CHAPTER THREE

SOIL STRENGTH AND

SOIL FORCES

3.1 INTRODUCTION

In terms of Soil Mechanics, there are two groups of

soil properties:
3.1.1 Internal properties:
i) Friction in the soil is a factor and depends on the
normal load.
It is between soil and soil and is called angle of
shearing resistance or internal friction ( )
ii) The force of adherence between the particles of
the soil - cohesion.
The cohesion(C) is the attraction of soil properties for
each other.

External Soil Properties

i) Friction between soil and an external material

e.g. a moldboard plough.
This is called external friction or soil metal
friction. The symbol is
ii) Adhesion: The attraction between soil and
some other material e.g. plough.
The symbol is Ca. These four properties
control the soil behaviour as a mechanical entity.

Measurement of Soil Mechanical

Properties
3.2.1 External Properties: In the soil surface, put a slider.
Apply a normal force, N and apply a shear force, F.

Measurement of External Soil

Properties Contd.
If the soil moisture content is increased, another set of points are
obtained as shown in the second line. There is now adhesion
between the metal plate and the soil. In this general case,

Ca tan
where:

is N/A = normal stress

Measurement of Internal Soil Properties

MICKLETHWAITE EQUATION

SHEAR STRENGTH
Shear Strength is defined as the maximum resistance of the soil to
shearing stress under any given conditions

Triaxial Compression Test

Apparatus
This is the most common method used to determine soil

shear strength.
A soil specimen is extruded from a 37.5 mm diameter cutting
tube, capped top and bottom and covered with a rubber
membrane to minimize loss of moisture.
The sample is placed in position (see diagram) and pressure
head is applied to the water in the transparent cylinder
surrounding the specimen.
This pressure is applied to the soil and is called lateral
pressure or cell pressure and is termed minimum principal
stress.
A vertical load is now applied to the sample at a constant rate
of strain until the sample fails.

Triaxial Compression Test

Apparatus Contd.

The vertically applied stress at failure, called the

deviatoric stress, may be measured on the proving
ring, and when added to the cell pressure gives the
maximum principal stress.

With the maximum ( 1) and minimum principal

stresses (3) be drawn.
The procedure is repeated with different cell
pressures( 3 ) and a series of Mohr circles drawn.
These circles have a common tangent called the
Mohr envelope which defines the Coulomb equation.

Diagrams of the Triaxial Test

Example

The following data refer to three triaxial tests

performed on representative undisturbed samples
of a soil.

Test

1
2
3

Cell pressure (kN/m 2 ) Axial load dial reading

(divisions) at failure
50 66
150
106
250
147

Load dial calibration factor is 1.4 N per division. Each

sample is 75 mm long and 37.5 mm diameter. Find by
graphical means the value of apparent cohesion and the
degree of internal friction.

Solution
Cross-sectional area of sample =

x 37.52
1104 mm2 0.001104 m2
4

Additional vertical pressure =

14
. N x Re ading , kN
1268
.
x Re ading
0.001104 x 1000

Cell pressure(kN/m2 )
50
150
250

Additional vertical pressure (kN/m2 ) Total vertical

pressure
84
134
134
284
186
436

Graphical Soln and Analytical

Solution

Analytical Solution Concluded

Types of Triaxial Test

The types of Triaxial Test that we can do depend

on the drainage conditions of the soils to be
tested.

i) Undrained Test: There is no dissipation of

pore pressure during the application of
of
cell pressure or deviatoric stress.
No hole or connection is at the bottom plate of
the soil cylinder.
The pore pressure is then difficult to dissipate.

Undrained Test Contd.

This is called the quick undrained test and

involves the total stress analysis.
This applies to fast soil failures where there is
insufficient time for drainage to occur eg.
tillage and rapid construction of a large
embankment.
It is also the standard test for bearing capacity
of foundation which is a short term case,
since after initial loading, the soil will
consolidate and gain in strength.

(ii) Consolidated-Undrained Test or

Consolidated Slow Quick Test:

Drainage is permitted during the application of the

cell pressure .
Pore pressure that builds up during the application of
cell pressure is allowed to drain.
The sample becomes fully consolidated.
No
drainage is allowed during the application of the
deviatoric stress.
The effective stress analysis applies and may apply
to a building which has consolidated as drainage has
taken place and the building fails eg. the failure of
footings or foundations with suddenly applied load.

iii) Drained Test

Drainage is permitted during the application of

the cell pressure and the deviatoric stress.
It is a slow test as the pore pressures are
allowed to dissipate.
This is called the slow test and the effective
stress analysis applies.
This pattern applies to the soil slope failure
which is slow.

Drained Test Concluded.

For excavated or natural slopes that are

exposed for long periods of time, it is
necessary to use the drained strength
because of unloading produced by erosion or
excavation eventually reduces the effective
stress on the soil and thereby the strength.
Drained test is used for long term values of
shear strength e.g. if a motorway cutting is
being envisaged.
The Triaxial Test holds the key to the MohrCoulomb Soil Mechanics Knowledge.

Role of Soil Pores

Example and Solution

Solution Contd.

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE RANKINE

STATES

Consider a soil element, with bulk density, . The shear stress

on the soil element exerted by a mass of soil on top of the
element ( i.e. vertical stress), V z , where Z is the distance
from the soil surface to the element.

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE RANKINE

STATES CONTD.

There is also a horizontal shear ( h ) on the

v be located on the Mohr-Coulomb
element. can
diagram as shown below. As values of the
angle of internal friction and cohesion (C) are
known, the Coulomb line can be drawn. To
then proceed to draw the Mohr circle, knowing
s location, we need
v to start drawing it
leftwards or rightwards depending on whether
or
is the major principal
stress.

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE RANKINE

STATES CONTD

Note: At the point of soil failure, the Mohr circle will

just touch the Coulomb line at a tangent point.

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE RANKINE

STATES CONTD

v
If v is the major principal stress ( i..e.
v
> h), the circle will go leftwards as
h that the major force
= . 1 being larger than means
causing failure on the soil element is the vertical
stress and then the soil above the element is
referred to as being ACTIVE (See figure above)
because it was doing the work. If
is larger like
the bulldozer blade, then
h the soil above the soil
element acts as if it is dormant waiting for a
horizontal stress to shear it. The soil is then said
to be PASSIVE.

SUMMARY

If v = 1 > h , then h
be ACTIVE
h

If
=
PASSIVE

1 >

and the soil is said to

, then v = 3 and the soil is said to be

NOTE: Soil normally fails at an angle

45 / 2

to the

Active Rankine State

Active Rankine State Contd.

Passive Rankine State

Active and Passive Earth Forces

Consider a simple case of a retaining wall with a vertical back
supporting a cohesionless soil with a horizontal surface (see
figure below).
Let the angle of shearing resistance of the soil be
unit weight, be of a constant value.

and the

The vertical stress acting at a point Z below the top of the wall
is equal to . Z
If the wall is allowed to yield i.e. move forward slightly, the soil
is able to expand and there will be an immediate reduction in
the value of lateral pressure at depth Z, but if the wall is
pushed slightly into the soil then the soil will tend to be
compressed and there will be an increase in the value of the
lateral pressure.

Active and Passive Earth Forces

Contd.

The above indicates that there are two possible modes of failure
that can occur within the soil mass. If we assume that the value of
the vertical pressure at depth Z remains unchanged at
Z
during these operations, then the minimum and maximum values
of lateral earth pressure that will be achieved can be obtained
from the Mohr circle diagram below.

Active and Passive Earth Forces

Contd.
The lateral pressure can reduce to a minimum value at
which the stress circle is tangential to the strength
envelope of the soil; this minimum value is known as
the active earth pressure.
The lateral pressure can rise to a maximum value (with
the stress circle again tangential to the strength
envelope) known as the passive earth pressure. It can
be seen from the Mohr circle diagram that the vertical
pressure due to the soil weight ( Z) is a major principal
stress when considering active pressure and that when
considering passive pressure, the vertical pressure due
to the soil weight ( Z) is a minor principal stress.

Active and Passive Earth Forces

Contd.

Active Earth Forces

Active Earth Forces Contd.

Passive Earth Forces

Passive Earth Forces Contd.

Point of Acting of Pp

For weighty and cohesive soil, take moments, Mo thus: Pr .

2/3 Z + Pc. Z/2 = (Pr + Pc)L . From this equation, L which
is the vertical distance, the force acts, can be obtained.

Effect of Friction
If friction exists on the wall, then the Rankine equations
break down. Wall friction produces shear stress i.e.
horizontal and vertical planes are no longer major and
minor principal planes.

In the active case, the friction at wall prevents the free sliding of the
soil down the wall and in the case of the passive one, the friction at
wall prevents free sliding of soil up the wall.

Effect of Friction Contd.

No Friction

Active Case

No Friction

Passive Case

In the presence of wall friction, for the active soil pressure, the
analysis can be done using the Coulomb Trial Wedge
Analysis. For the Passive Earth Pressures with wall friction,
especially for tillage and traction, the Log. Spiral or the
General Soil Mechanics Equation can be used.

COULOMB-TRIAL WEDGE ANALYSIS

- For active cases only.

COULOMB-TRIAL WEDGE ANALYSIS

Contd.

COULOMB-TRIAL WEDGE ANALYSIS

Contd.

COULOMB-TRIAL WEDGE ANALYSIS

Contd.

Case Where Cohesion and Adhesion are

Present

Case Where Cohesion and Adhesion are

Present Contd.

THE GENERAL SOIL MECHANICS

EQUATION

Example

Determine the change in magnitude of

the passive force acting on a blade, 3
m long and 0.25 m deep as the value
of the soil/blade friction increased from
zero to 50 . The soil bulk density is 15
kN/m3; the angle of internal friction is
100 and the soil cohesion is 3.4 kN/m 2
and the surcharge is 1 kN/m 2 . Take
rake angle as 800.

Solution

Solution Contd.