Soil Compressibility & Settlement

Soil Compressibility &
Settlement
Faculty of Engineering – Cairo University

Third Year Civil
Soil Mechanics
Spring 2015
Soil Settlement
 Settlements are vertical deformations of a soil
mass under the effect of an applied stress
causing vertical movement of the supported
structure
 Settlements are one of the safety and
performance criteria in geotechnical assessment
of structures
 Excessive settlements can result in structural
damage to a building frame, or loss of
functionality.
Soil Mechanics –Soil

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
1
Soil Settlement

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
Soil Settlement
 Uniform settlements: equal settlements across the
area of the structure
 Differential settlements: unequally foundation
settlements in different areas of the structure.
 Differential settlement can result in severe structural
damage while uniform settlements are of less
consequences

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
2
Soil Settlement
 Differential settlements

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
Soil Settlement
 Differential settlements

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
3
Define: Compressibility
 Compressibility: is the property through which
particles of soil are brought closer to each other, due
to escapage of air and/or water from voids under the
effect of an applied pressure.

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
Settlement of Cohesive Soils

Coefficient of compressibility (av):
is the rate of change of void ratio (e) with respect to the
applied effective pressure (p) during compression.
e
av  e
p e-p curve
eo = initial void ratio

eo
po = initial effective stress e1 e
e1 = final void ratio p
p1 = final effective stress
e = eo – e1
p = p1 – po po p1
p

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
4
Coefficient of volume compressibility (mv):
is the volume decrease of a unit volume of soil per unit increase
of effective pressure during compression.
ΔV ΔeVs
V (1  e o )Vs 1 Δe av
mv  o   
Δp Δp (1  e o ) Δp (1  e o )
eoVs
Initial Condition Final Condition

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)

For a thin layer, p at mid depth is considered as an
average stress within the layer. q
ΔH V Δe
 
H V (1  e o )
Δe Δe Δp
ΔH  S  H H
(1  eo ) ΔP (1  eo ) H
p
av Clay
S ΔpH
(1  eo )
S  m v ΔpH e H
where: eo
S = settlement
mv = coefficient of volume compressibility 1+eo H
p = stresses at mid depth of layer due to 1
added loads
H = total thickness of layer
Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
5
For a thick layer, the layer may be divided to number of
sub-layers, each of thickness Hi. The stress at mid-depth
of each sub-layer is pi.
q
S   m vi Δp i H i
p1
H1
Clay
p2
H2

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
Settlement of Cohesionless Soils

 Sand may be considered as an elastic material with
Young’s modulus (E)
 Young’s Modulus (E): is the slope for the linear portion of
the stress-strain curve.
q
strain 1

stress E
H
H  1
p E p
H
S p Sand

H E
1
S  pH
E
E  100 (v. loose) - 800 (v. dense) kg/cm 2

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
6
Example
Compute the settlement due
to compressibility of the sand
and clay layers at points (a)
and (b) of the building shown
in the figure. The building has
a basement and is founded
on raft foundation. The stress
from the building at the
foundation level is as shown
in the figure.
Sand:  = 1.70 t/m3 E = 500 kg/cm2
Clay: mv = 0.03 cm2/kg

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
Example
qnet = q – h = 20 – 1.70x3.0 = 14.9 t/m2
For sand layer:
z = 5.0 m = 1” = 2.5 cm
L = 30 m  30x2.5/5.0 = 15.0 cm, B = 20 m  20x2.5/5.0 = 10.0 cm,
na = 191 a,sand = na/200 (qnet) = 191/200 x 14.9 = 14.2 t/m2
nb = 50 b,sand = nb/200 (qnet) = 50/200 x 14.9 = 3.7 t/m2
a b

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
7
Example
qnet = q – h = 20 – 1.70x3.0 = 14.9 t/m2
For clay layer:
z = 11.0 m = 1” = 2.5 cm
L = 30 m  30x2.5/11 = 6.8 cm, B = 20 m  20x2.5/11 = 4.5 cm
na = 144 a,clay = n/200 (qnet) = 144/200 x 14.9 = 10.7 t/m2
nb = 47.3 b,clay = n/200 (qnet) = 47.3/200 x 14.9 = 3.5 t/m2
a b

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
Example
Sa = Ssand + Sclay
Ssand = 1/E a,sandH

H = 10.0 m E = 500 kg/cm2 a,sand = 14.2 t/m2
Ssand = 1/500 x 14.2/10 x 1000 = 2.84 cm
Sclay = mv a,clayH
H = 2.0 m mv = 0.03 cm2/kg a,clay = 10.7 t/m2
Sclay = 0.03 x 10.7/10 x 200 = 6.42 cm
Sa = Ssand + Sclay = 2.84 + 6.42 = 9.26 cm

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
8
Example
Sb = Ssand + Sclay
Ssand = 1/E b,sandH

H = 10.0 m E = 500 kg/cm2 b,sand = 3.7 t/m2
Ssand = 1/500 x 3.7/10 x 1000 = 0.74 cm
Sclay = mv b,clayH
H = 2.0 m mv = 0.03 cm2/kg b,clay = 3.5 t/m2
Sclay = 0.03 x 3.5/10 x 200 = 2.1 cm
Sb = Ssand + Sclay = 0.74 + 2.1 = 2.84 cm

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
Time of settlement compared to construction

time
P
 Loading Diagram
Construction period Time

Time
 Settlement of Sand 1
S  pH
E
S
Time
 Settlement of Clay S  m v ΔpH

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
9
Causes of Settlement
 Static Loads
 Dynamic Loads
 Groundwater table lowering
 Loads from adjacent buildings
 Capillary forces

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
Theory of Consolidation
 Consolidation: is the process of squeezing water out
of saturated soil under the effect of loads.
 In sandy soils, high permeability, drainage of water out

of the soil under the effect of loading happens
immediately.
 In clay soils, low permeability, drainage of water out of

the soil under the effect of loading is time dependent.
 Therefore, parameters governing consolidation process

include: soil properties, stress (p), time (t), drainage
conditions.

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
10
Mechanism of Consolidation Process
Analogy:
Confined saturated soil

Piston for Valve ~ soil
(solids and voids filled loading permeability
with water)
Versus
Container filled with

water that has a spring
and a valve Water ~
pore-water
Spring ~
Remember: water is Container Solids
incompressible

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)

For Sands: high permeability ~ valve is open, water gets out
immediately (t = 0), excess pore water pressure u = 0
Stress = p
At t = 0 (immediately), u = 0
Load carried by spring
Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
11
For Clays: low permeability ~ valve is partially open, water
gets out slowly (time-dependent), u decreases with t
Stress = p
Stress = p
At t = 0 (immediately), u = p At t = t1, 0 u < p

Spring carry no load Load carried by water and spring
Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)

For Clays:
Stress = p
Stress = p
At t = t1, 0 u < p At t = long time, u = 0

Load carried by water and spring Load carried by spring

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
12
 If we apply a certain load, and the valve is closed, then
water (incompressible material) carries the entire
added load.
 If the valve is opened, water flows out, and thus its
volume is reduced.
 As volume is reduced, the spring starts to be
compressed and carries part of the load. Meanwhile,
excess pore water pressure decreases.
 The process continues until sufficient amount of water
escapes from the valve, resulting in compression of the
spring to carry the entire load.
 At this point, the excess pore water pressure decreases
to zero, the spring carries the entire load, the system is
in equilibrium.

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
Application on Soil
 Stress distribution before application of load
GWT GS
Sand
Clay
Gravel
σt u σ'

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
13
Application on Soil
 Short time (immediately) after application of q (t = 0)
q
GWT GS
Sand
q
Clay q
Gravel q
q
σt u σ'

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
Application on Soil
 Long time after application of q (t = h)
q
GWT GS
Sand
q
Clay
Gravel q
q
σt u σ'

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
14
Application on Soil
 Total stress: σ t  Σγh  q
 Pore water pressure:
t=0  u  γ whw  q (clay)
 u  γ wh w (sand)
t=h  u  γ wh w (clay)
 u  γ wh w (sand)
At time t ???
 Effective stress:
t=0  σ' Σγ'h (clay)
 σ'  Σγ'h  q (sand)
t=h  σ'  Σγ'h  q (clay)

 σ'  Σγ'h  q (sand)

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
Rate of Consolidation
q
GWT GS
Sand
t=0 q
Clay q
Gravel q
q
σt u σ'

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
15
t=0
t = t1
Clay t = t2
t = t3
t=∞

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
Assumptions of Theory of Consolidation

1. Clay is homogeneous, isotropic, and saturated
2. Water and clay particles are incompressible
3. Darcy’s law is valid
4. The clay layer is laterally confined
5. One-dimensional compression, and one-dimensional

flow
6. Consolidation parameters from test applies to clay

layer from which sample for test was taken
7. Soil properties are constant with time

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
16
Consolidation Test
 Objectives:
 Volume change-effective pressure relationship
 Stress history of soil
 Volume change – time – pore water dissipation relationship

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
Consolidation Test
Dial gauge
Compression Load
cell
Loading frame

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
17
Consolidation Test
Dial gauge
Compression
cell
Lever Arm
Load
Consolidation Test
set-up

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
Consolidation Test
Dial gauge
Compression
cell
Lever Arm
Load =
Po
Consolidation Test
set-up

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
18
Consolidation Test
Loading Head
Dial gauge
Saturated
Metal ring sample
Porous stone
Filter paper
Compression Cell/Oedometer Porous stone

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
Consolidation Test
Loading Head
Dial gauge
Load (P1)
Saturated
Metal ring sample
Porous stone
Filter paper
Compression Cell/Oedometer Porous stone

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
19
Consolidation Test
 Equipment:
1. Compression cell / Oedometer
2. Loading frame to apply weights (Po)
3. Dial gage to measure soil compression
Note:
Load acting on the cell (P1) is magnified by the lever arm

ratio of the loading frame (LAR), where: P1 = LAR x Po

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
Consolidation Test
 Procedure:
1. Trim the sample into the metal ring and place filter paper
on both sides of sample.
2. Measure initial conditions of sample: ho, eo, wo, Gs
3. Place the ring into the compression cell between the two
porous stones.
4. A metal cap (loading head) is placed over the top porous

stone, on which the load (P1) is applied.
5. Set-up the dial gage to zero reading. Fill the compression

cell with water until the top porous stone is covered with
water.

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
20
Consolidation Test
 Procedure:
6. Place the hanging load (Po) such that the pressure on the
clay sample is equal to the first loading step.
7. Record readings of dial gage (compression of sample)

with time until compression stops (usually within 24
hours).
8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 for subsequent loading and

unloading increments.

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
Consolidation Test
 Loading scheme, for example:
 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0, 8.0, 16.0 (kg/cm2) Loading
 16.0, 4.0, 1.0, 0.25 (kg/cm2) Unloading
 Results: for each loading/unloading increment, we

record: dial gage (h) that measures sample
compression versus elapsed time (t).

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
21
Consolidation Test Data Reduction
 For each loading increment, plot h-log t:
Time (min)
0.1 1 10 100 1000
0
10
20
30
 h (x 10-2 mm)
40
50
60
70
80
90
100

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)

 At the end of each loading increment:
1. Calculate effective pressure (p) = Load x LAR/sample area
2. Measure h = sample compression during this loading

increment
e h
3. Calculate void ratio (e):
eo
e h
 1+eo ho
1  eo ho
1
e = eo – e
 Plot e-p curve

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
22
Example: LAR = 3, sample area = 41.85 cm2, ho = 2.54 cm, eo = 0.636
Load (kg) 0 7 14.5 29 58 116 232
Dial Reading x 10-2 (mm) = h 0 89 135 223 359 550 705
Stress (p) = Load x lever arm 7 x 3/41.85

0 1.04 2.08 4.16 8.32 16.63
ratio/area (kg/cm2) = 0.50
0.89/25.4 (1+0.636)
e = h/ho (1+eo) 0 0.087 0.1436 0.2312 0.3543 0.4541
= 0.0573
0.636-0.0573
e = eo - e 0.636 0.5490 0.4924 0.4048 0.2817 0.1819
= 0.5787

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)

Plot e-p curve:
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
e
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 5 10 15 20
p (kg/cm2)

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
23
 From e-p curve, for a certain stress range, calculate av
and mv, where:
e
e
av 
p
eo
e1 e
av p
mv 
(1  e o )
po p1
p

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)

Plot e-log(p) curve:
0.7
0.6
0.5
eo
0.4
e
0.3 e
e1
0.2  log(p)
0.1
0
po p1
0.1 1 10 100
p (kg/cm2)

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
24
 From e-log(p) curve, the slope of the linear portion is the
Compression Index (Cc):
e
Cc 
 log( p )
 Determine preconsolidation pressure (pc): is the largest

effective pressure that has been applied on the soil in its
geological history.

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)

Determination of preconsolidation pressure:
0.7
5
0.6
a b
3
0.5
1
4
0.4
2
e
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.1 1 pc 10 100
p (kg/cm2)

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
25
Determination of Preconsolidation
Pressure
1. Determine point of maximum curvature (a).
2. At (a), draw tangent to e-log(p) curve.
3. At (a), draw horizontal line.
4. Draw a bisector to the angle enclosed between the

tangent and horizontal lines.
5. Extend the linear portion of the curve until it intersects

the bisector at point (b).
6. The preconsolidation pressure (pc) is the x-coordinate

of the point (b).

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
Types of clays w.r.t. preconsolidation

1. Normally consolidated clay:
Clay that has never been loaded in the past by more than the
existing effective overburden pressure (po) pc ~ po
2. Overconsolidated (preconsolidated) clay:
Clay that has been loaded in the past by more than the existing
effective overburden pressure (po) pc > po
Causes: pre-existing structures, erosion of overburden
3. Underconsolidated clay:
Clay that has been loaded partially by the existing effective
overburden pressure (po) pc < po
Define: Overconsolidation Ratio (OCR):

pc
OCR 
po
Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
26
Determination of Compression Index
 For normally consolidated clays, Cc can be calculated as
follows:
 From e-log(p) curve:
e
Cc 
 log( p )
 From liquid limit (empirical):
Cc  0.009( wL  10)
where wL is in (%)

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
Definitions
0.7
Recompression curve
0.6
0.5
Virgin compression
0.4 curve
e
0.3
0.2
Unloading/reloading curve
0.1
0
0.1 1 pc 10 100
p (kg/cm2)

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
27
Definitions
 From e-log(p) curve, the recompression index (Cr) is the
slope of the equivalent linear portion of the
unloading/reloading curve.
0.7
e
Cr  0.6 Cr
 log( p)
0.5
0.4
Empirical relationship for Cr:
e
0.3 Cc
Cr
Cr  (1 / 10  1 / 5)Cc 0.2
Cr  (1 / 8)Cc 0.1
0
0.1 1 10 100
p (kg/cm2)

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
Settlement
 Calculate settlement (S) of normally consolidated clay layer
of thickness (H) due to added stress (p) given Cc of clay:
0.7
e p
Cc  0.6
 log( p ) 0.5
eo
e0  e1 0.4
Cc  Cc
e
e
log( p1 )  log( p0 ) 0.3

e1
0.2
e
Cc  0.1
p1
log( ) 0
p ~p p1
p0 0.1 1 c o
p (kg/cm
p (kg/cm 2)2
10
)
100
p1
e  Cc log( )..........................1
p0
e h S
  ....................................2
1  eo ho H
Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
28
Settlement
 From 1 and 2:
p1 S
Cc log( )  (1  eo )
po H
Cc p
S H log( 1 )
1  eo po

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
Settlement
 For overconsolidated clay, (po and p1) < pc:
0.7
eo Cr
0.6
e1
0.5
0.4
e
e
0.3 p
0.2
0.1
0
po p1 pc
0.1 1 10 100
pp(kg/cm
(kg/cm
2) )
2
Cr p
S H log( 1 )
1  eo po

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
29
Settlement
 For overconsolidated clay, po < pc and and p1 > pc
0.7
eo
Cr
0.6
0.5
0.4
e1 Cc
e
e
0.3
0.2 p
0.1
0 p1
po pc
0.1 1 10 100
p (kg/cm
p (kg/cm 2)2
)
C p C p
S  r H log( c )  c H log( 1 )
1  eo po 1  eo pc

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
Short time after application of load “q”
q
GWT GS
Sand
p
Clay p
Gravel p p
σt u σ'

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
30
Sand u u Sand
t=0
z
t=0 u '
2H t = t1
Clay Clay
t = t2
t=t
t = t3
Isochrone
t=∞ t=∞
Sand Hydrostatic pore p p Sand
water pressure Excess pore
(GWT) water pressure
At time “t” and depth “z”:

p = u + ’ = increase in total stress due to added load
u = excess pore water pressure due to added load
’ = increase in effective stress due to added load
Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
u Sand
z t=0
u '
2H
Clay
t=t
t=∞
p Sand
Degree of Consolidation (Utz) at time “t” and depth “z”:

 ' p  u u
U tz    1
p p p

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
31
Average degree of consolidation (Ut) for the clay layer at time “t”:
u Sand
H
t =0

U t  2 U tz dz
0
z u
'
2H umax
where: Clay
 ' p  u t=t
U tz  
p p t=∞
p Sand
Ut = (area of ’ diagram)/(area of p diagram)
Ut = (area of p diagram – area of u diagram)/(area of p diagram)
where:
area of Δp diagram  Δp 2H
2
area of u diagram  u max 2H
3
Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
 Settlement of clay layer of thickness 2H at time t=∞:
Sultimate = mvp(2H)
 Settlement of clay layer of thickness 2H at time t=t:
St = mv’(2H)
St = mvp Ut)(2H) = Ut Sultimate
 Average degree of consolidation (Ut) at time “t”:
Ut = St/Sultimate
The degree of consolidation at any time (t) is the percentage

of settlement that took place at this time w.r.t. to ultimate
consolidation settlement.

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
32
Differential equation of consolidation
 Equation governing rate of consolidation
 Consider a differential element of soil
Qin Area = dA
Volume = dV Surcharge load
dy
x ground surface
y dx
z dz
Qout

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)

 (dV ) Q compression and flow 1-D
 Qout  Qin  ( )dz
t z
Q  kidA Darcy’s law is valid
h
k dA
z
 u
 k ( )dA u = excess p.w.p
Qin
z  w Area = dA
Volume = dV
k u dy
 dA
 w z dx x
dz y
 (dV )  k u
 ( dA)dz z
t z  w z
Qout
 (dV ) k  2u
 dV Equation (1) soil is homogeneous
t  w z 2

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
33
dVv e e
 dVv  dV
dV 1  e 1 e dVv e
dV  (dV )  (dVv )

dVs 1 1 t t
 dVs  dV
dV 1  e 1 e dVs 1
e
( dV )
 (dV )  (dVv ) 1 e  (edVs ) e e dV
    dVs 
t t t t t t 1  e
 (dV ) e dV
 Equation (2)
t t 1  e
From equations 1 and 2,
k  2u e dV
dV 
 w z 2
t 1  e

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)

k (1  e)  2u e

 w z 2 t
e e  '
 (chain rule)
t  ' t
e  ' e
 av : av 
t t  '
e  u u  (load doesn’t vary with time)
 av (  )  av : 0
t t t t t u Sand
k (1  e)  u
2
u z t=0
 av u '
 w z 2 t
2H umax
u k (1  e)  2u Clay

t av w z 2
t=t
u  2u k (1  e) k t=∞
 cv 2 : cv  
t z av w mv w Sand
p
Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
34
 Coefficient of Consolidation: cv
k
cv  cm2/sec
mv w
where:
k = soil permeability
mv = coefficient of volume compressibility

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
Solution of differential equation of

consolidation
 Boundary conditions:
Example: a clay layer, of thickness 2H, with top and bottom
boundaries freely draining Sand
t = t1
 u(z=0,t>0) = 0 as time increases, u decreases
 u(z=2H,t>0) = 0 2H
t = t2 Clay
z
u Sand
 Initial condition:
For wide fill, applied instantly to saturated soil, the initial excess
pore-water pressure u(z,t=0) is independent of depth and equals
the applied stress (p)
 u(z,t=0) = ui = p

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
35
consolidation
 Solution:

2ui
u( z, t )   (sin MZ ) exp( M 2Tv ) ……………… Equation 3
m 0 M
where:

M (2m  1)
2
cv t
Tv  Tv = Time factor
H2

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)

consolidation
Equation (3) was solved chart: u/p = f(Tv, z)

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
36
consolidation

2ui
u ( z, t )   (sin MZ ) exp( M 2Tv )
m0 M
 Solution in terms of degree of consolidation (U):
ui  u u ui
U ( z, t )   1 u
ui ui z u ui-u

2
U ( z, t )  1   (sin MZ ) exp( M 2Tv ) 2H
m 0 M
t=t
 Average degree of consolidation for entire layer:
U = area / area
z
By integration:
2H
 udz Ut  1 

2
exp(  M 2Tv )
Ut  1 0
M 2
ui m0

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)

consolidation
Equation (4) was solved Table and chart: Tv = f(U)
U (%) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 99 100
Tv 0.0 0.008 0.031 0.071 0.126 0.197 0.287 0.403 0.567 0.848 1.129 1.781 ∞
10
20
30
40
U (%)
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Tv

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
37
consolidation
 Time Factor: Tv
cv t
Tv 
hd2
where:
Tv = time factor corresponding to degree of consolidation occurring at time t
cv = coefficient of consolidation (determined from consolidation test)
hd = longest drainage path within clay layer
The above equation holds for consolidation of sample in the lab, and
for clay layer consolidating in the field

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)

consolidation
 Drainage Path: hd
Sand Sand
2H Clay 2H Clay
Sand Impervious Rock

hd = H hd = 2H

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
38
Determination of cv - logarithm-of-time
method
 cv is determined from the consolidation test data
 There is a cv value that corresponds to each loading
increment, i.e. cv is stress dependent.
 Two methods to calculate cv:
 Logarithm-of-time method
 Square–root-of-time method
 For the following test data corresponding to a certain
loading increment, find cv.
Time (min) 0 0.25 0.5 1 2.25 4 6.25 10 15 30 60 120 240 885
Dial Reading x 10-2

135 153 155 161 173 184 193 202 209 215 219 220 221 223
(mm)
135-135 153-135
= h x 10-2 (mm) 20 26 38 49 58 67 74 80 84 85 86 88
=0 =18

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
method
Time (min)
0.1
t = t1
1
t = 4t1 t50 = 3.6 10 100 1000
0
min
10
U = 0%
20
30
 h (x 10-2 mm)
40
U = 50%
50
60
70
80 U = 100%
90
100

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
39
method
1. Plot the (h) or (e) on the vertical axis (arithmetic scale), and the
time (t) on horizontal axis (logarithmic scale) S-shape
2. Determine (h) or (e) corresponding to 100% consolidation:

 Extrapolate the linear portion at the middle of the consolidation curve
 Extrapolate the linear portion at the end of the consolidation curve
 The two lines intersect at a point corresponding to (h) or (e) at 100%

consolidation

 Consider (h1) corresponding to a small time (t1)
 Consider (h2) corresponding to (4t1)
 Determine the difference between (h1) and (h2) y
 Determine (h) corresponding to 0% consolidation at a distance equivalent

to y above (h1)

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
method
4. Determine (h) or (e) corresponding to 50% consolidation at mid
distance between 0% consolidation and 100% consolidation.
5. Determine t50
6. Calculate cv:
cv t
Tv 
hd2
where: T50 = 0.197, hd = ½ sample height (sample drains from both
sides), and t = t50 from consolidation curve

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
40
Determination of cv – square root-of-time
method
Square root time (min)0.5
0 (t90)0.5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
0
a U = 0%
10
20
30
 h (x 10 mm)
40
-2
50
60
70 c U = 90%
80
90 b
x 0.15x
100

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)

method
1. Plot the (h) or (e) on the vertical axis (arithmetic scale), and the square
root of time on horizontal axis (arithmetic scale)

 Draw a straight line through the initial linear portion of the curve. This line will
intersect the vertical axis at a point (a) that corresponds to U = 0%
 Measure distance (x) between the vertical axis and the drawn line
 Measure additional distance (0.15x) point (b)
 Draw a line connecting points (a) and (b) and extend it until it intersects the
original curve at point (c) corresponds to U = 90%
3. Determine (t90 )0.5

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
41
method
4. Calculate cv:
cv t90
T90 
hd2
where: T90 = 0.848, hd = ½ sample height (sample drains from both

sides), and t = t90 from consolidation curve

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
Types of Compression
Time (min)
0
0.1 1 10 100
h = 0 1000
Instantaneous/Immediate Consolidation
10
U = 0%
20
30
 h (x 10-2 mm)
40 Primary Consolidation
50
60
70
80 U = 100%
90 Secondary Consolidation
100

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
42
Types of Compression
1. Instantaneous/Immediate Compression: due to
compression of entrapped air and machine parts
2. Primary Compression: due to consolidation by

escapage of water (relief of excess pore-water
pressure) under the effect of pressure (loading)
3. Secondary compression: compression at constant

effective stress (no excess pore-water pressure)

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
Secondary Compression Index

Time (min)
0.1 1 10 t100 100 1000
0
10
20
30
 h (x 10-2 mm)
40
50
60
70
80
U = 100%
h
90
log(t)
100

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
43
Secondary Consolidation Settlement (Ss)
 Secondary compression index (C):
e
C 
 log(t )
where:
h
e  (1  eo )
H
 Secondary settlement (Ss):

C t
Ss  H log( 1 )
1  eo to

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
Example
 A rectangular building 24m  16m is
founded on a raft and has its
(a) (c) (b)
foundation level at 2.0 m below ground
surface. If the building exerts a net
stress of 2.0 kg/cm2 on soil at
foundation level, determine:
i.The ultimate settlement of points a, b
Sand
and c.
ii.The time required for these points to
settle 5.0 cm, and the time required to
undergo 90% consolidation.

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
44
Example
i. qnet = 20 t/m2
z = 8.0 m
H = 5.0 m
Using Influence Chart:
Points a&b c
L (m) 24 12
B (m) 8 8
m 3 1.5
n 1 1
Iz 0.193 0.203
(t/m2) 0.193x20x2 = 7.72 0.203x20x4 = 16.24
S = mv  H 0.004x7.72x5 = 0.154 0.004x16.24x5 = 0.325
m m
Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
Example
(a) (b)
ii. (c)
cv = 0.006 cm2/sec
Points a c b
U = St/Sf =5/15.4 = 0.325 5/32.5 = 0.154 =5/15.4 = 0.325
From Chart 0.083 0.019 0.083
(Tv)
cv t 0.006 t 0.006 t 0.006 t

Tv  0.083  0.019  0.083 
h 2D (250) 2 (500) 2 (500) 2
t (days) 10.0 9.2 40.0

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
45
Example
(a) (c) (b)
Points a c b
U = St/Sf 0.90 0.90 0.90
Example0.848
From Chart 0.848 0.848
(Tv) ii.
cvt cv = 0.006 cm 2/sec

0.006 t 0.006 t 0.006 t
Tv  0.848  0.848  0.848 
h 2D (250) 2 (500) 2 (500) 2
t (days) 102.2 409.0 409.0
St (cm) 0.90 x 15.4 = 13.9 cm 0.90 x 32.5 = 29.3 cm 0.90 x 15.4 = 13.9 cm

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
Potential Sources of Error

 Sample disturbance: due to improper handling and/or
trimming. Disturbance affects e-logp curve, and thus
preconsolidation pressure. Larger samples help reduce
effect of trimming on sample disturbance.
Kontopoulos, Nikolaos S., 2012

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
46
Potential Sources of Error
 Specimen not completely filling the ring: erroneous
volume change due to compression of voids.
 Clogged porous stones: porous stones should be

cleaned after every test to remove embedded soil
particles.
 Friction between specimen and consolidation ring. Part

of load applied to specimen can be lost by side friction.
This effect can be reduced by lining the consolidation
ring with Teflon.

Third Year Civil
Mechanics Eng.
(PBW N302)
47

Soil Compressibility & Settlement

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Soil Compressibility & Settlement

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Soil Compressibility &

Faculty of Engineering – Cairo University

Soil Mechanics –Soil

Soil Mechanics –Soil

Soil Mechanics –Soil

Soil Mechanics –Soil

Soil Mechanics –Soil

Soil Mechanics –Soil

Settlement of Cohesive Soils

eo = initial void ratio

Soil Mechanics –Soil

Initial Condition Final Condition

Soil Mechanics –Soil

Settlement of Cohesive Soils

Soil Mechanics –Soil

Settlement of Cohesionless Soils

Soil Mechanics –Soil

Soil Mechanics –Soil

Soil Mechanics –Soil

Soil Mechanics –Soil

Ssand = 1/E a,sandH

Sa = Ssand + Sclay = 2.84 + 6.42 = 9.26 cm

Soil Mechanics –Soil

Ssand = 1/E b,sandH

Sb = Ssand + Sclay = 0.74 + 2.1 = 2.84 cm

Soil Mechanics –Soil

Time of settlement compared to construction

Construction period Time

 Settlement of Clay S  m v ΔpH

Soil Mechanics –Soil

 Groundwater table lowering

 Loads from adjacent buildings

Soil Mechanics –Soil

 In sandy soils, high permeability, drainage of water out

 In clay soils, low permeability, drainage of water out of

 Therefore, parameters governing consolidation process

Soil Mechanics –Soil

Confined saturated soil

Container filled with

Soil Mechanics –Soil

Mechanism of Consolidation Process

At t = 0 (immediately), u = p At t = t1, 0 u < p

Mechanism of Consolidation Process

At t = t1, 0 u < p At t = long time, u = 0

Soil Mechanics –Soil

Soil Mechanics –Soil

Soil Mechanics –Soil

Soil Mechanics –Soil

Soil Mechanics –Soil

t=h  σ'  Σγ'h  q (clay)

Soil Mechanics –Soil

Soil Mechanics –Soil

Soil Mechanics –Soil

Assumptions of Theory of Consolidation

2. Water and clay particles are incompressible

3. Darcy’s law is valid

4. The clay layer is laterally confined

5. One-dimensional compression, and one-dimensional

6. Consolidation parameters from test applies to clay

Soil Mechanics –Soil

Soil Mechanics –Soil

Soil Mechanics –Soil

Soil Mechanics –Soil