TYPES OF STRUCTURES AND LOADS

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Introduction
Fundamental of Structural Theory
Classification
Loads
Structural Design

Introduction
Structure
.. a system of connected parts used to support a load..

Design of Structures
- Safety
- Esthetics
- Serviceability
- Environment
- Economy

Analysis of Structures
- Strength
- Rigidity

Idealization of Structures
- Physical Model
- Mathematical Model

Fundamental of Structural Theory

Idealization

Physical Model
Members
Connections
Supports
Loads
Free-body Diagrams
System
Member
Mathematical Model
Equilibrium Conditions
Compatibility Conditions
Constitutive Relationship

Mathematical Model
Equilibrium conditions
F = 0,

M = 0

Compatibility conditions
- Continuity condition
- Boundary condition
Constitutive relationship of stress and strain
E=

Classification of Structures
Structural Elements
Tie Rods

bar

rod

angle
tie rod

channel

typical cross sections

Beams

simply supported beam

flange
web
flange

cantilevered beam

fixed-supported beam

overhanging beam

continuous beam

Columns

column

beam column

 Types of Structures
Trusses
compression

tension
Cables and Arches

cables support their loads in tension

arches support their loads in compression

Frames

rigid

pinned

rigid

pinned

Surface Structures

Thin membrane roof.

Loads
Dead Loads
Live Loads
Building Loads
Bridge Loads

Wind Loads
Snow Loads
Earthquake Loads
Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure
Other Natural Loads

10

Table 1-1 Codes

General Building Codes
Minimum Design Loads for Building and other Structures, ANSI / ASCE 7-95,
American Society of Civil Engineers
*Basic Building Code, Building Officials and Code Administrators International
(BOCA)
*Standard Building Code, Southern Building Code Congress International
*Uniform Building Code, International Conference of Building Officials (UBC)
Design Codes
Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, Am. Conc. Inst. (ACI)
Manual of Steel Construction, American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)
Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
National Design Specification, American Institute of Timber Construction (ATTC)
Manual for Railway Engineering, American Railway Engineering Association
(AREA)

11

Table 1-2

1.

2.

3.

kg/m3
2400
2320
630
500-1000
700-1200
7850
kg/m2
14
12
50
12
50
5
10-30

4.
5. 1
6.
11/2 X 3 @ 0.40
11/2 X 3 @ 0.60
4 mm
8 mm

4 mm
1/2
10 cm

10 cm
15 cm
20 cm

5
30-50
kg/m2
15
10
7
14
4
4
20
180
360
100-150
170-180
220-240

12

Table 1-3

1.
2.
3.
4.

.


5.
6. ()

()

7. ()


()

(kg/m2)
30
100
150
200
250
300
300
400
500

13

Table 1-3

()

8. ()

()

9.
10.

(kg/m2)
500
500
600
800

14


1-3

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)

0
0
0
10
20
30
40
50

15

AI
L = ( 0.25 +

4.57
AI

Lo (FPS units)

15

L = ( 0.25 +

Lo

(SI units)

Where,
L = reduced design live load per square foot or square meter of area supported
by the member, > 0.5 Lo for 1 floor, > 0.4 Lo for 2 floors or more
Lo = unreduced design live load per square foot or square meter of area
supported by the member (see Table 1-4)
AI = influence area in square feet (> 400) or (>37) square meters, equal to four
times the tributary or effective load-carrying floor area for a column, and
two times the tributary or effective load-carrying floor area for a beam*
The reduced load L
>.50 Lo , for floor (2-story)
>.40 Lo , for floor (>2-story)
=1.00 Lofor roof, public hall, parking garage

16

Table 1-4 Minimum Live Loads*

Occupancy or Use
Assembly areas and theaters
Fixed seats
Movable seats
Dance halls and ballrooms
Garages (passenger cars only)
Office buildings
Lobbies
Offices
Storage warehouse
Light
Heavy
Residential
Dwellings (one- and two-family)
Hotels and multifamily houses
Private rooms
Public rooms
Schools
Classrooms
Corridors above first floor

Live Load
psf
kN/m2
60
100
100
50

2.87
4.79
4.79
2.40

100
50

4.79
2.40

125
250

6.00
11.97

40

1.92

40
100

1.92
4.79

40
80

1.92
3.83

17

Example 1-1
The floor beam in the figure below is used to support the 2 m width of a
lightweight plain concrete slab having a thickness of 10 cm. The slab serves as a
portion of the ceiling for the floor below, and therefore its bottom is coated with
plaster (25 kg/m2). Furthermore, an 2.5 m height, 30 cm thick masonry wall is
directly over the top flange of the beam. Determine the loading on the beam
measured per foot of length of the beam.

30 cm.

2.5 m.

1 m. 1 m.

10 cm.

plaster

18

SOLUTION
Table 1-2

1.

2.

3.

kg/m3
2400
2320
630
500-1000
700-1200
7850
kg/m2
14
12
50
12
50
5
10-30

4.
5. 1
6.
11/2 X 3 @ 0.40
11/2 X 3 @ 0.60
4 mm
8 mm

4 mm
1/2

10 cm
10 cm
15 cm
20 cm

5
30-50
kg/m2
15
10
7
14
4
4
20
360
100
100-150
170-180
220-240

19

30 cm.

2.5 m.

1 m. 1 m.

Concrete slab:

14 kN/m (1430 kg/m)

10 cm.

(2400

kg
)
3
m

( 2m)(0.1m) = 480 kg/m

( 25

Plaster ceiling:

Masonry wall:

2400 kg/m3
360 kg/m2

(360

kg
)
2
m

Total load

kg
)(2m) = 50
2
m

( 2.5m) = 900

kN/m

kg/m

= 1430 kg/m

20

Example 1-2a
A two-story office building has interior columns that are spaced 7 m apart in two
perpendicular directions. If the (flat) roof loading is 100 kg/m2 determine the
reduced live load supported by the spread-footing foundation. Assume the ground
floor is a slab on grade.

At

7m
7m

7m

7m

21

SOLUTION: ANSI-based US Code

The roof loading is 100 kg/m2
At

7m
7m

7m

7m

At = (7 m)(7 m) = 49 m2
FR = (100 kg/m2)(49 m2) = 4.90 T
For the second floor, the live load is taken from table 1-4:
Lo = 250 kg/m2 .

Since AI = 4At = 4(49 m2) = 196 m2 > 37.2 m2 , the live load can be reduced. Thus,
L = (0.25 +

4.57
4.57
)250 = (0.575)250 = 144 kg / m 2
) Lo = (0.25 +
4(49)
4 AT

The load reduction = (0.575) L0 > ( 0.50) L0 O.K. Therefore

FF = (144 kg/m2)(49 m2) = 7.044 T

22

At

7m
7m

7m

7m

For the ground floor, the live load is taken from table 1-4:
Lo = 250 kg/m2 . No live load reduction is allowed.
FG = (250 kg/m2)(49 m2) = 12.25 T
The total live load supported by the foundation is thus
F = FR + FF + FG = 4.90 + 7.044 + 12.25 = 24.19 T

23

SOLUTION: Thai Code

roof loading is 100 kg/m2
At

7m
7m

7m

7m

At = (7 m)(7 m) = 49 m2
FR = (100 kg/m2)(49 m2) = 4.90 T
For the second and ground floor, the live load is
taken from table 1-4:Lo = 250 kg/m2 .
FF = (250 kg/m2)(49 m2) = 12.25 T

The total live load supported by thefooting is thus

F = FR + FF = 4.90 + 12.25 + 12.25 = 29.4 T

24

Example 1-2b
A eleven-story office building has interior columns that are spaced 7 m apart in
two perpendicular directions. If the (flat) roof loading is 100 kg/m2 and floor
loading is 250 kg/m2 determine the reduced live load supported by a typical
interior footing using the US code and Thai code.
roof deck
10
9
At
7m
8
7
6
7m
5
4
7m
7m
3
2
1
ground

25

SOLUTION
For the US code based on ANSI:
At

7m
7m

7m
roof deck
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
ground

7m

At = (7 m)(7 m) = 49 m2
For the second floor, the live load is taken from table 1-4:
Lo = 250 kg/m2 .
Since 4At = 4(49 m2) = 196 m2 > 37.2 m2 , the
live load can be reduced. Thus,
L = (0.25 +

4.57
) Lo
4 At

4.57
)250
196
= 0.575(250) = 144 kg / m 2
= (0.25 +

The load reduction here is (0.575)L0 > (0.40)L0 O.K.

Therefore use 0.575 for all.
For Thai code: see table 1-3b.

26

Floor

American Code

Thai Code

Live load (kg) Accumulated load (kg)

Live load (kg)

Accumulated load (kg)

(1.000)(100)(49)

4 900

(1.000)(100)(49)

4 900

10

(0.575)(250)(49)

11 940

(1.000)(250)(49)

17 150

(0.575)(250)(49)

18 990

(1.000)(250)(49)

29 400

(0.575)(250)(49)

26 030

(0.900)(250)(49)

40 420

(0.575)(250)(49)

33 080

(0.800)(250)(49)

50 220

(0.575)(250)(49)

40 120

(0.700)(250)(49)

58 800

(0.575)(250)(49)

47 160

(0.600)(250)(49)

66 150

(0.575)(250)(49)

54 210

(0.500)(250)(49)

72 280

(0.575)(250)(49)

61 250

(0.500)(250)(49)

78 400

(0.575)(250)(49)

68 290

(0.500)(250)(49)

84 500

(0.575)(250)(49)

75 340

(0.500)(250)(49)

90 650

ground

(1.000)(250)(49)

87 590

(1.000)(250)(49)

102 900

Roof deck

27

Example 1-2c
A eleven-story office building has interior columns that are spaced 7 m apart in
two perpendicular directions. If the (flat) 15 cm-thick roof liveload is 100 kg/m2
and 20 cm-thick floor live loading is 300 kg/m2 determine the reduced live load
supported by a typical interior footing using the US code and Thai code.
roof deck
10
9
At
7.5 m
8
7
6
7.5 m
5
4
7.5 m 7.5 m
3
2
1
ground

28

SOLUTION
For the US code based on ANSI:
At

7.5 m
7.5 m

7.5 m 7.5 m
roof deck
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
ground

At = (7.5 m)(7.5 m) = 56.25 m2

For the second floor, the live load is taken from table 1-4:
Lo = 250 kg/m2 .
Since 4At = 4(56.25 m2) = 225 m2 > 37.2 m2 , the
live load can be reduced. Thus,
L = (0.25 +

4.57
) Lo
4 At

4.57
)300
225
= 0.555(250) = 166.4 kg / m 2
= (0.25 +

The load reduction here is (0.555)L0 > (0.40)L0 O.K.

For Thai code: see table 1-3b.

29

Floor

Thai & US Codes

Dead load (kg) Accumulated load (kg)
(1.000)(360)(56)

20 250

10

(1.000)(480)(56)

47 250

(1.000)(480)(56)

74 250

(1.000)(480)(56)

101 200

(1.000)(480)(56)

128 200

(1.000)(480)(56)

155 200

(1.000)(480)(56)

182 200

(1.000)(480)(56)

209 200

(1.000)(480)(56)

236 200

(1.000)(480)(56)

263 250

(1.000)(480)(56)

290 250

ground

(1.000)(480)(56)

317 200

Roof deck

30

Floor

US Code

Thai Code

Live load (kg) Accumulated load (kg)

Live load (kg)

Accumulated load (kg)

(1.000)(100)(56)

5 625

(1.000)(100)(56)

5 625

10

(0.555)(300)(56)

14 990

(1.000)(300)(56)

22 500

(0.555)(300)(56)

24 360

(1.000)(300)(56)

39 380

(0.555)(300)(56)

33 720

(0.900)(300)(56)

54 560

(0.555)(300)(56)

43 090

(0.800)(300)(56)

68 080

(0.555)(300)(56)

52 450

(0.700)(300)(56)

79 880

(0.555)(300)(56)

61 820

(0.600)(300)(56)

90 000

(0.555)(300)(56)

71 180

(0.500)(300)(56)

98 440

(0.555)(300)(56)

80 550

(0.500)(300)(56)

106 880

(0.555)(300)(56)

89 920

(0.500)(300)(56)

115 310

(0.555)(300)(56)

99 280

(0.500)(300)(56)

123 800

ground

(1.000)(300)(56)

116 100

(1.000)(300)(56)

140 600

Roof deck

31

Bridge Loads

2.9 T

9.1 T

4.6 T

4.2 m

8.2 T 8.2 T

4.2 m

12 Ton Truck

1.2 m

21 Ton Truck

For highway c the AASHTO Specification gives the expression for

the impact factor as
I=

15.24
L + 38.1

<

0.3

In which L is the length in meter of the portion of the span loaded to cause the
maximum stress in the member under consideration.

32

Wind Loads

(windward)

(leeward)

Wind Pressure for Building

External Pressure
Internal Pressure

33

External Pressure

h2
h1

wind

34

External Pressure: Formulation

p=qGC
Where,
q = basic pressure at the height of 10 m
= 0.613 KzKztV 2I (N/m2, m/s)
p = wind pressure
G = gust factor (0.85, typical)
C = shape factor

35

External Pressure on Main Wind-Resisting System

q, N/m2
V , m/s

q = 0. 613 KzKztV 2I

(p = qhGCp)side wall

qhGCp

qhGCp

wind
B

qzGCp

ridge

qzGCp
qhGCp

h
z

qhGCp

elevation
qhGCp
L
plan

4.6 m

36

Cp, typical
pz = qz G Cp
qz = 0.613 KzKztV 2I (N/m2)
G = 0.85, typical
Kzt=1, flat area
Cp = 0.7

Cp

Cp

wind
Cp = 0.8
B

ridge

Cp = 0.5

Cp = 0.8

Cp = 0.5

z
elevation
Cp = 0.7
L
plan

37

Internal Pressure: Enclosed Building*

0.18qh

0.18qh

Internal Pressure: Partially Open Building*

0.55qh

* Reference: ASCE 7-98

0.55qh

38

Total Wind
Pressure on the
Main Wind-Force
Resisting System:
Enclosed Building

qhGCp

qhGCp

qhGCp
qhGCp

qzGCp

0.18qh

0.18qh

ph
ph
pz

ph

ph

ph

ph
ph

pz

ph

39

Detail:
p = q GCp - qh(GCpi)
qz = 0.613 KzKztV 2I (N/m2)
GCp = 0.18, enclosed building*
GCp = 0.55, partially enclosed building*
Where,

GCp = 0, open building*

V = the velocity in m/s of a 3-second gust of wind measured at 10 m

above the ground during a 50-year recurrence period. Values are obtained from
a wind map.
I = the importance factor that depends upon the nature of the building occupancy
(see Table 1-6)
Kz = the velocity pressure exposure coefficient, which is a function of height and
depends upon the ground terrain (use equation or see graph 1-1).
Kzt = a factor that accounts for wind speed increases due to hills and escarpments.
For flat ground Kzt = 1
q = qz for windward wall,
= qh for others

40

Kz can be calculated using the formula:

z 2 /
)
zg

for

4.6 m z z g

4.6 2 /
)
zg

for

z < 4.6 m

2.01(

Kz =
2.01(

41

Exposure A
Large city centers

Exposure B
Urban and
suburban areas

Exposure C
Open terrain

Exposure D
Edge of large
bodies of water

Table 1-5 Exposure Categories for Buildings for Wind Loads

Constants
Exposure

Category zg, m

Large city centers with at least 50% of the buildings having

heights in excess of 70 ft ( 21m)

457 5.0

0.85

Urban and suburban areas with closely spaced obstructions of

the size of single family houses or larger

366

0.85

Open terrain with scattered obstructions of heights generally

less than 30 ft (9 m)

274

9.5

0.85

Flat, unobstructed coastal areas

213

11.5

0.85

7.0

42

43

44

45

46

Expos
ure D

ure C

re B
Expo
su

Expos

Hegiht z (m)

Expos

OR Kz by graph :

ure A

30

20

10

4.6
0.85
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8
Graph 1-1

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

Kz

47

Table 1-6 Classification of Buildings for Environmental Loads

Importance Factor, I
Occupancy or use

Category

Building representing low hazard to human life in the

case of failure, such as agricultural and minor storage
facilities
I
All buildings other than those listed in Categories I, III and IV
II
Buildings representing a substantial hazard to human life in
the case of failure, such as: those where more than 300 people
congregate in one area; schools and day-care facilities with
capacity greater than 250; colleges with capacity greater
than 500; hospitals without emergency treatment or surgery
facilities but with patient capacity greater than 50; jails, power
stations and utilities not essential in an emergency; and buildings
containing toxic and explosive materials
III
Essential facilities, including hospitals, fire and police stations,
national defense facilities and shelters, communication centers,
power stations, and utilities required in an emergency
IV

Wind loads

0.87
1.00

1.15

1.15

48

Table 1-7 Wall pressure coefficients, Cp

Surface

L/B

Cp

Use with

windward wall

All values

0.8

qz

Leeward wall

0-1
2
> 4

-0.5
-0.3
-0.2

qh

All values

-0.7

qh

Side walls

49

Table 1-8 Windward Roof Pressure Coefficients, Cp

-0.4

50

Table 1-8A Windward Roof Pressure Coefficients, Cp , < 10o

Wind
direction
Normal
to
ridge
for
< 10o
and
parallel
to
ridge
for
all

Cp

h/L

0.5

1.0

Horiz distance from

windward edge
0 to h/2
-0.9
h/2 to h
-0.9
h to 2h
-0.5
>2h
-0.3

0 to h/2
>h/2

-1.3**
-0.7

*Value is provided for interpolation

purposes
**Value can be reduce linearly with
area over which it is applicable
follows:
Area
Reduction
factor
(ft2)
1.0
100 (9.29 sq m)
250 (23.23 sq m)
0.9
0.8
1000 (92.9 sq m)
*** For roof slopes greater than 80o,
use Cp = 0.8.

51

Po
sit
ive
pr
ess
ur
e

0.3
0.1
0
-0.1

Graph 1-2
> 10o ,

Ne
ga
tiv
ep
res
su
re

Windward Roof Pressure Coefficients, Cp

0.5

-0.3
-0.5

h/L < 0.25

-0.7
-0.9
-1.1
-1.3
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Roof slope,
degrees 52

0.5
Windward Roof Pressure Coefficients, Cp

re
u
s
s
re
p
e
iv
osit

0.3
0.1
0
-0.1

ur
s
es
r
p
e
v
ti
a
g
Ne

-0.3

Graph 1-3
> 10o ,
h/L = 0.5

-0.5
-0.7
-0.9
-1.1
-1.3
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Roof slope,
degrees 53

tiv
i
s
Po

0.3
0.1
0
-0.1

Graph 1-4
p re
ssu
re

> 10o ,
h/L > 1.0

ive

-0.3
-0.5

Ne
gat

Windward Roof Pressure Coefficients, Cp

0.5

re
u
s
res
p
e

-0.7
-0.9
-1.1
-1.3
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Roof slope,
degrees 54

Table 1-9 Leeward Roof Pressure Coefficients, Cp

Leeward angle, (degrees)
Wind
direction
Normal
to
ridge
for
10o

h/L

20

10

15

0.25

-0.3

-0.5

-0.6

0.5

-0.5

-0.5

-0.6

1.0

-0.7

-0.6

-0.6

55

Example 1-3a
The building shown is mostly closed (internal pressure is considered) is used for
an industrial purpose. The building is located in the industrial park situated in the
flat open terrain in Pak Thongchai, Nakhon Ratchasima. Determine the wind load
acting on the walls, sides and roofs following the guidelines given by
ANSI/ASCE 7-95, and draw diagrams of the possible loading calculated.

15o

140 km/h wind

30 m

6.5 m
15 m

56

SOLUTION

qhGCp

qhGCp

qhGCp
qhGCp

qzGCp

0.18qh

0.18qh

ph
ph
pz

ph

ph

ph

ph
ph

pz

ph

57

 Find qz and qh
qz = 0.613 KzKztV 2I (N/m2)
140 103 m
1h
) = 38.89 m/s, I = 1.0 and Kzt = 1 for flat terrain. Therefore,
V =(
)(
h
60 60 s

qz = 0.613 Kz(1)(38.89)2(1) = 927Kz

15o

h = 6.5 + (7.5tan15o )/2 = 7.5 m

6.5 m

7.5 m

----------(1)

7.5 m

58

Exp. C

30

Hegiht z (m)

z (m)

Kz

qz = 927 Kz

0-4
0.85
6.5
0.91
h = 7.5 0.94

20

788
844
872

GKz, N/m2 (G=.85)

670
717
741

10

4.6

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8
Graph 1-1

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

Kz

59

 Find Cp and G

- Windward wall, leeward wall and side walls find from table 1-7.Leeward roof find
from table 1-9 and windward roof find from graph 1-3.See in the reference in the
back.
L/B = 15/30 = 0.5

Cp = 0.7

Cp = 0.7

Cp = 0.5

15o

Cp = 0.8

Cp = 0.8
Cp = 0.5

ridge

Cp = 0.5

Cp = 0.7
L
plan

60

z=7.5m: qhG= (872)(0.85)=741 N/m2

z= 4 m: qhG= (788)(0.85)=670 N/m2
z=6.5m: qhG= (844)(0.85)=717 N/m2

Institute all values for the main frame

(741)(0.7) = 518 N/m2

(872)(0.85)(0.85)(0.5) = 370 N/m2

(717)(0.8) = 574 N/m2

(872)(0.85)0.5) = 370 N/m2
(670)(0.8) = 536 N/m2

0.18qh =0.18(872) = 157 N/m2

362 N/m2

731 N/m2
693 N/m2

675 N/m2

0.18qh

0.18qh

527 N/m2

214 N/m2

417 N/m2
214 N/m2
379 N/m2

528 N/m2

61

Conclusion
675 N/m2
362 N/m2

731 N/m2

527 N/m2

214 N/m2
417 N/m2

214 N/m2

693 N/m2

528 N/m2

379 N/m2
675 N/m2

362 N/m2

ridge

214 N/m2

qzGCp

ridge

528 N/m2

qzGCp
qhGCp
L

qhGCp
L

plan

plan

62

Example 1-3b
The building shown in the figure is used for industrial purpose and is located
outside of Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand on flat terrain. When the wind is
directed as shown, determine the design wind pressure acting on the roof and
sides of the building using the ANSI / ASCE 7-95 Specifications. Use G = 0.85.

9m
6m

150 km/h wind

30 m

15 m

63

9m

150 km/h wind

30 m

6m

15 m

qz = 0.613 KzKztV 2I (N/m2)

The basic wind speed is V = 150 km/h = 41.67 m/s , and since the building is used
for industrial purposes, the importance factor is I = 1.0. Also, for flat terrain,
Kzt = 1. Therefore,
qz = 0.613 Kz(1)(41.67)2(1.0)
= 1064 Kz

N/m2

= tan-1(3/7.5) = 22o, the mean height of the roof is h = 6 + 3/2 = 7.5

64

Expos
ure D

ure C

re B
Expo
su

Expos

Height z (m)

Expos

ure A

30

20

10
h = 7.5

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8
Graph 1-1

1.0

1.2
1.4
Kh = 0.95

1.6

Kz

65

From graph Kz = 0.95

qh = 1064 Kh = 1064(0.95) = 1011N/m2
qhG = 1011(0.85) = 859.5 N/m2

qhGCp

qzGCp

859.5 Cp

qhGCp

qhGCp

0.85qzCp

859.5 Cp

859.5 Cp

66

Kz

0-4
6

20

qz = 1064 Kz (N/m2)

0.85
0.90

Expos

Height z (m)

z (m)

ure C

30

904.8
958.0

10

4.6

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8
Graph 1-1

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

Kz

67

Table 1-7 Wall pressure coefficients, Cp

Surface

L/B

Cp

Use with

windward wall

All values

0.8

qz

Leeward wall

0-1
2
> 4

-0.5
-0.3
-0.2

qh

All values

-0.7

qh

Side walls
L/B = 15/30 = 0.5

Cp

Cp = 0.8

Cp
Cp = 0.5

68

Table 1-9 Roof Pressure Coefficients, Cp , for Use with qh

Leeward angle, (degrees)
Wind
direction
Normal
to
ridge
for
10o

h/L

20

10

15

0.25

-0.3

-0.5

-0.6

0.5

-0.5

-0.5

-0.6

1.0

-0.7

-0.6

-0.6

h/L = 7.5/15 = 0.5

Cp

Cp = 0.8

Cp = 0.6
Cp = 0.5

69

0.5
Windward Roof Pressure Coefficients, Cp

re
u
s
s
re
p
e
iv
osit

0.3
r
su
s
re
p
ive
t
ga
e
N

0.1
0
-0.1

Graph 1-3
> 10o ,
h/L = 0.5

-0.3
-0.5

Cp = 0.36
Cp = 0.08

-0.7

Cp = 0.6

22o

-0.9

Cp = 0.5

Cp = 0.8

-1.1
-1.3
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Roof slope,
degrees 70

z (m)

Kz

0-4
6

0.85
0.90

qz = 1064.41 Kz (N/m2)
904.8
958.0
Cp = 0.36

859.5

859.5

0.85qz

859.5

2
/m
N
4
.
309
2

6 N/m
68.7

615.2 N/m2

Cp = 0.6

22o

Cp = 0.5

Cp = 0.8

515
.7

N/m 2
429.8 N/m2

651.4 N/m2

Cp = 0.08

71

2
m
/
N
4
309.
2

6 N/m
68.7

515
.7

N/m 2
429.8 N/m2

651.4 N/m2
615.2 N/m2

0.18qh = 182.0 N/m2

0.18qh

8 N/m
.
0
5
2

697
.7

2
/m
N
2
.
113

N/m 2

469.4 N/m2

B
433.4 N/m2

N/m 2
611.8 N/m2

797.2 N/m2

333
.7

247.8 N/m2

833.4

N/m2

2
/m
N
4
.
491

2
m
/
N
4
127.

0.18qh

72

Conclusion
2

N/m
491

2
m
/
N
127

334
N

N/m
251

N/m
113

/m 2

469 N/m2

B
433 N/m2

797 N/m2

783 N/m2

419 N/m2

ridge

/m 2
612 N/m2

248 N/m2

833

N/m2

698
N

248 N/m2

ridge

412 N/m2

qzGCp

qzGCp
419 N/m2

783 N/m2

plan

plan

73

Design Wind Pressure for Signs.

B

F = q z GC f A f

L
Here
G = the wind-gust coefficient factor defined previously, 0.85 (typical)
Cf = a force coefficient which depends upon the ratio of the large dimension M of the sign
to the small dimension N. Values are listed in table below
Af = the area of the face of the sign
Force Coefficients for
Above-Ground Solid Signs, Cf.
M/N

Cf

<6
10
20
40
60

1.2
1.3
1.5
1.75
1.85

74

Earthquake Loads
Deformed
configuration

Initial (undeformed)
configuration

Ground motion
V = CsW
Where, V = total lateral force or base shear, W = dead load of the building,
Cs = seismic response coefficient
Cs =

1.2Cv
RT2/3

<

2.5Ca
R

Where, Cv and Ca are the seismic coefficients based on the soil profile, and on the
effective peak velocity-related acceleration (Av) and the effective peak acceleration
(Aa) respectively; R denotes the response modification factor; and T represents the
75
fundamental period of vibration of the structure.

Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure

h
p=h

p=h
Where, = unit weight of the liquid.
Other Natural Loads
Several other types of live loads may also have to be considered in design of
a structure, depending on its location or use. These include the effect of blast,
temperature changes, and differential settlement of the foundation.

76

Structural Design
Reinforced Concrete Structures
1.) 1.4D + 1.7L
2.) 0.75 [1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7W]
3.) 0.9D + 1.3W
4.) 1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7(soil pressure)
5.) 0.75 [1.4D + 1.7(temperature load) + 1.7L]
6.) 1.4(D + temperature load)
Steel Structures
1.) 1.4D
2.) 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(roof live load)
3.) 1.2D + 0.5L (or 0.8W) + 1.6(roof live load)
4.) 1.2D + 0.5L + 0.5(roof live load) + 1.3W
5.) 1.2D + 0.5L + 1.5E
6.) 0.9D -1.3W (or 1.5E)
Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
1.) D + L + [roof live load]
2.) D + L + [W or E]
Where, D = Dead load, L = Live load , W = Wind load , E = Earthquake load

77

Note

6 (.. 2527)
.. 2522

(1)
1.7D + 2.0L

(2)
0.75(1.7D + 2.0L + 2.0W)
0.9D + 1.3W

(1)

78


1-3

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)

0
0
0
10
20
30
40
50

79



(m)

(kg/m2)

10

50

10-20

80

20-40

120

> 40

160

80