Ge SR 034

Increased rate of consolidation in soft soil with Sand Drains
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GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
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MINISTRY OF RAILWAYS
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Study Report
on
Increased rate of
consolidation in soft soil with
Sand Drains
fjiksVZ la- RDSO/2012/GE : SR-0034
March 2013
Geotechnical Engineering Directorate

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Research Designs & Standards Organisation
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Lucknow – 226011
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INDEX
SL Contents Page
Preface 2
Synopsis 3
1. General 4
2. Vertical Drains 5
3. Sand Drains 6
4. Execution of Sand Drains 7
5. Problems in adopting sand drains and 10

remedies
6. Monitoring and Control of Sand Drains 10
7. Notations 11
8. Design Parameters for Sand Drains 12
9. Consolidation Theory for Sand Drains 17
10. Design Methodology 18
11. Design example 1 of Sand Drains 23
14. Conclusions 29
15. Recommendations 30
16. References 32
17. Annexure - I 33
Page 1
PREFACE
This report is based on the literature survey. The views

expressed are subject to modification from time to time in the
light of future developments on the subject. The views do not
represent the views of the Ministry of Railways (Railway
Board), Government of India.
This report is the property of RDSO and is meant

essentially for official use. It may not be loaned, reproduced
in part or in full or quoted as an authority without the
permission of Director General, RDSO.
Page 2
SYNOPSIS
In the area where the permeability of the sub-soil is very low,

it is difficult to dissipate the pore water pressure due to
loading. Consolidation settlement, in a soft soil is slow
because dissipation of pore water pressure is at very
slow rate, hence it becomes essential to adopt suitable
technique to consolidate and dissipate pore water
pressure as quickly as possible to construct a railway
embankment over such soil. The provision of sand
drains is one of the successful methods for quick
dissipation of pore water pressure and for increasing the
rate of consolidation settlement.
This report describes the advantage of using sand drains

in consolidation of saturated soft soils. It also discusses
the types and techniques of drain installation as well as
monitoring and control procedures. Applicable theory,
design procedure with various design examples have
also been covered in the report.
Page 3
1.0 GENERAL
Vertical drains are artificially-created drainage paths which

can be installed by one of several methods and which can
have a variety of physical characteristics. The use of vertical
drains along with pre- compression has the sole purpose of
shortening the drainage path (distance to a drainage
boundary) of the pore water, thereby accelerating the rate of
primary consolidation. Figure 1 illustrates a typical vertical
drain installation for embankments.
Without sand drain With sand drain
Figure 1
Page 4
When used in conjunction with pre-compression, the principal

benefits of a vertical drain system (i.e., of accelerated
consolidation) are:
(a) To decrease the overall time required for completion of

primary consolidation due to preloading,
(b) To decrease the amount of surcharge required to achieve

the desired amount of pre-compression in the given time,
(c) To increase the rate of strength gain due to consolidation

of soft soils when stability is of concern.
Vertical drains can also be used as pressure relief wells to reduce

pore pressures due to seepage, such as below natural slopes, and
to improve the effectiveness of natural drainage layers below
loaded areas.
When loads are to be applied to saturated compressible soils,

particularly if they affect large loaded areas, pre-consolidation of
the soil to prevent excessive differential settlement is usually
required when one or more of the following conditions exist:
1. Calculation of stability in un-drained conditions shows the soil to

have inadequate load carrying capacity for the desired applied
load.
2. Monitoring reveals that settlement is excessive and/or time-

delayed with respect to the time of consolidation.
3. When the loaded area is large, the soil is heterogeneous in

nature, and significant differential settlement is predicted.
2.0 VERTICAL DRAINS
The time of consolidation in saturated soil of very low permeability

varies directly with the length of the drainage path. As the
coefficient of permeability is large in sand than that of in-situ soil,
the sand columns called sand drains become the path of low energy
potential and sub soil water flows vertically and radially through
sand columns under the hydraulic gradient produced by the fill. As a
Page 5
result, the length of the drainage path becomes very short which
helps to speed up the drainage process and consequently the
consolidation process is accelerated. After about a decade of study
and experience it has been found that, vertical drains together with
the surcharge preloading are considered as the most cost and time
effective solution for the consolidation of saturated compressible
soil.
Vertical drains can be classified into three general types:
(i) sand drains,

(ii) fabric encased sand drains,
(iii) prefabricated vertical drains (PVD).
In this study report, the first type i.e. Sand drains is being
discussed.
3.0 SAND DRAINS
Sand drains are basically boreholes filled with sand. As for the
displacement type of sand drains, a closed mandrel is driven or
pushed into the ground with resulting displacement in both vertical
and horizontal directions. The installation causes disturbances,
especially in soft and sensitive clays, which reduce the shear
strength and horizontal permeability. The low or non-displacement
installations are considered to have less disturbing effects on the
soil. Drilling of the hole is done by means of an auger or water jets.
Although the scope of this report is limited to sand drains. Under

following conditions the characteristics of the particular site, the
subsurface profile and/or the proposed construction may impose
limitations on the use of sand drains:
 The sand should be clean, uniform, fine sand with a d50 between
0.4 mm and 1.2 mm and less than 5% particles finer than the
75 μ. The d100 must be lower than 5mm.
Page 6
 To receive adequate drainage properties, sand has to be

carefully chosen which might seldom be found close to the
construction site.
 Drains might become discontinuous because of careless

installation or horizontal soil displacement during the
consolidation process.
 During filling, bulking of the sand might appear which could lead
to cavities and subsequently to collapse due to flooding.
 Construction problems and/or financial burdens might arise due

to the large diameter of sand drains.
 The disturbance of the soil surrounding each drain caused by

installation may reduce the permeability, the flow of water to
the drain and thus the efficiency of the system.
 The reinforcing effect of sand drains may reduce the

effectiveness of preloading the subsoil
Sand drains are mainly used in consolidation of extensive areas of

loading, such as airport runways, embankments, large storage
areas and reservoirs etc.
4.0 EXECUTION OF SAND DRAINS
Three methods are used for the placement of sand drain. These
techniques are:
 Driven or vibratory closed - end mandrel.
 Jetted.
 Hollow stem continuous - flight auger.
By using “Driven or vibratory closed-end mandrel” method of

installation, a closed steel casing equipped with a detachable shoe
is driven in the soil. The tube is filled with sand and then the tube is
extracted leaving shoe in the hole. The jetting type method consists
of using driven pipes where the soil inside is then jetted. The rest of
the procedure is similar to first method. The continuous flight hollow
auger method is described in the following paragraph. Some
Page 7
undesirable effects in the first two methods are summarized as

following:
(i) Smearing effect – During the extraction of the tube, there is

possibility of reduction of the permeability of sand drain by clogging
of the more permeable seams, especially if the mud is very
laminated.
(ii) Heave caused by driving – Heave (remoulding) effect in soil is

considerable in a zone of about 4 x diameter of sand drain used.
(iii)Extra pore pressure – Driving can generate some extra pore

pressure during insertion of the casing.
This excess pore pressure which is only significant close to the

drain, will begin to dissipate in the sand as soon as the casing is
withdrawn, which occurs in a time period of less than a few
minutes.
In view of the smearing effect of driven or vibratory closed-end

mandrel and complex installation of Jetted sand drains, it is
recommended to retain sand drains placed by hollow stem
continuous – flight auger. This method is rather simple to carry out
and limits the soil displacement and disturbance. The main steps for
this method are illustrated in Figure 2 and are as follows:
Figure 2: Execution of Sand Drains Using Hollow Stem Continuous Flight

Auger
Page 8
(i) Placement of the equipment at the drain location.
(ii) Screwing of the auger down to the chosen depth.
(iii)Rotation of the auger at constant depth in order to separate it

from the surrounding soil.
(iv)Injection of sand while the auger is extracted (screwing is

continuous during this phase).
(iv) Completion of the sand drains up to the platform level.
(v) Settlement plates should be laid immediately after reaching top

level of the platform.
It should be noted that the rate of screwing and extraction of the

auger must be such as, not to generate collapsing of the
surrounding soil into the borehole.
Figure – 3: showing execution of sand drains
Page 9
5.0 PROBLEMS IN ADOPTING SAND DRAINS AND REMEDIES
Drain installation disturbs the soil and may reduce the shear
strength of the deposit. Where overall stability is a problem, effects
of disturbance on overall stability should be evaluated. Vibratory
installation may cause a greater increase in pore pressures than
static pushing. Shear strength and pore pressure can be less
affected by insertion of the mandrel.
If stability of the subgrade/working mat is in question, the design

engineer may limit the overall weight or bearing pressure of the
installation equipment in an attempt to limit possible construction
problems. Maximum acceptable equipment weight and/or bearing
pressure should be with respect to construction equipment. At the
same time, the design engineer should be aware that instability
may result from other factors, such as equipment traffic patterns,
which are not normally specified in the contract documents.
Evaluating the effects of installation disturbance of sand drain is a

very complex soil mechanics problem. To avoid installation
disturbance, it is believed that execution of sand drains is done
according to design with experienced contractor.
Where the drain performance is critical or in cases where the drains

are to be installed by the general contractor, the design engineer
should consider requiring prequalification of the sand drain
contractor to avoid problems with a less experienced contractor.
6.0 MONITORING AND CONTROL OF SAND DRAINS
Quality of sand drains must be ensured by the following monitoring

and control measures:
Page 10
(i) Examining grain size: The sand should be clean, uniform, fine
sand with a d50 between 0.4 mm and 1.2 mm and less than 5%
particles finer than the 75 μ. The d100 must be lower than 5mm.
(ii)Using only specified quality of sand. In case of sand drains

placed with inappropriate sand, a new drain has to be carried
out to replace it.
(iii)Checking the topography of the saturated compressible layer of

soil (sea bottom in coastal areas) along the referenced profiles
before the beginning of the filling.
(iv)The thickness of the fill must be checked during the filling

operation along the referenced profiles. Drilled boreholes with
recording of drilling parameters, static or dynamic penetrometer
can be used for this purpose. Each method must be calibrated
with a cored borehole or an investigation pit.
(v)Settlement plates should be laid immediately after reaching top

elevation of the platform. These should consist of steel plates on
concrete base, embedded at least 1.0 meter under the platform
grade, with a protected vertical steel rod. The settlement plates
should be distributed along the refilled area at a spacing of
about 50 m c/c.
(vi)It is necessary to monitor that consolidation attains its design

value (95% in the area with drains) at the end of the specified
time.
7.0 NOTATIONS
U = Degree of consolidation for one dimensional flow
Uz = Degree of consolidation for vertical flow
Ur = Degree of consolidation for radial flow
Tv = Time factor for vertical flow
Tr = Time factor for radial flow
Page 11
Cvz = Coefficient of consolidation for vertical flow
Cvr = Coefficient of consolidation for radial flow
R = Equivalent radius
rw = Sand drain radius
t = Time
H = Vertical drainage path
c= Consolidation settlement
mv= Coefficient of volume change
dp = Pressure increment
ch= Coefficient of consolidation for Horizontal drainage
8.0 DESIGN PARAMETER FOR SAND DRAIN
8.1 Diameter of drains
The diameter of sand drains varies in practice from about 30cm to

60cm. Too small a diameter is not desirable because of difficulties
in filling the mandrel pipe with sand and of the danger of an arching
of the sand because of the friction between the column of sand and
the wall of the mandrel tube. The sand drain need be only large
enough to drain away the expelled quantity of pore water and to
allow for a safety margin against clogging up the drainage interface
between the native material and the pervious material in the sand
by infiltration of fine material.
8.2 Spacing of drains
It depends upon the type and permeability of soil. Sand drains are,
in practice, spaced from 1.5m to 4.5m center to center. Sand
drains are effective if their spacing is less than their depth. Terzaghi
recommends choosing the spacing so that 80% of the total
consolidation is brought about during the time of construction of
the fill.
Page 12
8.3 Depth of sand drains
Sand drains have been installed upto the maximum depth of 45 m.
8.4 Arrangement of grid
(a) Square pattern
(b) Triangular pattern
Sand drains are laid out in either square or triangular pattern;

Barron (1948) mentioned that triangular spacing is more
economical than square pattern.
(a) Square pattern
In case of a square pattern, the radius of circle of influence „R‟ is

equal to 0.564 a, Where „a‟ is center to center distance of sand
drains as shown in fig. 4(a).
Fig. 4(a) : Square pattern
(b) Triangular pattern
Triangular pattern is hexagonal in plan, which can be

approximated by an equivalent circle of radius „R‟
Where R = 0.525 a.
Where „a‟ is center to center distance between two adjacent sand

drains.
Page 13
A hexagon is formed by bisecting the various grid lines joining

adjacent drains. A typical hexagon is shown in the fig. 4(b).
Fig. 4(b) : Triangular pattern
The square pattern is more convenient to lay out and to control in

the field. However, a triangular pattern is usually preferred since it
provides a more uniform consolidation between drains than the
square pattern (Holtz et al., 1991).
Figure 5: Plan of drain pattern und and zone of influence of each

drain
Page 14
8.5 Equivalent Radius
The effect of each sand drain extends to end of its equivalent

radius, which differs for square & triangular arrangements.
For square system
Area of square enclosed by grid = a2
Area of equivalent circle of radius R = a2
ie R2 = a2 or R = 0.564 a
For triangular system
A hexagon is formed by bisecting the various grid lines

joining adjacent drains. A typical hexagon is shown in the
figure 6 from which, it is seen that the base of triangle ABC,
i.e. the line AB, = a/2
Now AC = AB, tanCBA = (a/2) tan30º = a/(23)
Hence area of triangle ABC = (1/2)x(a/2)x(a/23)
= a2/(83)
So that,
Total area of the hexagon = 12xa2/(83) = 0.865 a2
Radius of the equivalent circle, R = 0.525 a
Fig. 6 : Equivalent radius: Triangular system
Page 15
8.6 Strain effects
The consolidation of a soil layer in which sand drains are placed is

obtained from the expression.
f = mv H ∆ ‟ Ref. …...(3)
Where H = Thickness of clay layer,
f = Consolidation settlement,
mv = Coefficient of volume change,
∆ ‟ = Pressure increment
8.7 Smear Effect
The curves in fig. 8 are for idealised drains, perfectly installed,

clean and working correctly. Wells are often installed by driving
cased holes and then back filling as the casing is withdrawn, a
procedure that causes distortion and remoulding in the adjacent
soil. In clays with sandwich type layers of silt and sand within them,
the finer and more impervious layers are dragged down and smear
over the more pervious layers to create a zone of reduced
permeability around the perimeter of the drain. This smeared zone
reduces the rate of consolidation, and in situ measurements to
check on the estimated settlement rate are necessary on all but the
smallest of jobs.
8.8 Type of sand to be used
The sand used as a draining medium is usually a very carefully

selected and clean material. To be consistent with economy and
availability of materials, no specially prepared graded sand, as
applied in the construction of filters, is used. The only requirement
for sand to be used in vertical drains is that it should carry away
the pore water unobstructed and not to permit the fine, native soil
Page 16
to be washed in. The permeability requirements are that the drain

sand should be approximately 1000 times more permeable than
that of the consolidating native soil. The order of magnitude of the
permeability of the various consolidated soils is between k = 10-5
cm/sec and k = 10-6 cm/sec (k = Coefficient of permeability).
8.9 Drainage blanket
After drains are installed a blanket of gravel and sand from 0.33 to
1.0 m thick is placed over the top of the sand drains to connect all
the sand drains.
8.10 Surcharge
It consists of temporary extra fill material or load placed above the

embankment to accelerate consolidation, due to surcharge load, the
pore water pressure increases in the embankment. The drainage
occurs in the vertical & horizontal directions. The sand drains
accelerate the process of dissipation of excess pore water created
by the surcharge. Once piezometer measurements indicate that
consolidation has become slow this surcharge is removed.
9.0 CONSOLIDATION THEORY
Following equation is the governing consolidation equation for the

case of a sand drain which is a special case of three dimensional
consolidation having radial symmetry
u 2u 1 u 2u
= cvr + + cvz 2 Ref. .….(3)
t r2 r r z
Page 17
………….…Equation (1)
Where Cvr = Coefficient of consolidation for Horizontal drainage
(When it can be measured: otherwise use Cvz).
Fig. 7 : Coordinate directions
10.0 DESIGN METHODOLOGY
The general solution for consolidation by three dimensional flow for

a given set of boundary conditions may become mathematically
involved. However, the method of separation of variables can be
applied to this problem by considering equation (1) to consist of
two parts:
One dimensional flow:
Cvz ∂2u - ∂u ……..…Equation (2)

∂z2 ∂t
Radial flow:
2u 1 u
Cvr + - ∂u
r2 r r ∂t
Page 18
…………Equation (3)
Carillo (1942) has shown that the solution of equation (1) is given
by combination of the solutions for equations (2) and (3) as
follows:
(1-U) = (1-Uz) (1-Ur)
Where;
U = degree of consolidation for the one dimensional flow
Uz = degree of consolidation for the one dimensional flow in

the vertical direction
Ur = degree of consolidation for radial flow
Solution of equation (2) was obtained by Terzaghi, giving the

relation between the time t and degree of consolidation U z by
the characteristic equation:
Uz = f (Tvz )
Where;
Tvz = Time facor for the vertical flow = Cvz x t / H2
Cvz=coefficient of consolidation in z-direction(vertical direction)
t = time taken to achieve required degree of consolidation
H = thickness of layer
Table No. 1
U (%) Tvz U (%) Tvz
5 0.002 55 0.238
10 0.008 60 0.287
15 0.018 65 0.342
20 0.031 70 0.403
25 0.049 75 0.477
30 0.071 80 0.567
Page 19
35 0.096 85 0.684
40 0.126 90 0.848
45 0.159 95 1.129
50 0.197 100 infinite
For the radial flow, solution of equation (3) was obtained by

Rendulic (1935), expressing the relation between t and the
degree of consolidation Ur by the characteristic equation:
Ur = f (Tr )
Where;
Tr = Time facor for radial flow = Cvr x t / (2 R)2
Cvr=coefficient of consolidation in radial direction
2R= Effective diameter of soil cylinder from which water will
flow into the sand drain
Fig. 8 : Radial consolidation rates (after Barron, 1948)
Page 20
Table No. 2
U(%) Time factor Tr
n=R/rw 10 15 20 25 30 50 80 100
=5
5 0.006 0.010 0.013 0.014 0.016 0.017 0.020 0.023 0.025
10 0.012 0.021 0.026 0.030 0.032 0.035 0.042 0.048 0.051
15 0.019 0.032 0.040 0.046 0.050 0.054 0.064 0.074 0.079
20 0.026 0.044 0.055 0.063 0.069 0.074 0.088 0.101 0.107
25 0.034 0.057 0.071 0.081 0.089 0.096 0.144 0.131 0.139
30 0.042 0.070 0.088 0.101 0.110 0.118 0.141 0.162 0.172
35 0.050 0.085 0.106 0.121 0.133 0.143 0.170 0.196 0.208
40 0.060 0.101 0.125 0.144 0.158 0.170 0.202 0.232 0.246
45 0.070 0.118 0.147 0.169 0.185 0.198 0.236 0.291 0.288
50 0.081 0.137 0.170 0.195 2.140 0.230 0.274 0.315 0.334
55 0.094 0.157 0.197 0.225 0.247 0.265 0.316 0.363 0.385
60 0.107 0.180 0.226 0.258 0.283 0.304 0.362 0.416 0.441
65 0.123 0.207 0.259 0.296 0.325 0.348 0.415 0.477 0.506
70 0.137 0.231 0.289 0.330 0.362 0.389 0.463 0.532 0.564
75 0.162 0.273 0.342 0.391 0.429 0.460 0.548 0.629 0.668
80 0.188 0.317 0.397 0.453 0.498 0.534 0.636 0.730 0.775
85 0.222 0.373 0.467 0.534 0.587 0.629 0.750 0.861 0.914
90 0.270 0.455 0.567 0.649 0.712 0.764 0.911 1.046 1.110
Page 21
95 0.351 0.590 0.738 0.844 0.926 0.994 1.185 1.360 1.444
99 0.539 0.907 1.135 1.298 1.423 1.528 1.821 2.091 2.219
Table no. 1 gives the value of Tv corresponding to different

degree of consolidation in the vertical direction
Barron gives the solution of the radial flow towards a sand

drain. Table no. 2 and figure no. 8 are the solution of radial
flow equations.
10.1 Steps for design of sand drain system
1. Determine consolidation settlement of a layer of soft clay with

the gave value of co-efficient of volume change and pressure
increment.
2. Calculate resultant settlement after the end of construction.
3. Calculate minimum degree of consolidation required at the

end of construction.
4. Calculate time required to reach the required consolidation.
5. Calculate Tvz for given value of Cvz (Co-efficient of

consolidation), t & H.
6. Calculate Uz corresponding to Tvz from given table-1.
7. Assume diameter of sand drain „‟ and spacing of sand drain

„a‟.
8. Determine equivalent radius (R) by the standard equation for

a selected grid pattern.
9. Determine term (n) = R/rw, Where rw = φ/2
10. Determine Tr for a given value of Cvr, t & R
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11. Calculate Ur corresponding to Tr & n value by the curve at Fig.

8 or table no. 2
12. Calculate total consolidation percentage (U) by standard

formula corresponding Uz and Ur calculated in step 6 & 11
above.
13. Compare total percentage consolidation with required

minimum degree of consolidation calculated in step 3. If U <
required value of U, then redesign the sand drain system.
14. Assume another value of „a‟ and repeat the steps from 8 to
12.
15. Again compare U and U required if U > required value of U

then assumed „rw‟ and „a‟ for a selected grid pattern is O.K.
11.0 DESIGN EXAMPLE 1
An embankment of 10m height is to be constructed on

a 8m thick layer of clay overlying rock. The
embankment will increase the mean effective vertical
stress in the clay after consolidation from a value of
80kN/m2 to 200kN/m2. The embankment will carry a
track and will be laid in 5 months. The surface will be
laid in 13 months after the commencement of
construction. Only 3 cm of settlement can be accepted
after the surfacing of the embankment. Design a
suitable sand-drain installation to achieve the above
requirements. For the layer of clay coefficient of
consolidation is 8x10-4 cm2/sec and coefficient of
volume change is 0.3 m2/MN.
Page 23
The final settlement is given by
ρf= mv H
where mv and are assumed to be constant over the

depth.
Here,
coefficient of volume change, mv=0.3 m2/MN=0.3x10-3

m2/kN
=200-80 =120 kN/m2

H=8m
ρf =0.3x10-3x120x8=0.288m =28.8cm
Settlement that can be tolerated =3 cm.
The settlement to be achieved = 28.8-3=25.8 cm
Degree of settlement in this time=U=25.8/28.8=89.5%
Effective time within which this settlement is to occur=
13-(5/2)=10.5 months
=365x10.5/12=320 days
Now Tvz= Cvz x t/H2 ; sec Where;
Tvz = Time facor for the vertical flow = Cvz x t / H2

Cvz=coefficient of consolidation in z-direction(vertical direction)
H = thickness of layer
t= 320x3600x24 seconds
H =8 m
Cvz =8x10-4 cm2/sec =8x10-8 m2/sec
Tvz =8x10-8x 320x3600x24/(8x8)
=0.0346
Page 24
From table no. 1
Uz = 21 %
Let us try 30 cm diameter wells spaced at 2m centre to

centre and let these be arranged in a square pattern.
R=0.564 x 2= 1.128 m = 112.8cm
rw= 15 cm
n=R/rw =112.8/15 =7.5
Tr = Cvr x t / 4R2 = 8x10-8 x320x3600x24/(4x1.128)2

=0.435
From table no. 2, for Tr =0.435 and n= 7.5, we get Ur

=93%
(1-U) = (1-Uz) (1-Ur)
= (1-0.21) (1-0.93)
=0.055
U =0.945 = 94.5%
This is grater than the desired minimum value of

U=89.5%. Hence the design is satisfactory.
In the above design example 1 if it is desired to

accelerate further the settlement by construction of
additional height of embankment which would
increase the effective vertical pressure to 250 kN/m2.
Design a suitable sand-drain installation to achieve the
above modified requirement.
Page 25
Let us assume that the pressure increase due to the

surcharge is not going to change the value of
coefficient of consolidation and the coefficient of
volume change.
The ultimate settlement will be
ρf = mv
=0.3x10-3 (250-80)x8 =0.418m=41.8cm
The surcharge will, however, be removed at a

settlement of 25.8cm, which is expected to occur at
320days. Therefore, the percent consolidation
produced by the installation =25.8x100/41.8 =61.7%
in 320 days
Now Tvz = Cvz x t/H2 =8x10-8x320x3600x24/(8x8)=

0.0346
From table no. 1
Uz =21%
Let us try 30 cm diameter sand drains spaced at 3.3m

centre to centre and arranged in square pattern
R=0.564x3.3=1.865m= 186.5cm
rw= 15cm
n=R/rw =186.5/15= 12.5
Tr= 8x10-8x320x3600x24/4(1.86)2 =0.16
From table no. 2, for Tr =0.16 and n=12.5
Ur= 51%
Page 26
(1-U) = (1-Uz) (1-Ur)
=(1-0.21)(1-0.51)
U=0.618 = 61.8%
This is nearly equal to the desired minimum value of

U=61.7%. Hence the layout will be satisfactory.
A clay layer, 5m thick, is consolidated with the help of

sand drain. Design sand drain for the average degree
of consolidation more than 45% (if kr = kz or Cvr = Cvz )
and 85% (if kr = 5 kz or Cvr = 5Cvz ) at the time when
the degree of consolidation in the clay without drains
would be equal to 20%.
Let us try sand drains of diameter 30 cm and spaced

at 2.7m centre to centre.
The drain may be assumed to be arranged in a

triangular pattern.
a=2.7
R=0.525 x a= 0.525 x 2.7= 1.42 m
n=R/rw=1.52/0.15=10(approx..)
From table no.1 for Uz=20%, Tvz =0.031
Tvz =0.031 = Cvz x t/H2
Page 27
t= 0.031 H2/Cvz
Tr= Cvr x t /4R2
=0.081 Cvr/Cvz
(a) For isotropic case
Cvr=Cvz
From table no. 2, for n=10 and Tr=0.081
Ur=34%=0.34
(1-U)=(1-Uz)(1-Ur)
= (1-0.2)(1-0.34)=0.8x 0.66 =0.528
U=1-0.528
=0.472
=47.2%
Thus for the isotropic case, the presence of sand drain

increases the degree of consolidation at time t from 20
to 47.2 ( > 45) percentage.
(b) For anisotropic case
Cvr= 5 x Cvz
Tr =0.081x Cvr/Cvz=0.081x5 =0.405
From table no. 2, for n=10 and Tr=0.405
Ur=87%=0.87
(1-U) =(1-Uz)(1-Ur)
= (1-0.2)(1-0.87)
=0.8x 0.13
Page 28
=0.104
U =1-0.104
=0.896
=89.6%
Thus for the anisotropic case, the presence of sand

drain increases the degree of consolidation at time t
from 20 to 89.6 ( > 85) percentage.
14.0 CONCLUSIONS
a. To get the required 95% degree of consolidation in soft soil

within the imposed time period the concept of sand drains
may be adopted if sand drains are properly designed and
installed accordingly for the entire project area.
b. In the design example 1, desired minimum value of degree

of consolidation is 89.5%. With the design of 30cm
diameter sand drain at 2m c/c in square pattern the
consolidation achieved is 94.5% within desired period.
c. In the design example 2, desired minimum value of degree

of consolidation is 61.7%. With the design of 30cm
diameter sand drain at 3.3m c/c in square pattern the
consolidation achieved is 61.8% within desired period.
d. In the design example 3, with sand drains of diameter 30

cm and spaced 2.7m c/c achieved more than 45%for
isotropic case and more than 85% for anisotropic case.
Page 29
e. Similarly, according to other requirement for increasing rate

of consolidation in soft soil, design calculations may be
carried out to get diameter and spacing of sand drains in
different patterns.
f. As the main function of sand drain is to accelerate the

drainage of water from compressible sub-soil, they will
affect the rate of primary consolidation only. But have no
influence on the secondary settlements.
g. Dissipation of pore pressure induced by sand drain

installation after mandrel removal and prior to soil loading
occurs without soil drainage or settlement.
h. Dissipation of sand drain installation induced pore pressure

occurs after mandrel withdrawal and without measurable
change in soil volume, and the reduction in pore water
stress is not to be accompanied by stress transfer to the soil
matrix.
i. A preliminary evaluation of pore pressure and settlement

data related to embankment construction at the field test
site suggests that the efficiency of sand drain grids is
directly related to drain spacing.
15.0 RECCOMMENDATIONS
The method is recommended for ground improvement in case

embankment is constructed on soft compressible soil.
Possibility should also be explored by field engineer to consider
alternative method of ground improvement like stage
construction, preloading & surcharge, prefabricated vertical
drains etc. based on site conditions & economy.
Page 30
Five recommendations, as listed below, are presented in an

effort to improve procedures currently being applied to the
design of sand drain grids to expedite the consolidation of
saturated compressible soils subject to construction loading.
a. Develop and evaluate a mathematical model to reflect the

observed time dependent dissipation of pore pressures
induced by sand drain installation.
b. Perform field tests in various compressible soils to

determine the nature and extent of pressures by circular
mandrels as well as mandrels commonly used commercially
to install sand drains, in order to develop an empirical basis
to improve procedures and to estimate the field
performance of sand drains during the design phase of a
project.
c. Prepare specifications governing methods of installation of

sand drains and piezometers by means of commercially
available soil boring equipment, in order to enable
engineers to perform tests in situ to determine the
efficiency of sand drain installations during the design phase
of a project.
d. Develop procedures to accurately determine the positions of

sand drains and piezometers at the monitoring depth
needed to profile pore pressures induced by sand drain
installation, and to improve the interpretation of field pore
pressure data.
e. Perform investigations by using “undisturbed samples” to

investigate pore pressures induced by sand drain
installation.
Page 31
16.0 REFERENCES
1. Soil Mechanics by Alam Singh
2. Soil Mechanics & Foundation Engineering By K.R. Arora
3. Soil Mechanics & Foundation Engineering By B. C. Punmia
4. Soil Mechanics by A.R. Jumkis
AKNOWLEDGEMENT
Under guidance of Shri A. K. Dadarya, Executive Director/

Geotechnical Engineering, Shri A. M. Rizvi, Director/Geotechnical
Engineering and Shri S. K. Ojha, Assistant Research Engineer/G E,
this study report has been prepared by Shri Sandeep Kumar/SSRE.
Page 32
ANNEXURE –I
Research Designs & Standards Organisation
CROSS SECTION & PLAN FOR PROVISION OF SAND DRAIN

Ge SR 034

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Increased rate of consolidation in soft soil with Sand Drains

ek= jktdh; iz;ksx gsrq

fjiksVZ la- RDSO/2012/GE : SR-0034

Geotechnical Engineering Directorate

4. Execution of Sand Drains 7

5. Problems in adopting sand drains and 10

6. Monitoring and Control of Sand Drains 10

8. Design Parameters for Sand Drains 12

9. Consolidation Theory for Sand Drains 17

10. Design Methodology 18

11. Design example 1 of Sand Drains 23

12. Design example 2 of Sand Drains 25

13. Design example 3 of Sand Drains 27

This report is based on the literature survey. The views

This report is the property of RDSO and is meant

In the area where the permeability of the sub-soil is very low,

This report describes the advantage of using sand drains

Vertical drains are artificially-created drainage paths which

Without sand drain With sand drain

When used in conjunction with pre-compression, the principal

(a) To decrease the overall time required for completion of

(b) To decrease the amount of surcharge required to achieve

(c) To increase the rate of strength gain due to consolidation

Vertical drains can also be used as pressure relief wells to reduce

When loads are to be applied to saturated compressible soils,

1. Calculation of stability in un-drained conditions shows the soil to

2. Monitoring reveals that settlement is excessive and/or time-

3. When the loaded area is large, the soil is heterogeneous in

2.0 VERTICAL DRAINS

The time of consolidation in saturated soil of very low permeability

Vertical drains can be classified into three general types:

(i) sand drains,

3.0 SAND DRAINS

Although the scope of this report is limited to sand drains. Under

 To receive adequate drainage properties, sand has to be

 Drains might become discontinuous because of careless

 Construction problems and/or financial burdens might arise due

 The disturbance of the soil surrounding each drain caused by

 The reinforcing effect of sand drains may reduce the

Sand drains are mainly used in consolidation of extensive areas of

4.0 EXECUTION OF SAND DRAINS

 Driven or vibratory closed - end mandrel.

 Hollow stem continuous - flight auger.

By using “Driven or vibratory closed-end mandrel” method of

undesirable effects in the first two methods are summarized as

(i) Smearing effect – During the extraction of the tube, there is

(ii) Heave caused by driving – Heave (remoulding) effect in soil is

(iii)Extra pore pressure – Driving can generate some extra pore

This excess pore pressure which is only significant close to the

In view of the smearing effect of driven or vibratory closed-end

Figure 2: Execution of Sand Drains Using Hollow Stem Continuous Flight

(i) Placement of the equipment at the drain location.

(ii) Screwing of the auger down to the chosen depth.

(iii)Rotation of the auger at constant depth in order to separate it

(iv)Injection of sand while the auger is extracted (screwing is

(iv) Completion of the sand drains up to the platform level.

(v) Settlement plates should be laid immediately after reaching top

It should be noted that the rate of screwing and extraction of the

Figure – 3: showing execution of sand drains

5.0 PROBLEMS IN ADOPTING SAND DRAINS AND REMEDIES

If stability of the subgrade/working mat is in question, the design

Evaluating the effects of installation disturbance of sand drain is a

Where the drain performance is critical or in cases where the drains