Stark broadening result in a Lorentz profile of a spectral line:
k = 12 k0 L /[( 21 L )2 + ( 0 )2 ]. The total line shape is a convolution of the Gauss- and Lorentz profile
and is called a Voigt profile.
The number of transitions p q is given by n p Bpq and by np nhf a c = np (d/h)a c where d is the
line width. Then follows for the cross section of absorption processes: a = Bpq h/cd.
The background radiation in a plasma originates from two processes:
1. Free-Bound radiation, originating from radiative recombination. The emission is given by:
C1 zi ni ne
hc
f b = 2
1 exp
f b (, Te )
kTe
kTe
with C1 = 1.63 1043 Wm4 K1/2 sr1 and the Biberman factor.
2. Free-free radiation, originating from the acceleration of particles in the EM-field of other particles:
C1 zi ni ne
hc
exp
f f = 2
f f (, Te )
kTe
kTe
60
/
.
+w
) is the average acceleration, q = 1 nm v 2vt the heat flow,
Here, a = e/m(E
B
t
2
mvt2 F
is a friction term and p = nkT the
Q =
dv the source term for energy production, R
r
t cr
pressure.
e2 (ne + zi ni )
pi
A thermodynamic derivation gives for the total pressure: p = nkT =
240 D
i
For the electrical conductance in a plasma follows from the momentum balance, if w e wi :
J = E
+ pe
J B
ene
In a plasma where only elastic e-a collisions are important the equilibrium energy distribution function is the
Druyvesteyn distribution:
3/2
2
E
3me E
exp
dE
N (E)dE = Cne
E0
m0 E0
with E0 = eEv = eE/n.
To find the population densities of the lower levels in the stationary case one has to start with a macroscopic
equilibrium:
Number of populating processes of level p = Number of depopulating processes of level p ,
When this is expanded it becomes:
nq Kqp + ne
nq Kqp +
nq Aqp + n2e ni K+p + ne ni rad =
ne
* +, * +, q<p
q>p
q>p
*
+,
- *
+,
- * +, - coll. recomb. rad. recomb
coll. excit.
ne np
*
coll. deexcit.
Kpq + ne np
q<p
+,
coll. deexcit.
rad. deex. to
Kpq + np
q>p
+,
coll. excit.
Apq + ne np Kp+
* +, coll. ion.
+, -
q<p
vf
61
i(kzt)
= B0ez + Be
For disturbances in the z-direction in a cold, homogeneous, magnetized plasma: B
and
n = n0 + n
ei(kzt) (external E fields are screened) follows, with the definitions = p / and = /
2
2
and p2 = pi
+ pe
:
, with
J =
E
= i0
s
2s
1
1 s2
is
1 s2
0
is
1 s2
1
1 s2
0
where the sum is taken over particle species s. The dielectric tensor E, with property:
k (E E)
=0
/i0 .
is given by E = I
With the definitions S = 1
s
2 s
2s
s
, D=
, P =1
2s
2
2
1 s
1
s
s
s
follows:
S
iD
E=
0
iD
S
0
0
0
P
The
eigenvalues of this
hermitian matrix are R = S + D, L = S D, 3 = P , with eigenvectors e r =
1
1
2(1,
i,
0),
e
=
e3 = (0, 0, 1). er is connected with a right rotating field for which
l
2
2 2(1, i, 0) and
iEx /Ey = 1 and el is connected with a left rotating field for which iE x /Ey = 1. When k makes an angle
one finds:
with B
P (n2 R)(n2 L)
tan2 () =
S(n2 RL/S)(n2 P )
where n is the refractive index. From this the following solutions can be obtained:
A. = 0: transmission in the z-direction.
1. P = 0: Ex = Ey = 0. This describes a longitudinal linear polarized wave.
2. n2 = L: a left, circular polarized wave.
3. n2 = R: a right, circular polarized wave.
B. = /2: transmission the B-field.
1. n2 = P : the ordinary mode: E x = Ey = 0. This is a transversal linear polarized wave.
2. n2 = RL/S: the extraordinary mode: iE x /Ey = D/S, an elliptical polarized wave.
Resonance frequencies are frequencies for which n 2 , so vf = 0. For these holds: tan() = P/S.
For R this gives the electron cyclotron resonance frequency = e , for L the ion cyclotron
resonance frequency = i and for S = 0 holds for the extraordinary mode:
mi 2i
m2i 2i
2i
2 1
=
1
me 2
m2e 2
2
Cut-off frequencies are frequencies for which n 2 = 0, so vf . For these holds: P = 0 or R = 0 or L = 0.
In the case that 2 1 one finds Alfven waves propagating parallel to the field lines. With the Alfven velocity
vA =
follows: n =
e i
2
2 c
+ pi
2
pe
1 + c/vA , and in case vA c: = kvA .
Chapter 12
with
nG =
r )dV
n(r ) exp(iG
Vcell
cell
63
d2 us
= C(us+1 us ) + C(us1 us )
dt2
Assuming that all solutions have the same time-dependence exp(it) this results in:
M 2 us = C(us+1 + us1 2us )
Further it is postulated that: u s1 = u exp(isKa) exp(iKa).
This gives: us = exp(iKsa). Substituting the later two equations in the fist results in a system of linear
equations, which has only a solution if their determinant is 0. This gives:
2 =
4C
sin2 ( 12 Ka)
M
Only vibrations with a wavelength within the first Brillouin Zone have a physical significance. This requires
that < Ka .
The group velocity of these vibrations is given by:
d
vg =
=
dK
Ca2
cos( 12 Ka) .
M
=C
1
1
+
M1
M2
C
1
1
+
M1
M2
2
4 sin2 (Ka)
M1 M2
2C
M2
2C
M1
K
/a
12.3.3 Phonons
The quantum mechanical excitation of a crystal vibration with an energy h is called a phonon. Phonons
can be viewed as quasi-particles: with collisions, they behave as particles with momentum hK. Their total
momentum is 0. When they collide, their momentum need not be conserved: for a normal process holds:
K1 + K2 = K3 , for an umklapp process holds: K 1 + K2 = K3 + G. Because phonons have no spin they
behave like bosons.
64
D ()
U=
exp(
h/kT ) 1
K
L dK
L d
d =
d
vg
In three dimensions one applies periodic boundary conditions to a cube with N 3 primitive cells and a volume
L3 : exp(i(Kx x + Ky y + Kz z)) exp(i(Kx (x + L) + Ky (y + L) + Kz (z + L))).
Because exp(2i) = 1 this is only possible if:
Kx , Ky , Kz = 0;
4
6
2N
2
;
;
; ...
L
L
L
L
Here, xD = h
D /kT = D /T . D is the Debye temperature and is defined by:
D =
v
h
k
6 2 N
V
1/3
where N is the number of primitive cells. Because x D for T 0 it follows from this:
U = 9N kT
T
D
3
0
3 4 N kT 4
x3 dx
12 4 N kT 3
=
T 4 and CV =
T3
3
x
e 1
5D
5D
In the Einstein model for the thermal heat capacity one considers only phonons at one frequency, an approximation for optical phonons.
65
ferro
M
=
H
paramagnetism
diamagnetism
12.4.1 Dielectrics
The quantum mechanical origin of diamagnetism is the Larmorprecession of the spin of the electron. Starting
with a circular electron orbit in an atom with two electrons, there is a Coulomb force F c and a magnetic force
on each electron. If the magnetic part of the force is not strong enough to significantly deform the orbit holds:
!
2
Fc (r) eB
eB
eB
eB
2
2
=
= 0
(0 + ) =
= 0 L
+ 0
0
mr
m
m
2m
2m
Here, L is the Larmor frequency. One electron is accelerated, the other decelerated. Hence there is a net
circular current which
. / results .in a/magnetic moment . The circular current is given by I = Ze L /2, and
= IA = I 2 = 23 I r2 . If N is the number of atoms in the crystal it follows for the susceptibility,
=
with M
N :
0 N Ze2 . 2 /
0 M
=
r
=
B
6m
12.4.2 Paramagnetism
= mJ gB B, and with a
Starting with the splitting of energy levels in a weak magnetic field: U m B
/kT
),
one
finds
for
the
average
magnetic
moment
=
fm / fm . After
distribution fm exp(U
m
2
linearization and because
mJ = 0, J = 2J + 1 and mJ = 23 J(J + 1)(J + 12 ) it follows that:
p =
0 N
0 J(J + 1)g 2 2B N
0 M
=
=
B
B
3kT
12.4.3 Ferromagnetism
A ferromagnet behaves like a paramagnet above a critical temperature T c . To describe ferromagnetism a field
. From there the treatment is analogous to the paramagnetic
E = 0 M
BE parallel with M is postulated: B
case:
C
0 M = p (Ba + BE ) = p (Ba + 0 M ) = 0 1
M
T
From this follows for a ferromagnet: F =
0 M
C
=
which is Weiss-Curies law.
Ba
T Tc
If BE is estimated this way it results in values of about 1000 T. This is clearly unrealistic and suggests another
mechanism. A quantum mechanical approach from Heisenberg postulates an interaction between two neighj
E . J is an overlap integral given by: J = 3kT c /2zS(S + 1), with
i S
B
bouring atoms: U = 2J S
z the number of neighbours. A distinction between 2 cases can now be made:
1. J > 0: Si and Sj become parallel: the material is a ferromagnet.
66
2J
dS
p1 + S
p+1 )
=
Sp (S
dt
p = u exp(i(pka
From here the treatment is analogous to phonons: postulate traveling waves of the type S
t)). This results in a system of linear equations with solution:
h = 4JS(1 cos(ka))
3 2 N
V
1/3
and EF =
2
h
2m
3 2 N
V
2/3
3/2
2mE
V
The number of states with energy E is then: N =
.
3 2
h2
3/2
2m
V
3N
dN
=
.
E=
and the density of states becomes: D(E) =
2
2
dE
2
2E
h
The heat capacity of the electrons is approximately 0.01 times the classical expected value 32 N k. This is caused
by the Pauli exclusion principle and the Fermi-Dirac distribution: only electrons within an energy range kT
of the Fermi level are excited thermally. There is a fraction T /T F excited thermally. The internal energy
then becomes:
T
U
T
Nk
and C =
U N kT
TF
T
TF
A more accurate analysis gives: C electrons = 12 2 N kT /TF T . Together with the T 3 dependence of the
thermal heat capacity of the phonons the total thermal heat capacity of metals is described by: C = T + AT 3 .
67
The probability density |(+)| 2 is high near the atoms of the lattice and low in between. The probability
density |()|2 is low near the atoms of the lattice and high in between. Hence the energy of (+) is also
lower than the energy of )(). Suppose that U (x) = U cos(2x/a), than the bandgap is given by:
1
Egap =
'
&
U (x) |(+)|2 |()|2 dx = U
12.7 Semiconductors
The band structures and the transitions between them of direct and indirect semiconductors are shown in
the figures below. Here it is assumed that the momentum of the absorbed photon can be neglected. For an
indirect semiconductor a transition from the valence- to the conduction band is also possible if the energy of
the absorbed photon is smaller than the band gap: then, also a phonon is absorbed.
conduction
E
band
g
Direct transition
This difference can also be observed in the absorption spectra:
Indirect transition
68
absorption
absorption
.
...
.
.
..
...
.
.
.
....
..
Eg + h
h g
Direct semiconductor
Indirect semiconductor
So indirect semiconductors, like Si and Ge, cannot emit any light and are therefore not usable to fabricate
lasers. When light is absorbed holds: kh = ke , Eh (kh ) = Ee (ke ), vh = ve and mh = me if the
conduction band and the valence band have the same structure.
Instead of the normal electron mass one has to use the effective mass within a lattice. It is defined by:
2 1
dp/dt
dK
F
d E
2
m =
=
=h
=h
a
dvg /dt
dvg
dk 2
with E = h
and vg = d/dk and p = h
k.
With the distribution function f e (E) exp(( E)/kT ) for the electrons and f h (E) = 1 fe (E) for the
holes the density of states is given by:
3/2
1
2m
E Ec
D(E) =
2 2
h2
with Ec the energy at the edge of the conductance band. From this follows for the concentrations of the holes
p and the electrons n:
n=
De (E)fe (E)dE = 2
m kT
2h2
3/2
exp
Ec
kT
Ec
3
kT
E
m exp g
m
e h
kT
2
h2
For an intrinsic (no impurities) semiconductor holds: n i = pi , for a n type holds: n > p and in a p type
holds: n < p.
An exciton is a bound electron-hole pair, rotating on each other as in positronium. The excitation energy of an
exciton is smaller than the bandgap because the energy of an exciton is lower than the energy of a free electron
and a free hole. This causes a peak in the absorption just under E g .
12.8 Superconductivity
12.8.1 Description
A superconductor is characterized by a zero resistivity if certain quantities are smaller than some critical values:
T < Tc , I < Ic and H < Hc . The BCS-model predicts for the transition temperature T c :
1
Tc = 1.14D exp
U D(EF )
while experiments find for H c approximately:
T2
Hc (T ) Hc (Tc ) 1 2 .
Tc
69
0 M
Hc
Hc1
Type I
H
Hc2
Type II
The transition to a superconducting state is a second order thermodynamic state transition. This means that
there is a twist in the T S diagram and a discontinuity in the C X T diagram.
70
= B/
2.
0 mc2 /nq 2 . From this follows: 2 B
L
The Meissner effect is the solution of this equation: B(x)
= B0 exp(x/L ). Magnetic fields within a
superconductor drop exponentially.
2
xdx
=
,
ax
e +1
12a2
And, when
x2 dx
2
,
=
x
2
(e + 1)
3
n
(1) =
n=0
1
2
sin(px)dx =
follows:
0
cos(px)dx =
0
1
.
p
4
x3 dx
=
x
e +1
15
Chapter 13
Theory of groups
13.1 Introduction
13.1.1 Definition of a group
G is a group for the operation if:
1. A,BG A B G: G is closed.
2. A,B,CG (A B) C = A (B C): G obeys the associative law.
3. EG so that AG A E = E A = A: G has a unit element.
4. AG A1 G so that A A1 = E: Each element in G has an inverse.
If also holds:
5. A,BG A B = B A the group is called Abelian or commutative.
72
(j)
(i)
(R) (R) =
h
ij
5i
13.2.3 Character
The character of a representation is given by the trace of the matrix and is therefore invariant for base transformations: (j) (R) = Tr((j) (R))
Also holds, with Nk the number of elements in a conjugacy class:
k
Theorem:
n
i=1
52i = h
73
where is an irreducible, unitary representation of the symmetry group G of the system. Each n corresponds with another energy level. One can purely mathematical derive irreducible representations of a symmetry group and label the energy levels with a quantum number this way. A fixed choice of (n) (R) defines
(n)
the base functions . This way one can also label each separate base function with a quantum number.
(n)
Particle in a periodical potential: the symmetry operation is a cyclic group: note the operator describing one
translation over one unit as A. Then: G = {A, A 2 , A3 , . . . , Ah = E}.
The group is Abelian so all irreducible representations are one-dimensional. For 0 p h 1 follows:
(p) (An ) = e2ipn/h
2p
2
If one defines: k =
mod
, so: PA p (x) = p (x a) = e2ip/h p (x), this gives Blochs
ah
a
theorem: k (x) = uk (x)eikx , with uk (x a) = uk (x).
5n
5n3 = dim((n3 ) )
Spectrum H0
Spectrum H
(n)
!j
n
j=1 =1
5j (j)
(R)PR F = f(j)
h
RG
f(j)
74
(j)
This is expressed as: f is the part of F that transforms according to the th
row of .
(aj)
(j)
caj . The functions f are in general not
F can also be expressed in base functions : F =
(j)
aj
transformed into each other by elements of the group. However, this does happen if c ja = cja .
Theorem: Two wavefunctions transforming according to non-equivalent unitary representations or according
to different rows of an unitary irreducible representation are orthogonal:
(i) (j)
(i) (i)
| ij , and | is independent of .
(2)
PR ((1)
x1 ) (x2 )) = (PR (1)
x1 ))(PR (x2 ))
(
(
In general the space D (1) D(2) can be split up in a number of invariant subspaces:
ni (i)
(1) (2) =
i
A useful tool for this reduction is that for the characters hold:
(1) (R)(2) (R) =
ni (i) (R)
i
(j)
(a)
With the reduction of the direct-product matrix w.r.t. the basis one uses a new basis
functions lie in subspaces D (ak) . The unitary base transformation is given by:
(j)
(i)
(ak) =
(ij|ak)
. These base
(j)
(a)
(ak|ij)
ak
(i)
(j)
(ak)
(j)
A(j)
(R)
(j)
If (j) is irreducible they are called irreducible tensor operators A (j) with components A .
(j)
ak , with:
An operator can also be decomposed into symmetry types: A =
jk
a(j)
5j (j)
(R) (PR APR1 )
h
RG
75
Theorem: Matrix elements Hij of the operator H which is invariant under AG , are 0 between states which
transform according to non-equivalent irreducible unitary representations or according to different rows of such
(i)
(i)
a representation. Further |H| is independent of . For H = 1 this becomes the previous theorem.
This is applied in quantum mechanics in perturbation theory and variational calculus. Here one tries to diag(i)
onalize H. Solutions can be found within each category of functions with common i and : H is already
diagonal in categories as a whole.
Perturbation calculus can be applied independent within each category. With variational calculus the try function can be chosen within a separate category because the exact eigenfunctions transform according to a row
of an irreducible representation.
(j)
(k)
Theorem: The matrix element |A | can only be = 0 if (j) (k) = . . . (i) . . .. If this is
the case holds (if (i) appears only once, otherwise one has to sum over a):
(i)
(k)
(i)
(j)
(k)
|A(j)
| = (i|jk) A
This theorem can be used to determine selection rules: the probability of a dipole transition is given by (M is
the direction of polarization of the radiation):
PD =
8 2 e2 f 3 |r12 |2
with r12 = l2 m2 |M r |l1 m1
3
h0 c3
Further it can be used to determine intensity ratios: if there is only one value of a the ratio of the matrix
elements are the Clebsch-Gordan coefficients. For more a-values relations between the intensity ratios can be
stated. However, the intensity ratios are also dependent on the occupation of the atomic energy levels.
(x, y + zx , z yx )
(x, y, z) + zx
yx
(x, y, z)
y
z
ix Lx
(x, y, z)
1
h
76
h
i
Rotations:
Translations:
y
z
.
y
z
Jx , Jy and Jz are called the generators of the 3-dim. rotation group, p x , py and pz are called the generators of
the 3-dim. translation group.
The commutation rules for the generators can be derived from the properties of the group for multiplications:
translations are interchangeable p x py py px = 0.
Rotations are not generally interchangeable: consider a rotation around axis n in the xz-plane over an angle
. Then holds: P,n = P,y P,x P,y , so:
p1
pn
"
"
Because of the properties of the Cayley table is demanded: f (R)dR = f (SR)dR. This fixes g(R) except
for a constant factor. Define new variables p by: SR(pi ) = R(pi ). If one writes: dV := dp1 dpn holds:
g(S) = g(E)
dV
dV
Here,
is the Jacobian:
= det
dV
dV
pi
pj
dV
dV
For the translation group holds: g(a) = constant = g(0 ) because g(an )da = g(0 )da and da = da.
This leads to the fundamental orthogonality theorem:
1
(j)
(i)
(R) (R)dR = ij dR
5i
G
(i) (R)(j) (R)dR = ij
"
G
dR
G
dR < .
77
l
eim = 1 + 2
m=l
l
cos(k) =
k=0
sin([l + 12 ])
sin( 12 )
In the performed derivation is the rotational angle around the z-axis. This expression is valid for all rotations
over an angle because the classes of SO(3) are rotations around the same angle around an axis with an
arbitrary orientation.
Via the fundamental orthogonality theorem for characters one obtains the following expression for the density
function (which is normalized so that g(0) = 1):
g() =
sin2 ( 12 )
( 12 )2
With this result one can see that the given representations of SO(3) are the only ones: the character of another
representation would have to be to the already found ones, so () sin2 ( 12 ) = 0 () = 0.
This is contradictory because the dimension of the representation is given by (0).
Because fermions have an half-odd integer spin the states sms with s = 12 and ms = 21 constitute a 2-dim.
space which is invariant under rotations. A problem arises for rotations over 2:
12 ms e2iSz /h 12 ms = e2ims 12 ms = 12 ms
However, in SO(3) holds: R z,2 = E. So here holds E II. Because observable quantities can always be
written as | or |A|, and are bilinear in the states, they do not change sign if the states do. If only one
state changes sign the observable quantities do change.
The existence of these half-odd integer representations is connected with the topological properties of SO(3):
the group is two-fold coherent through the identification R 0 = R2 = E.
78
The states can be characterized by quantum numbers in two ways: with j 1 , m1 , j2 , m2 and with j1 , j2 , J, M .
The Clebsch-Gordan coefficients, for SO(3) called the Wigner coefficients, can be chosen real, so:
j1 j2 JM
=
j1 m1 j2 m2 (j1 m1 j2 m2 |JM )
m
1 m2
j1 j2 JM (j1 m1 j2 m2 |JM )
j1 m1 j2 m2 =
JM
cos sin 0
D(R,z ) = sin cos 0
0
0
1
The
operator
. transformed
/ has the same matrix elements w.r.t. P R and PR :
PR |PR Ax PR1 |PR = |Ax |, and (R,z ) = 1 + 2 cos(). According to the equation for
characters this means one can choose base operators which transform like Y 1m (, ). These turn out to
be the spherical components:
1
1
(1)
(1)
(1)
A+1 = (Ax + iAy ), A0 = Az , A1 = (Ax iAy )
2
2
and
3. A cartesian tensor of rank 2: T ij is a quantity which transforms under rotations like U i Vj , where U
1
V are vectors. So T ij transforms like PR Tij P
=
Tkl Dki (R)Dlj (R), so like D (1) D(1) =
R
kl
(1)
(0)
V
, so as D (0) .
I. Tr(T ) = Txx + Tyy + Tzz . This transforms as the scalar U
V ,
II. The 3 antisymmetric components A z = 12 (Txy Tyx ), etc. These transform as the vector U
(1)
so as D .
III. The 5 independent components of the traceless, symmetric tensor S:
Sij = 12 (Tij + Tji ) 13 ij Tr(T ). These transform as D (2) .
Selection rules for dipole transitions
+
Dipole operators transform as D (1) : for an electric dipole transfer is the operator er, for a magnetic e( L
2S )/2m.
From the Wigner-Eckart theorem follows: J M |A |JM = 0 except D (J ) is a part of D (1) D(J) =
D(J+1) D(J) D(|J1|) . This means that J {J + 1, J, |J 1|}: J = J or J = J 1, except
J = J = 0.
(1)
79
from the Wigner-Eckart theorem: from this follows that the matrix elements from all vector operators show a
follows:
certain proportionality. For an arbitrary operator A
J |jm
jm|A
jm |A|jm
=
jm |J |jm
j(j + 1)
h2
constants of the group. For SO(3) these constants are c ijk = ijk , here ijk is the complete antisymmetric
tensor with 123 = +1.
These constants can be found with the help of group product elements: because G is closed holds:
eiT ei T eiT ei T = ei T . Taylor expansion and setting equal n m -terms results in the commutation rules.
The group SU(2) has 3 free parameters: because it is unitary there are 4 real conditions over 4 complex
parameters, and the determinant has to be +1, remaining 3 free parameters.
Each unitary matrix U can be written as: U = e iH . Here, H is a Hermitian matrix. Further it always holds
that: det(U ) = eiTr(H) .
For each matrix of SU(2) holds that Tr(H)=0. Each Hermitian, traceless 2 2 matrix can be written as a linear
combination of the 3 Pauli-matrices i . So these matrices are a choice for the operators of SU(2). One can
write: SU(2)={exp( 1 i )}.
2
In abstraction, one can consider an isomorphic group where only the commutation rules are considered to be
known regarding the operators T i : [T1 , T2 ] = iT3 , etc.
In elementary particle physics the T i can be interpreted e.g. as the isospin operators. Elementary particles can
be classified in isospin-multiplets, these are the irreducible representations of SU(2). The classification is:
80
The group SU(3) has 8 free parameters. (The group SU(N ) has N 2 1 free parameters). The Hermitian,
traceless operators are 3 SU(2)-subgroups in the e 1e2 , e1e3 and the e2e3 plane. This gives 9 matrices, which
are not all 9 linear independent. By taking a linear combination one gets 8 matrices.
D
:=
Ti Aix
x
Dx
x i=1
8
In the Lagrange density for the colour force one has to substitute
The terms of 3rd and 4th power in A show that the colour field interacts with itself.
Chapter 14
Nuclear physics
14.1 Nuclear forces
The mass of a nucleus is given by:
Mnucl = Zmp + N mn Ebind /c2
The binding energy per nucleon is given in
the figure at the right. The top is at 56
26 Fe,
the most stable nucleus. With the constants
a1
a2
a3
a4
a5
=
=
=
=
=
15.760
17.810
0.711
23.702
34.000
MeV
MeV
MeV
MeV
MeV
9
8
7
E 6
(MeV) 5
4
3
2
1
0
40
80
120 160
A
200
240
and A = Z + N , in the droplet or collective model of the nucleus the binding energy E bind is given by:
Z(Z 1)
(N Z)2
Ebind
+ Ma5 A3/4
= a1 A a2 A2/3 a3
a4
2
1/3
c
A
A
These terms arise from:
1. a1 : Binding energy of the strong nuclear force, approximately A.
2. a2 : Surface correction: the nucleons near the surface are less bound.
3. a3 : Coulomb repulsion between the protons.
4. a4 : Asymmetry term: a surplus of protons or neutrons has a lower binding energy.
5. a5 : Pair off effect: nuclei with an even number of protons or neutrons are more stable because groups of
two protons or neutrons have a lower energy. The following holds:
Z even, N even: M = +1, Z odd, N odd: M = 1.
Z even, N odd: M = 0, Z odd, N even: M = 0.
The Yukawa potential can be derived if the nuclear force can to first approximation, be considered as an
exchange of virtual pions:
r
W0 r0
exp
U (r) =
r
r0
With E t
h, E = m0 c2 and r0 = ct follows: r0 = h
/m0 c.
In the shell model of the nucleus one assumes that a nucleon moves in an average field of other nucleons.
S:
Vls = 1 (2l + 1)
Further, there is a contribution of the spin-orbit coupling L
h. So each level
2
1
(n, l) is split in two, with j = l 2 , where the state with j = l + 12 has the lowest energy. This is just
the opposite for electrons, which is an indication that the L S interaction is not electromagnetical. The
h. N = nx + ny + nz = 2(n 1) + l
energy of a 3-dimensional harmonic oscillator is E = (N + 32 )
where n 1 is the main oscillator number. Because l m l and m s = 12 h there are 2(2l + 1)
82
substates which exist independently for protons and neutrons. This gives rise to the so called magical numbers:
nuclei where each state in the outermost level are filled are particulary stable. This is the case if N or Z
{2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126}.
l = 0 gives rise to monopole vibrations, density vibrations, which can be applied to the
theory of neutron stars.
l = 1 gives dipole vibrations, l = 2 quadrupole, with a 2,0 = cos and a2,2 = 12 2 sin where is the
deformation factor and the shape parameter. The multipole moment is given by l = Zerl Ylm (, ). The
parity of the electric moment is E = (1)l , of the magnetic moment M = (1)l+1 .
and M
S = gS e S.
L = e L
There are 2 contributions to the magnetic moment: M
2mp
2mp
where gS is the spin-gyromagnetic ratio. For protons holds g S = 5.5855 and for neutrons g S = 3.8263.
The z-components of the magnetic moment are given by M L,z = N ml and MS,z = gS N mS . The resulting
= gI (e/2mp)I.
The z-component is then
magnetic moment is related to the nuclear spin I according to M
Mz = N gI mI .
104l
h
(
hc)2
hc
83
where l is the quantum number for the angular momentum and P the radiated power. Usually the
decay constant of electric multipole moments is larger than the one of magnetic multipole moments.
The energy of the photon is E = Ei Ef TR , with TR = E2 /2mc2 the recoil energy, which
can usually be neglected. The parity of the emitted radiation
is l = i f . With I the quantum
number of angular momentum of the nucleus, L = h
I(I + 1), holds the following selection rule:
|Ii If | l |Ii + If |.
R(, )
d
=
d
4nxI
d
N
= n x
N
d
The impact parameter is related to the angular momentum with L = bp = bhk, so bk l. At very low energy
only particles with l = 0 are scattered, so
= 0 +
l and 0 =
l>0
sin2 (0 )
so =
k2
sin(kr)
kr
sin(kr + 0 )
kr
()d =
4 sin2 (0 )
k2
2 k 2 /2m
h
W0 + W
4 2
sin (l )
k2
l
84
mk )c2 .
k>2
The minimal required kinetic energy T of P 1 in the laboratory system to initialize the reaction is
m1 + m2 + mk
T = Q
2m2
If Q < 0 there is a threshold energy.
dQ
eE
=
dm
W3
The Kerma K is the amount of kinetic energy of secundary produced particles which is produced per mass
unit of the radiated object.
The equivalent dose H is a weight average of the absorbed dose per type of radiation, where for each type
radiation the effects on biological material is used for the weight factor. These weight factors are called the
quality factors. Their unit is Sv.
H = QD. If the absorption is not equally distributed also weight factors w
per organ need to be used: H =
wk Hk . For some types of radiation holds:
Radiation type
Rontgen, gamma radiation
, electrons, mesons
Thermic neutrons
Fast neutrons
protons
, fission products
Q
1
1
3 to 5
10 to 20
10
20
Chapter 15
1
ni ni
n1 n2 n3 |n1 n2 n3 =
i=1
(t) =
cn1 n2 (t)|n1 n2
n1 n2
The coefficients c can be interpreted as follows: |c n1 n2 |2 is the probability to find n 1 particles with momen
|cni (t)|2 = 1. The expansion of the states
tum k1 , n2 particles with momentum k2 , etc., and (t)|(t) =
in time is described by the Schrodinger equation
i
d
|(t) = H|(t)
dt
where H = H0 + Hint . H0 is the Hamiltonian for free particles and keeps |c ni (t)|2 constant, Hint is the
interaction Hamiltonian and can increase or decrease a c 2 at the cost of others.
All operators which can change occupation numbers can be expanded in the a and a operators. a is the
annihilation operator and a the creation operator, and:
ni |n1 n2 ni 1
a(ki )|n1 n2 ni =
ni + 1 |n1 n2 ni + 1
a (ki )|n1 n2 ni =
Because the states are normalized holds a|0 = 0 and a(ki )a (ki )|ni = ni |ni . So aa is an occupation
number operator. The following commutation rules can be derived:
[a(ki ), a(kj )] = 0 , [a (ki ), a (kj )] = 0 , [a(ki ), a (kj )] = ij
Hence for free spin-0 particles holds: H 0 =
a (ki )a(ki )
hki
i
L
L
=0
x ( )
The conjugated field is, analogous to momentum in classical mechanics, defined as:
(x) =
86
L(x).
With this, the Hamilton density becomes H(x) =
Quantization of a classical field is analogous to quantization in point mass mechanics: the field functions are
considered as operators obeying certain commutation rules:
[ (x), (x )] = 0 , [ (x), (x )] = 0 , [ (x), (x )] = i (x x )
d
d
|(t) = Hint (t)|(t) and i O(t) = [O(t), H0 ]
dt
dt
The field operators contain a volume V , which is used as normalization factor. Usually one can take the limit
V .
In general it holds that the term with e ikx , the positive frequency part, is the creation part, and the negative
frequency part is the annihilation part.
the coefficients have to be each others hermitian conjugate because is hermitian. Because has only one
component this can be interpreted as a field describing a particle with spin zero. From this follows that the
commutation rules are given by [(x), (x )] = i(x x ) with
1
sin(ky) 3
(y) =
d k
(2)3
k
(y) is an odd function which is invariant for proper Lorentz transformations (no mirroring). This is consistent
with the previously found result [(x, t, (x , t)] = 0. In general holds that (y) = 0 outside the light cone.
So the equations obey the locality postulate.
The Lagrange density is given by: L(, ) = 12 ( + m2 2 ). The energy operator is given by:
hk a (k )a(k )
H = H(x)d3 x =
k
87
f
=0
x ( )
This is a continuity equation conservation law. Which quantity is conserved depends on the symmetry. The
above Lagrange density is invariant for a change in phase e i : a global gauge transformation. The
conserved quantity is the current density J (x) = ie( ). Because this quantity is 0 for real
fields a complex field is needed to describe charged particles. When this field is quantized the field operators
are given by
1 1 ikx
1 1 ikx
hk a (k )a(k ) + b (k )b(k )
k
From this follows that a a := N+ (k ) is an occupation number operator for particles with a positive charge
and b b := N (k ) is an occupation number operator for particles with a negative charge.
i
n L
(x) = (x)e
with L = ih x
x
x
x
For 3, 3 these are rotations, for = 4, = 4 these are Lorentz transformations.
A rotated field obeys the Dirac equation if the following condition holds: (x)
= D()(1 x). This
1
1
i
n S
results in the condition D D = . One finds: D = e
with S = i 2 h . Hence:
(x)
= ei(S+L) (x) = eiJ (x)
Then the solutions of the Dirac equation are given by:
p )ei(pxEt)
(x) = ur (
Here, r is an indication for the direction of the spin, and is the sign of the energy. With the notation
v r (
p ) = ur (
p ) and ur (
p ) = ur+ (
p ) one can write for the dot products of these spinors:
p )ur+ (
p) =
ur+ (
E
E
rr , ur (
rr , ur+ (
p )ur (
p) =
p )ur (
p) = 0
M
M
88
Because of the factor E/M this is not relativistic invariant. A Lorentz-invariant dot product is defined by
ab := a 4 b, where a := a 4 is a row spinor. From this follows:
ur (
p )ur (
p ) = rr , v r (
p )v r (
p ) = rr , ur (
p )v r (
p) = 0
Combinations of the type aa give a 4 4 matrix:
2
(
p )ur (
p)
r=1
2
i p + M
i p M
,
=
v r (
p )v r (
p) =
2M
2M
r=1
The Lagrange density which results in the Dirac equation and having the correct energy normalization is:
L(x) = (x)
+ M (x)
x
and the current density is J (x) = ie .
cr (
p )ur (
p )eipx + dr (
p )v r (
p )eipx
(x) =
V
E r
p
and
(x) =
$
M 1 #
cr (
p )ur (
p )eipx + dr (
p )v r (
p )eipx
V
E r
p
Here, c and c are the creation respectively annihilation operators for an electron and d and d the creation
respectively annihilation operators for a positron. The energy operator is given by
H=
p
Ep
2
#
$
cr (
p )cr (
p ) dr (
p )dr (
p)
r=1
To prevent that the energy of positrons is negative the operators must obey anti commutation rules in stead of
commutation rules:
[cr (
p ), cr (
p )]+ = [dr (
p ), dr (
p )]+ = rr pp , all other anti commutators are 0.
The field operators obey
[ (x), (x )] = 0 , [ (x), (x )] = 0 , [ (x), (x )]+ = iS (x x )
M (x)
with S(x) =
x
The anti commutation rules give besides the positive-definite energy also the Pauli exclusion principle and the
Fermi-Dirac statistics: because cr (
p )cr (
p ) = cr (
p )cr (
p ) holds: {cr (p)}2 = 0. It appears to be impossible
to create two electrons with the same momentum and spin. This is the exclusion principle. Another way to see
p )}2 = Nr+ (
p ): the occupation operators have only eigenvalues 0 and 1.
this is the fact that {Nr+ (
To avoid infinite vacuum contributions to the energy and charge the normal product is introduced. The expression for the current density now becomes J = ieN ( ). This product is obtained by:
Expand all fields into creation and annihilation operators,
Keep all terms which have no annihilation operators, or in which they are on the right of the creation
operators,
In all other terms interchange the factors so that the annihilation operators go to the right. By an interchange of two fermion operators add a minus sign, by interchange of two boson operators not. Assume
hereby that all commutators are zero.
89
A A
x x
A(x) =
am (k )Mm (k )eikx + a (k )Mm (k ) eikx
2k m=1
V
k
The operators obey [a m (k ), am (k )] = mm kk . All other commutators are 0. m gives the polarization
direction of the photon: m = 1, 2 gives transversal polarized, m = 3 longitudinal polarized and m = 4
timelike polarized photons. Further holds:
[A (x), A (x )] = i D(x x ) with D(y) = (y)|m=0
In spite of the fact that A 4 = iV is imaginary in the classical case, A 4 is still defined to be hermitian because otherwise the sign of the energy becomes incorrect. By changing the definition of the inner product in
configuration space the expectation values for A 1,2,3 (x) IR and for A4 (x) become imaginary.
If the potentials satisfy the Lorentz gauge condition A = 0 the E and B operators derived from these
potentials will satisfy the Maxwell equations. However, this gives problems with the commutation rules. It is
now demanded that only those states are permitted for which holds
A+
| = 0
x
A
= 0.
x
From this follows that (a 3 (k ) a4 (k ))| = 0. With a local gauge transformation one obtains N 3 (k ) = 0
and N4 (k ) = 0. However, this only applies to free EM-fields: in intermediary states in interactions there
can exist longitudinal and timelike photons. These photons are also responsible for the stationary Coulomb
potential.
(i)n
S (n)
T {Hint (x1 ) Hint (xn )} d4 x1 d4 xn
n!
n=0
n=0
Here, the T -operator means a time-ordered product: the terms in such a product must be ordered in increasing
time order from the right to the left so that the earliest terms act first. The S-matrix is then given by: S ij =
i |S|j = i |().
The interaction Hamilton density for the interaction between the electromagnetic and the electron-positron
field is: Hint (x) = J (x)A (x) = ieN ( A )
90
eight terms appear. Each term corresponds with a possible process. The term ie + + A
acting on |
+
+
gives transitions where A creates a photon, annihilates an electron and annihilates a positron. Only
terms with the correct number of particles in the initial and final state contribute to a matrix element i |S|j .
Further the factors in H int can create and thereafter annihilate particles: the virtual particles.
The expressions for S (n) contain time-ordered products of normal products. This can be written as a sum of
normal products. The appearing operators describe the minimal changes necessary to change the initial state
into the final state. The effects of the virtual particles are described by the (anti)commutator functions. Some
time-ordened products are:
T {(x)(y)}
;
<
T (x) (y)
= N {(x)(y)} + 12 F (x y)
;
<
F
= N (x) (y) 12 S
(x y)
T {A (x)A (y)}
F
= N {A (x)A (y)} + 12 D
(x y)
ikx
1
e
d3 k
(2)
k
F (x) =
ikx
1
e
d3 k
3
(2)
k
if x0 > 0
if x0 < 0
The term 12 F (x y) is called the contraction of (x) and (y), and is the expectation value of the timeordered product in the vacuum state. Wicks theorem gives an expression for the time-ordened product of
an arbitrary number of field operators. The graphical representation of these processes are called Feynman
diagrams. In the x-representation each diagram describes a number of processes. The contraction functions
can also be written as:
2i
2i
i p M 4
eikx
F
4
F
d k and S (x) = lim
d p
(x) = lim
eipx 2
D0 (2)4
D0 (2)4
k 2 + m2 iM
p + M 2 iM
In the expressions for S (2) this gives rise to terms (p + k p k ). This means that energy and momentum
is conserved. However, virtual particles do not obey the relation between energy and momentum.
91
gluon
W+
Z
graviton
spin (
h) B
1/2 1/3
1/2 1/3
1/2 1/3
1/2 1/3
1/2 1/3
1/2 1/3
1/2 0
1/2 0
1/2 0
1/2 0
1/2 0
1/2 0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
2
0
L
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
T
1/2
1/2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
T3
1/2
1/2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
S
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
C
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
B
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
charge (e)
+2/3
1/3
1/3
+2/3
1/3
+2/3
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
+1
0
0
m 0 (MeV)
5
9
175
1350
4500
173000
0.511
105.658
1777.1
0(?)
0(?)
0(?)
0
0
80220
91187
0
antipart.
u
d
s
c
b
t
e+
+
+
e
gluon
W
Z
graviton
Here B is the baryon number and L the lepton number. It is found that there are three different lepton numbers,
one for e, and , which are separately conserved. T is the isospin, with T 3 the projection of the isospin on
the third axis, C the charmness, S the strangeness and B the bottomness. The anti particles have quantum
numbers with the opposite sign except for the total isospin T. The composition of (anti)quarks of the hadrons
is given in the following table, together with their mass in MeV in their ground state:
0
+
K0
K0
K+
K
D+
D
D0
D0
F+
F
1
2
2(uu+dd)
ud
du
sd
ds
us
su
cd
dc
cu
uc
cs
sc
134.9764
139.56995
139.56995
497.672
497.672
493.677
493.677
1869.4
1869.4
1864.6
1864.6
1969.0
1969.0
J/
p+
p
n0
n0
0
0
cc
bb
uud
uud
udd
udd
uds
uds
uus
uus
uds
uds
dds
3096.8
9460.37
938.27231
938.27231
939.56563
939.56563
1115.684
1115.684
1189.37
1189.37
1192.55
1192.55
1197.436
+
0
0
+
+
c
2
2+
+
0
dds
uss
uss
dss
dss
sss
sss
udc
uuu
uuu
uud
udd
ddd
1197.436
1314.9
1314.9
1321.32
1321.32
1672.45
1672.45
2285.1
1232.0
1232.0
1232.0
1232.0
1232.0
Each quark can exist in two spin states. So mesons are bosons with spin 0 or 1 in their ground state, while
baryons are fermions with spin 12 or 32 . There exist excited states with higher internal L. Neutrinos have a
helicity of 21 while antineutrinos have only + 21 as possible value.
The quantum numbers are subject to conservation laws. These can be derived from symmetries in the Lagrange density: continuous symmetries give rise to additive conservation laws, discrete symmetries result in
multiplicative conservation laws.
Geometrical conservation laws are invariant under Lorentz transformations and the CPT-operation. These are:
1. Mass/energy because the laws of nature are invariant for translations in time.
92
2. Momentum because the laws of nature are invariant for translations in space.
3. Angular momentum because the laws of nature are invariant for rotations.
Dynamical conservation laws are invariant under the CPT-operation. These are:
1. Electrical charge because the Maxwell equations are invariant under gauge transformations.
2. Colour charge is conserved.
3. Isospin because QCD is invariant for rotations in T-space.
4. Baryon number and lepton number are conserved but not under a possible SU(5) symmetry of the laws
of nature.
5. Quarks type is only conserved under the colour interaction.
6. Parity is conserved except for weak interactions.
The elementary particles can be classified into three families:
leptons
1st generation
e
e
2nd generation
3rd generation
quarks
antileptons
antiquarks
d
u
e
e
d
u
s
c
s
c
b
t
b
t
Quarks exist in three colours but because they are confined these colours cannot be seen directly. The color
force does not decrease with distance. The potential energy will become high enough to create a quarkantiquark pair when it is tried to disjoin an (anti)quark from a hadron. This will result in two hadrons and not
in free quarks.
The. probability
to find a final state with CP= 1 is
/
1
0
0 2
|
|
K
|K
.
1
2
1
2|
93
. 0 0/ 2
K2 |K | , the probability of CP=+1 decay is
The relation between the mass eigenvalues of the quarks (unaccented) and the fields arising in the weak currents
(accented) is (u , c , t ) = (u, c, t), and:
sin 1 0
1
0
0
1 0 0
cos 1
d
s = 0 cos 2
sin 2 0 1 0 sin 1 cos 1 0
b
0 sin 2 cos 2
0
0
1
0 0 ei
d
1
0
0
0 cos 3
sin 3 s
0 sin 3 cos 3
b
1 C is the Cabibbo angle: sin( C ) 0.23 0.01.
=
i Lk Ak
x
Dx
x
h
Here the Lk are the generators of the gauge group (the charges) and the A k are the gauge fields. g is the
matching coupling constant. The Lagrange density for a scalar field becomes:
a
L = 21 (D D + M 2 ) 14 F
Fa
a
and the field tensors are given by: F
= Aa Aa + gcalm Al Am
.
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
5 := 1 2 3 4 =
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
the left- and right- handed solutions of the Dirac equation for neutrinos are given by:
L = 12 (1 + 5 ) and R = 12 (1 5 )
It appears that neutrinos are always left-handed while antineutrinos are always right-handed. The hypercharge
Y , for quarks given by Y = B + S + C + B + T , is defined by:
Q = 12 Y + T3
so [Y, Tk ] = 0. The group U(1) Y SU(2)T is taken as symmetry group for the electroweak interaction because
the generators of this group commute. The multiplets are classified as follows:
e
R
eL e
L
uL dL
uR
dR
1
2
1
2
4
3
23
T3
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
3
1
2
94
(
(1)
L0,EW = (e,L , eL ) i A
2
2
eL
h
h
g
eR 12 i (2)B eR
h
Here, 12 are the generators of T and 1 and 2 the generators of Y .
=
=
and 0||0 =
0
(v + iz)/ 2
v/ 2
Because this expectation value = 0 the SU(2) symmetry is broken but the U(1) symmetry is not. When the
gauge fields in the resulting Lagrange density are separated one obtains:
gA3 g B
A3 cos(W ) B sin(W )
g 2 + g 2
g A3 + gB
A3 sin(W ) + B cos(W )
g 2 + g 2
where W is called the Weinberg angle. For this angle holds: sin 2 (W ) = 0.255 0.010. Relations
for the
masses of the field quanta can be obtained from the remaining terms: M W = 12 vg and MZ = 12 v g 2 + g 2 ,
gg
and for the elementary charge holds: e =
= g cos(W ) = g sin(W )
2
2
g +g
Experimentally it is found that M W = 80.022 0.26 GeV/c2 and MZ = 91.187 0.007 GeV/c2 . According
to the weak theory this should be: M W = 83.0 0.24 GeV/c2 and MZ = 93.8 2.0 GeV/c2 .
15.13.3 Quantumchromodynamics
Coloured particles interact because the Lagrange density is invariant for the transformations of the group SU(3)
of the colour interaction. A distinction can be made between two types of particles:
1. White particles: they have no colour charge, the generator T = 0.
2. Coloured particles: the generators T are 8 3 3 matrices. There exist three colours and three anticolours.
The Lagrange density for coloured particles is given by
a
LQCD = i
k D k +
k Mkl l 14 F
Fa
k
k,l
The gluons remain massless because this Lagrange density does not contain spinless particles. Because leftand right- handed quarks now belong to the same multiplet a mass term can be introduced. This term can be
brought in the form M kl = mk kl .
95
1 1
dx(tn )
d[x] := lim
n N
in which N is a normalization constant. To each path is assigned a probability amplitude exp(iS/h). The
classical limit can be found by taking S = 0: the average of the exponent vanishes, except where it is
stationary. In quantum fieldtheory, the probability of the transition of a fieldoperator (x, ) to (x, )
is given by
iS[]
F ( (x, ), (x, )) = exp
d[]
h
with the action-integral
L(, )d4 x
S[] =
Chapter 16
Astrophysics
16.1 Determination of distances
The parallax is mostly used to determine distances in nearby space. The parallax is the angular difference
between two measurements of the position of the object from different view-points. If the annual parallax is
given by p, the distance R of the object is given by R = a/ sin(p), in which a is the radius of the Earths orbit.
The clusterparallax is used to determine the distance of a group of stars by using their motion w.r.t. a fixed
background. The tangential velocity v t and the radial velocity v r of the stars along the sky are given by
vr = V cos() , vt = V sin() = R
the
where is the angle between the star and the point of convergence and R
distance in pc. This results, with v t = vr tan(), in:
R=
vr tan()
= 1
R
4.74
vr tan()
-5
-4
M -3
-2
-1
Type 1
Type 2
0
1
RR-Lyrae
0,1 0,3 1
3 10 30 100
P (days)
with de proper motion of the star in /yr. A method to determine the distance of objects which are somewhat
further away, like galaxies and star clusters, uses the period-Brightness relation for Cepheids. This relation is
shown in the above figure for different types of stars.
2
4R
F d
0
where F is the monochromatic radiation flux. At the position of an observer this is f , with f = (R/r)2 F
if absorption is ignored. If A is the fraction of the flux which reaches Earths surface, the transmission factor
is given by R and the surface of the detector is given by a 2 , then the apparent brightness b is given by:
b = a
f A R d
0
97
because the human eye perceives lightintensities logaritmical. From this follows that m 2 m1 = 2.5 10
log(b1 /b2 ), or: m = 2.5 10 log(b) + C. The apparent brightness of a star if this star would be at a distance
of 10 pc is called the absolute brightness B: B/b = (
r /10) 2 . The absolute magnitude is then given by
10
10
M = 2.5 log(B) + C, or: M = 5 + m 5 log(
r ). When an interstellar absorption of 10 4 /pc is taken
into account one finds:
r)
M = (m 4 104 r) + 5 5 10 log(
If a detector detects all radiation emitted by a source one would measure the absolute bolometric magnitude.
If the bolometric correction BC is given by
"
f d
Energy flux received
BC = 2.5 10 log
= 2.5 10 log "
Energy flux detected
f A R d
holds: Mb = MV BC where MV is the visual magnitude. Further holds
L
10
Mb = 2.5 log
+ 4.72
L
1
c
2h 3
w (T ) = 2
4
c exp(h/kT ) 1
"
Here, j is the coefficient of emission and the coefficient
of absorption. ds is the thickness of the layer.
"
The optical thickness of the layer is given by = ds. The layer is optically thin if 1, the layer
is optically thick if 1. For a stellar atmosphere in LTE holds: j = B (T ). Then also holds:
I (s) = I (0)e + B (T )(1 e )
43(r)r2
43(r)(r)r2
GM (r)3(r)
r2
3 L(r) (r)
, (Eddington), or
4 4r2 4T 3 (r)
T (r) 1 dp(r)
, (convective energy transport)
p(r)
dr
Further, for stars of the solar type, the composing plasma can be described as an ideal gas:
p(r) =
3(r)kT (r)
mH
98
3
1
=
3
nmH
2X + 4 Y + 12 Z
where X is the mass fraction of H, Y the mass fraction of He and Z the mass fraction of the other elements.
Further holds:
(r) = f (3(r), T (r), composition) and (r) = g(3(r), T (r), composition)
Convection will occur when the star meets the Schwartzschild criterium:
dT
dT
<
dr conv
dr rad
Otherwise the energy transfer takes place by radiation. For stars in quasi-hydrostatic equilibrium hold the
approximations r = 12 R, M (r) = 12 M , dM/dr = M/R, 3 and 3T (this last assumption is only
valid for stars on the main sequence). For pp-chains holds 5 and for the CNO chains holds = 12 tot 18.
8
. This results in
It can be derived that L M 3 : the mass-brightness relation. Further holds: L R 4 Te
the equation for the main sequence in the Hertzsprung-Russel diagram:
10
14
N + p+
15
15
N+
15
O+
N + p+ +12 C
12
C + p+ 13 N +
13
N 13 C + e+ +
13
C + p+ 14 N +
15
N + p+ 16 O +
16
O + p+ 17 F +
17
F 17 O + e+ +
17
O + p+ + 14 N
15
The operator
99
The -operator
In cartesian coordinates (x, y, z) holds:
= ex + ey + ez , gradf = f
= f ex + f ey + f ez
x
y
z
x
y
z
ay
az
ax
2f
2f
2f
+
+
, 2 f =
+ 2 + 2
2
x
y
z
x
y
z
az
ax
ay
ay
az
ax
rot a = a =
ex +
ey +
ez
y
z
z
x
x
y
a =
div a =
r
r
z
r
r
z
ar
1 a
az
1 2f
ar
2f
1 f
2f
+
+
+
, 2 f =
+ 2
+
+ 2
2
2
r
r
r
z
r
r r
r
z
1 az
ar
a
a
az
a
1 ar
rot a =
er +
e +
ez
r
z
z
r
r
r
r
div a =
gradf
div a
rot a
2 f
1
1
er +
e +
e
r
r
r sin
f
1 f
1 f
er +
e +
e
r
r
r sin
2ar
1 a
a
1 a
ar
+
+
+
+
r
r
r
r tan r sin
1 a
1 ar
a
1 a
a
a
+
er +
e +
r
r tan r sin
r sin
r
r
a
a
1 ar
+
e
r
r
r
2f
1 2f
f
1
2f
2 f
1
+
+
+
+
r2
r r
r2 2
r2 tan
r2 sin2 2
General orthonormal curvelinear coordinates (u, v, w) can be obtained from cartesian coordinates by the transformation x = x(u, v, w). The unit vectors are then given by:
eu =
1 x
1 x
1 x
, ev =
, ew =
h1 u
h2 v
h3 w
div a
rot a
2 f
1 f
1 f
1 f
eu +
ev +
ew
h1 u
h v
h3 w
2
(h2 h3 au ) +
(h3 h1 av ) +
(h1 h2 aw )
h1 h2 h3 u
v
w
1
(h3 aw ) (h2 av )
(h1 au ) (h3 aw )
1
eu +
ev +
h2 h3
v
w
h3 h1
w
u
(h2 av ) (h1 au )
1
ew
h1 h2
u
v
h2 h3 f
h1 h2 f
1
h3 h1 f
+
+
h1 h2 h3 u
h1 u
v
h2 v
w
h3 w
The SI units
100
The SI units
Basic units
Quantity
Length
Mass
Time
Therm. temp.
Electr. current
Luminous intens.
Amount of subst.
Unit
metre
kilogram
second
kelvin
ampere
candela
mol
Sym.
m
kg
s
K
A
cd
mol
radian
sterradian
rad
sr
Extra units
Plane angle
solid angle
Quantity
Unit
Sym.
Derivation
Frequency
Force
Pressure
Energy
Power
Charge
El. Potential
El. Capacitance
El. Resistance
El. Conductance
Mag. flux
Mag. flux density
Inductance
Luminous flux
Illuminance
Activity
Absorbed dose
Dose equivalent
hertz
newton
pascal
joule
watt
coulomb
volt
farad
ohm
siemens
weber
tesla
henry
lumen
lux
bequerel
gray
sievert
Hz
N
Pa
J
W
C
V
F
S
Wb
T
H
lm
lx
Bq
Gy
Sv
s 1
kg m s 2
N m2
Nm
J s1
As
W A1
C V 1
V A1
A V 1
Vs
Wb m 2
Wb A 1
cd sr
lm m 2
s 1
J kg 1
J kg 1
Prefixes
yotta
zetta
exa
peta
tera
Y
Z
E
P
T
1024
1021
1018
1015
1012
giga
mega
kilo
hecto
deca
G
M
k
h
da
109
106
103
102
10
deci
centi
milli
micro
nano
d
c
m
101
102
103
106
10 9
pico
femto
atto
zepto
yocto
p
f
a
z
y
1012
1015
1018
1021
10 24