CET 1:

Stress Analysis &

Pressure Vessels

Lent Term 2005

Dr. Clemens Kaminski

Telephone: +44 1223 763135
E-mail: clemens_kaminski@cheng.cam.ac.uk
URL:

http://www.cheng.cam.ac.uk/research/groups/laser/

Synopsis
1

Introduction to Pressure Vessels and Failure Modes

3-D stress and strain

Thermal Effects

Torsion.

1.1
1.2
1.3
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4

3.1
3.2
3.3
4.1
4.2
4.3

Stresses in Cylinders and Spheres

Compressive failure. Euler buckling. Vacuum vessels
Tensile failure. Stress Stress Concentration & Cracking

Elasticity and Strains-Young's Modulus and Poisson's Ratio

Bulk and Shear Moduli
Hoop, Longitudinal and Volumetric Strains
Strain Energy. Overfilling of Pressure Vessels
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
Thermal Effect in cylindrical Pressure Vessels
Two-Material Structures

Shear Stresses in Shafts - /r = T/J = G/L

Thin Walled Shafts
Thin Walled Pressure Vessel subject to Torque

Two Dimensional Stress Analysis

Bulk Failure Criteria

Two Dimensional Strain Analysis

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
6.1
6.2

7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4

Nomenclature and Sign Convention for Stresses

Mohr's Circle for Stresses
Worked Examples
Application of Mohr's Circle to Three Dimensional Systems
Tresca's Criterion. The Stress Hexagon
Von Mises' Failure Criterion. The Stress Ellipse

Direct and Shear Strains

Mohr's Circle for Strains
Measurement of Strain - Strain Gauges
Hookes Law for Shear Stresses

Supporting Materials
There is one Examples paper supporting these lectures.
Two good textbooks for further explanation, worked examples and exercises are
Mechanics of Materials (1997) Gere & Timoshenko, publ. ITP [ISBN 0-534-93429-3]
Mechanics of Solids (1989) Fenner, publ. Blackwell [ISBN 0-632-02018-0]
This material was taught in the CET I (Old Regulations) Structures lecture unit and was examined
in CET I (OR) Paper IV Section 1. There are consequently a large number of old Tripos questions
in existence, which are of the appropriate standard. From 1999 onwards the course was taught in
CET1, paper 5. Chapters 7 and 8 in Gere and Timoshenko contain a large number of example
problems and questions.

Nomenclature
The following symbols will be used as consistently as possible in the lectures.
E
G
I
J
R
t
T

Youngs modulus
Shear modulus
second moment of area
polar moment of area
radius
thickness

thermal expansivity
linear strain
shear strain
angle
Poissons ratio
Normal stress
Shear stress

A pressure vessel near you!

Ongoing Example
We shall refer back to this example of a typical pressure vessel on several
occasions.
Distillation column

2m

P = 7 bara
carbon steel
t = 5 mm
18 m

1. Introduction to Pressure Vessels and Failure Modes

Pressure vessels are very often
spherical (e.g. LPG storage tanks)
cylindrical (e.g. liquid storage tanks)
cylindrical shells with hemispherical ends (e.g. distillation columns)
Such vessels fail when the stress state somewhere in the wall material exceeds some failure criterion. It is thus important to be able to be able to understand and quantify
(resolve) stresses in solids. This unit will concentrate on the application of stress analysis to bulk failure in thin walled
vessels only, where (i) the vessel self weight can be neglected and (ii) the
thickness of the material is much smaller than the dimensions of the vessel
(D t).

1.1. Stresses in Cylinders and Spheres

Consider a cylindrical pressure vessel
L

External diameter
D

internal gauge pressure P

r
L
h

wall thickness, t

The hydrostatic pressure causes stresses in three dimensions.

1.
Longitudinal stress (axial) L
2.
Radial stress
r
3.
Hoop stress
h
all are normal stresses.
SAPV LT 2005
CFK, MRM

r
L

L
h

a, The longitudinal stress L

P

Force equilibrium

D2
P = D t L
4
if P > 0, then L is tensile
L =

PD
4t

b, The hoop stress h

P

Force balance, D L P = 2 h L t
h =
SAPV LT 2005
CFK, MRM

PD
2t

c, Radial stress

varies from P on inner surface to 0 on the

outer face

r o ( P )
D

h , L P (
).
2t
thin walled, so D >> t
so h , L >> r
so neglect r
Compare terms

d, The spherical pressure vessel

SAPV LT 2005
CFK, MRM

D2
P
= h D t
4
PD
h =
4t

1.2. Compressive Failure: Bulk Yielding & Buckling

Vacuum Vessels
Consider an unpressurised cylindrical column subjected to a single load W.
Bulk failure will occur when the normal compressive stress exceeds a yield
criterion, e.g.

bulk =

W
= Y
Dt

Compressive stresses can cause failure due to buckling (bending instability).

The critical load for the onset of buckling is given by Euler's analysis. A full
explanation is given in the texts, and the basic results are summarised in the
Structures Tables. A column or strut of length L supported at one end will
buckle if

2 EI
W= 2
L
Consider a cylindrical column. I = R3t so the compressive stress required
to cause buckling is

buckle

W
2 ED3t 1
2 ED 2
=
=

=
2
Dt
8L
Dt
8L2

buckle

2 E
=
2
8( L D)

or

SAPV LT 2005
CFK, MRM

where L/D is a slenderness ratio. The mode of failure thus depends on the
geometry:

stress

Euler buckling locus

Bulk yield

Short

Long
L /D ratio

SAPV LT 2005
CFK, MRM

Vacuum vessels.
Cylindrical pressure vessels subject to external pressure are subject to compressive hoop stresses

PD
2t
Consider a length L of vessel , the compressive hoop force is given by,
h =

P D L
2
If this force is large enough it will cause buckling.
h L t =

length

Treat the vessel as an encastered beam of length D and breadth L

SAPV LT 2005
CFK, MRM

Buckling occurs when Force W given by.

4 2 EI
W=
( D) 2

I=

P D L 4 2 EI
=
2
( D )2

b t3 L t3
=
12
12

SAPV LT 2005
CFK, MRM

p buckle

2E t

3 D

1.3. Tensile Failure: Stress Concentration & Cracking

Consider the rod in the Figure below subject to a tensile load. The stress distribution across the rod a long distance away from the change in cross section (XX) will be uniform, but near XX the stress distribution is complex.
D

X
d
W

There is a concentration of stress at the rod surface below XX and this value
should thus be considered when we consider failure mechanisms.
The ratio of the maximum local stress to the mean (or apparent) stress is described by a stress concentration factor K

K=

max
mean

The values of K for many geometries are available in the literature, including
that of cracks. The mechanism of fast fracture involves the concentration of
tensile stresses at a crack root, and gives the failure criterion for a crack of
length a

a = Kc
where Kc is the material fracture toughness. Tensile
stresses can thus cause failure due to bulk yielding or due
to cracking.
SAPV LT 2005
CFK, MRM

 crack =

Kc 1

stress

failure locus

length of crack. a

SAPV LT 2005
CFK, MRM

2.

3-D stress and strain

2.1. Elasticity and Yield

Many materials obey Hooke's law

= E

applied stress (Pa)

Young's modulus (Pa)
strain (-)

failure
Yield
Stress

Elastic
Limit

up to a limit, known as the yield stress (stress axis) or the elastic limit (strain
axis). Below these limits, deformation is reversible and the material eventually
returns to its original shape. Above these limits, the material behaviour depends
on its nature.
Consider a sample of material subjected to a tensile force F.
2
F

1
3

An increase in length (axis 1) will be accompanied by a decrease in dimensions

2 and 3.
Hooke's Law

1 = (1 F / A ) / E
10

The strain in the perpendicular directions 2,3 are given by

2 =

1
E

;3 =

1
E

where is the Poisson ratio for that material. These effects are additive, so for
three mutually perpendicular stresses 1, 2, 3;
2
1
3

Giving

1 =

1
E

2 =
3 =

1
E

1
E

3
E

3
E

3
E

Values of the material constants in the Data Book give orders of magnitudes of
these parameters for different materials;

Material
Steel
Aluminum alloy
Brass

E
(x109 N/m2)
210
70
105

11

0.30
0.33
0.35

2.2 Bulk and Shear Moduli

These material properties describe how a material responds to an applied stress
(bulk modulus, K) or shear (shear modulus, G).
The bulk modulus is defined as

Puniform = K v

i.e. the volumetric strain resulting from the application of a uniform pressure. In
the case of a pressure causing expansion

so

1 = 2 = 3 = P
P
1
1 2 3 ] =
(1 2 )
[
E
E
3P
v = 1 + 2 + 3 =
(1 2 )
E
E
K=
3(1 2 )

1 = 2 = 3 =

For steel, E = 210 kN/mm2, = 0.3, giving K = 175 kN/mm2

For water, K = 2.2 kN/mm2
For a perfect gas, K = P (1 bara, 10-4 kN/mm2)
Shear Modulus definition

= G

- shear strain

12

2.3. Hoop, longitudinal and volumetric strains

(micro or millistrain)
Fractional increase in dimension:
L length
h circumference
rr wall thickness
(a)

Cylindrical vessel:

Longitudinal strain

L =

PD
L
(1 - 2 ) =
4tE
L

Hoop strain:

h =

n
E

R
D
PD
=
(2 - ) =
R
D
4tE

radial strain

r =

t
3PD
1
=
r - h - L ] = [
t
4ET
E

[fractional increase in wall thickness is negative!]

13

[ONGOING EXAMPLE]:

L =

1
( L - n )
E

1
60 x 10 6 - (0.3)120 x 10 6
9
210 x 10

1.14 x 10-4 - 0.114 millistrain

h = 0.486 millistrain
r = -0.257 millistrain
Thus: pressurise the vessel to 6 bar: L and D increase: t decreases
Volume expansion

Cylindrical volume:

D 2
Vo = o Lo
4

New volume

V =

(Do
4

(original)
2

+ D) (Lo + L)

L Do
2
1 + h ] [1 + L ]
= o
[
4
V
Define volumetric strain v =
V
V - Vo
2
v =
= (1 + h ) (1 + L ) - 1
Vo

= 1 + 2 h + h2 (1 + L ) - 1

v = 2 h + L + h2 + 2 h L + L n2
Magnitude inspection:
14

 max (steel) =

190 x 10
3
=
small
9 = 0.905 x 10
210 x 10

Ignoring second order terms,

v = 2 h + L
(b)

Spherical volume:

h =
so

1
[ h - L - r ] = PD (1 - )
4Et
E

(Do + D )3 - Do3
v =
6
D 3o 6

= (1 + h)3 1 3h + 0(2)
(c)

General result

v = 1 + 2 + 3
ii are the strains in any three mutually perpendicular directions.
L = 0.114 mstrain

{Continued example} cylinder

n = 0.486 mstrain
rr = -0.257 mstrain
v = 2n + L
new volume = Vo (1 + v)
Increase in volume =

D2 L
4

v = 56.55 x 1.086 x 10-3

= 61 Litres

Volume of steelo = DLt = 0.377 m3

v for steel = L + h + rr = 0.343 mstrains
increase in volume of steel

= 0.129 L

Strain energy measure of work done

Consider an elastic material for which F = k x

15

Work done in expanding x

dW = Fx

A=area

work done

L0
x

Work done in extending to x1

2
kx1
1
x1
x1
w = o Fdx = o k x dx =
=
Fx
2
2 1 1

Sample subject to stress increased from 0 to 1:

Extension Force:

x1 = Lo 1
AL o 11
W =
F1 = A 1
2

(no direction here)

Strain energy, U = work done per unit volume of material, U =

U =

Al o 1

2 Al o 1 1

U =

1 1
2

ALo 1 1
2(ALo )

12

2E

1
[11 + 22 + 33]
2
3
2

etc
Now 1 = 1 E
E
E

In a 3-D system, U =

So U =

1
12 + 2 2 + 32 - 2 ( 1 2 + 2 3 + 3 1)
2E

Consider a uniform pressure applied: 1 = 2 = 3 = P

2

3P
P
U =
(1 - 2 ) =
2E
2K

energy stored in system (per unit vol.

16

For a given P, U stored is proportional to 1/K so pressure test using liquids

rather than gases.
{Ongoing Example}

P 6 barg

V = 61 x 10-3 m3

increase in volume of pressure vessel

Increasing the pressure compresses the contents normally test with water.
5

6 x 10
P
= - 0.273 mstrains
=
V water? v (water ) =
K
2.2 x 109
decrease in volume of water = -Vo (0.273) = -15.4 x 10 3 m3
Thus we can add more water:
Extra space = 61 + 15.4 (L)
= 76.4 L water
extra space

p=0

p=6

17

3. Thermal Effects
3.1. Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
= LT Linear

Definition: coefficient of thermal expansion

Coefficient of thermal volume expansion v = T

Steel: L = 11 x 10-6 K-1
reactor

Volume

T = 10oC

L = 11 10-5

T = 500oC

L = 5.5 millistrains (!)

Consider a steel bar mounted between rigid supports which exert stress

Heat

= T -

If rigid: = 0

so

= ET
(i.e., non buckling)

steel:

= 210 x 109 x 11 x 10-6 T = 2.3 x 106 T

y = 190 MPa:

failure if T > 82.6 K

18

{Example}: steam main, installed at 10oC, to contain 6 bar steam (140oC)

if ends are rigid, = 300 MPa failure.
must install expansion bends.

3.2. Temperature effects in cylindrical pressure vessels

.
steel construction
L = 3 m . full of water t = 3 mm
D=1m
Initially un pressurised full of water: increase temp. by T: pressure rises
to Vessel P.

The Vessel

Wall stresses (tensile)

L =

PD
= 83.3 P
4t

n = 2L = 166.7 P
19

Strain (volume)

L =

= 210 x 10
= 11 x 10 6

0.3

L h
+ l T
E
E

L = 1.585 x 10-10 P + 11 x 10-6 T

Similarly

h = 6.75 x 10-10 P + 11 10 6 T
v = L + 2n = 15.08 x 10-10 P + 33 x 10-6 T = vessel vol. Strain

vessel expands due to temp and pressure change.

The Contents, (water)

Expands

due to T

increase

Contracts

due to P

increase:

v, H2O = vT P/K

H2O = v = 60 x 10-6 K-1

v = 60 x 10-6 T 4.55 x 10-10 P

Since vessel remains full on increasing T:

v (H20) = v (vessel)
Equating

P = 13750 T

pressure, rise of 1.37 bar

Now

per 10C increase in temp.

n = 166.7 P = 2.29 x 106 T

n = 22.9 Mpa per 10C rise in Temperature
20

Failure does not need a large temperature increase.

Very large stress changes due to temperature fluctuations.

MORAL: Always leave a space in a liquid vessel.

(v, gas = vT P/K)

21

3.3. Two material structures

Beware, different materials with different thermal expansivities
can cause difficulties.
{Example} Where there is benefit. The Bimetallic strip -

temperature

controllers
a=

4 mm (2 + 2 mm)

b=

10 mm

a
d

Cu
Fe
L = 100mm

Heat by T:

Cu expands more than Fe so the strip will bend: it will

bend in an arc as all sections are identical.

22

Cu
Fe

The different thermal expansions, set up shearing forces

in the strip, which create a bending moment. If we apply a sagging bending
moment of equal [: opposite] magnitude, we will obtain a straight beam and

Cu
Fe

can then calculate the shearing forces [and hence the BM].
Shearing force F

compressive in Cu
Tensile

in Fe

F
F
= Fe T +
bdE cu
bdE Fe

Equating strains:

cu T -

So

1
F 1
+

= ( cu - Fe ) T
bd E cu E Fe
23

bd = 2 x 10-5 m2
Ecu = 109 GPa

cu 17 x 10-6 k-1

T = 30C

EFe = 210 GPa

Fe = 11 x 10-6 K-1

F = 387 N
(significant force)

F acts through the centroid of each section so BM = F./(d/2) = 0.774 Nm

Use data book to work out deflection.

ML2
=
2 EI

This is the principle of the bimetallic strip.

24

Consider a steel rod mounted in a upper tube spacer

Analysis relevant to Heat Exchangers
Cu

Fe

assembled at room temperature

.

increase T

Data: cu > Fe

copper expands more than steel, so will generate

a TENSILE stress in the steel and a compressive
stress in the copper.

Balance forces:
Tensile force in steel

|FFe| = |Fcu| = F

Stress in steel

= F/AFe = Fe

= F/Acu = cu

copper

Steel strain:

FE = Fe T + Fe/EFe

= FeT + F/EFeAFe
copper strain

cu = cuT F/EcuAcu

25

(no transvere forces)

Strains EQUAL:

1
1
F
+
=
Acu Ecu
Fe E Fe
1A4
442444
3

( cu - Fe ) T
d

sum of strengths

So you can work out stresses and strains in a system.

26

4. Torsion Twisting Shear stresses

4.1. Shear stresses in shafts /r = T/J = G /L

Consider a rod subject to twisting:

Definition : shear strain change in angle that was originally /2
Consider three points that define a right angle and more then:
Shear strain

= 1 + 2

[RADIANS]

Hookes Law

=G

2 C

G shear modulus =

27

E
2(1 + )

Now consider a rod subject to an applied torque, T.

2r

Hold one end and rotate other by angle

.

Plane ABO was originally to the X-X axis

Plane ABO is now inclined at angle to the axis: tan =
Shear stress involved = G =

Gr
L

28

r
L

Torque required to cause twisting:

dr

.T = 2 r.r r
T = 2 r 2 dr

or

cf

r.dA
A

G
L

G
{J}
L

dA
so

T G
=
=
J
L
r

M E
= =
I R y

DEFN: J polar second moment of area

29

Gr

Consider a rod of circular section:

R

J = 2 .r r 2 dr =

R4

y
r

J=

D 4
32

Now
r2 = x2 + y2
It can be shown that J = Ixx + Iyy

[perpendicular axis than] see Fenner

this gives an easy way to evaluate Ixx or Iyy in symmetrical geometrics:

Ixx = Iyy = D4/64 (rod)

30

Rectangular rod:

I xx

I yy

bd 3
=

12

3
db
=

12

J=

bd 2
b +d2
12

31

Example: steel rod as a drive shaft

D = 25 mm
L = 1.5 m
Failure when = y = 95 MPa
G = 81 GPa

max
rmax
Now

J=

D 4
32

T 95 x 10 6
= =

J
0.0125

so T = 291 Nm
= 383 x 10 8 m 4

G T
81 x 109
9
= 7.6 x 10 =

From
L
J
1.5

Say shaft rotates at 1450 rpm: power

32

= 0.141 rad = 8.1

291 x

45 kW

2
x 1450
60

4.2. Thin walled shafts

(same Eqns apply)
Consider a bracket joining two Ex. Shafts:
T = 291
Nm
D
min

0.025m

What is the minimum value of D for connector?

rmax = D/2
J = (/32){D4 0.0254}

y
rmax

6
32
T 95 x 10 x 2 291
=
=
4
D
D - 0.0254
J

D4 0.0254 = 6.24 x 10-5 D

D 4.15 cm

33

4.3. Thin walled pressure vessel subject to torque

T
=
r J

now cylinder

J=

so

2
D

[(D + 2t )
32

- D4

[8D t + 24 D t
32

D 3t

4T
D 3 t

2T
D 2 t

34

2 2

+ ...

CET 1, SAPV

5. Components of Stress/ Mohrs Circle

5.1 Definitions
Scalars
tensor of rank 0

Vectors
tensors of rank 1
r
r
F = ma
hence :
F1 = ma1
F2 = ma2
F3 = ma3
or :
Fi = mai

Tensors of rank 2
3

pi = Tij q j

i, j = 1,2,3

j =1

or :
p1 = T11q1 + T12 q2 + T13 q3
p2 = T21q1 + T22 q2 + T23 q3
p3 = T31q1 + T32 q2 + T33 q3

Axis transformations
The choice of axes in the description of an engineering problem is
arbitrary (as long as you choose orthogonal sets of axes!). Obviously the
physics of the problem must not depend on the choice of axis. For
example, whether a pressure vessel will explode can not depend on how
we set up our co-ordinate axes to describe the stresses acting on the

34

CET 1, SAPV
vessel. However it is clear that the components of the stress tensor will
be different going from one set of coordinates xi to another xi.
How do we transform one set of co-ordinate axes onto another, keeping
the same origin?

x1

x2

x3

a11

a12

a13

x2 ' a21
x3 ' a31

a22
a32

a23
a33

x1 '

... where aij are the direction cosines

Forward transformation:
3

xi ' = aij x j

New in terms of Old

j =1

Reverse transformation:
3

xi = a ji x j

Old in terms of New

j =1

We always have to do summations in co-ordinate transformation and it is

conventional to drop the summation signs and therefore these equations
are simply written as:

xi ' = aij x j
xi = a ji x j

35

CET 1, SAPV

Tensor transformation
How will the components of a tensor change when we go from one coordinate system to another? I.e. if we have a situation where
pi = Tij q j = Tij q j (in short form)
j

where Tij is the tensor in the old co-ordinate frame xi, how do we find the
corresponding tensor Tij in the new co-ordinate frame xi, such that:
pi ' = Tij ' q j ' = Tij ' q j ' (in short form)
j

We can find this from a series of sequential co-ordinate transformations:

p' p q q'
Hence:
pi ' = aik pk

pk = Tkl ql

ql = a jl q j '

Thus we have:

36

CET 1, SAPV
pi ' = aik Tkl a jl q j '

= aik a jl Tkl q j '

= Tij ' q j '

For example:
Tij ' = ai1 a jl T1l
+ ai 2 a jl T2l
+ ai 3 a jl T3l
= ai1 a j1 T11 + ai1 a j 2 T12 + ai1 a j 3 T13
+ ai 2 a j1 T21 + ai 2 a j 2 T22 + ai 2 a j 3 T23
+ ai 3 a j1 T31 + ai 3 a j 2 T32 + ai 3 a j 3 T33
Note that there is a difference between a transformation matrix and a 2nd
rank tensor: They are both matrices containing 9 elements (constants)
but:

Symmetrical Tensors:

Tij=Tji
37

CET 1, SAPV

38

CET 1, SAPV
We can always transform a second rank tensor which is symmetrical:
Tij

Tij '

such that :
T1 0
Tij ' = 0 T2

0 0

0
0

T3

Consequence? Consider:

pi = Tij q j
then
p1 = T1 q1 ,

p2 = T2 q2 , p3 = T3 q3

The diagonal T1, T2, T3 is called the PRINCIPAL AXIS.

If T1, T2, T3 are stresses, then these are called PRINCIPAL STRESSES.

39

CET 1, SAPV

Mohrs circle
Consider an elementary cuboid with edges parallel to the coordinate
directions x,y,z.
y
Fxy
y face
Fx
x
z face

Fxz

Fxx

z
x face

The faces on this cuboid are named according to the directions of their
normals.
There are thus two x-faces, one facing greater values of x, as shown in
Figure 1 and one facing lesser values of x (not shown in the Figure).
On the x-face there will be some force Fx. Since the cuboid is of
infinitesimal size, the force on the opposite side will not differ
significantly.
The force Fx can be divided into its components parallel to the coordinate
directions, Fxx, Fxy, Fxz. Dividing by the area of the x-face gives the
stresses on the x-plane:

xx
xy
xz
It is traditional to write normal stresses as and shear stresses as .

Similarly, on the y-face:

yx , yy , yz

40

CET 1, SAPV
and on the z-face we have:

zx , zy , zz

There are therefore 9 components of stress;

xx xy

ij = yx yy
zx zy

xz

yz
zz

Note that the first subscript refers to the face on which the stress acts and
the second subscript refers to the direction in which the associated force
acts.
yy
y
x

yx
xy
xx

xx
xy
yx
yy

But for non accelerating bodies (or infinitesimally small cuboids):

and therefore:

xx xy xz xx xy xz

ij = yx yy yz = xy yy yz
zx zy zz xz yz zz

Hence ij is symmetric!
41

CET 1, SAPV
This means that there must be some magic co-ordinate frame in which all
the stresses are normal stresses (principal stresses) and in which the off
diagonal stresses (=shear stresses) are 0. So if, in a given situation we
find this frame we can apply all our stress strain relations that we have set
up in the previous lectures (which assumed there were only normal
stresses acting).
Consider a cylindrical vessel subject to shear, and normal stresses (h, l,
r). We are usually interested in shears and stresses which lie in the
plane defined by the vessel walls.

Is there a transformation about zz which will result in a shear

Would really like to transform into a co-ordinate frame such that all
components in the xi :

ij

ij '

So stress tensor is symmetric 2nd rank tensor. Imagine we are in the coordinate frame xi where we only have principal stresses:
0
1 0
ij = 0 2 0
0 0 3

Transform to a new co-ordinate frame xi by rotatoin about the x3 axis in

the original co-ordinate frame (this would be, in our example, z-axis)

42

CET 1, SAPV
The transformation matrix is then:
a11

aij = a21
a
31

a13 cos

a23 = sin
a33 0

a12
a22
a32

sin
cos

0
1

Then:

ij ' = aik a jl kl

cos

= sin
0

sin
cos
0

0 cos

0 sin
1 0

sin
cos
0

1 cos 2 + 2 sin 2

= 1 cos sin + 2 cos sin

43

0 1 0
0

0 0 2 0

1 0
0 3

1 cos sin + 2 cos sin

1 cos 2 + 2 sin 2
0

0
3

CET 1, SAPV

Hence:

11 ' = 1 cos 2 + 2 sin 2

1
1
= ( 1 + 1 ) ( 2 1 ) cos 2
2
2

22 ' = 1 sin 2 + 2 cos 2

=

1
1
( 1 + 1 ) + ( 2 1 ) cos 2
2
2

12 ' = 1 cos sin + 2 cos sin

=

1
( 2 1 ) sin 2
2

44

Yield conditions. Tresca and Von Mises

Mohrs circle in three dimensions.

Shear stresses

y,z plane
x, y plane

normal
stresses

x,z plane

We can draw Mohrs circles for each principal plane.

6. BULK FAILURE CRITERIA

Materials fail when the largest stress exceeds a critical value. Normally we
test a material in simple tension:

y =

Pyield
A

This material fails under the stress combination (y, 0, 0)

max = 0.5 y = 95 Mpa

for steel

We wish to establish if a material will fail if it is subject to a stress

combination (1, 2, 3) or (n, L, )
2

Failure depends on the nature of the material:

Two important criteria
(i)

Trescas failure criterion: brittle materials

Cast iron: concrete: ceramics

(ii)

Von Mises criterion: ductile materials

Mild steel + copper

6.1. Trescas Failure Criterion; The Stress Hexagon (Brittle)

A material fails when the largest shear stress reaches a critical value, the
yield shear stress y.
Case (i)

Material subject to simple compression:

Principal stresses (-1, 0, 0)

M.C: mc passes through (1,0), (1,0) , ( 0,0)

max

max = 1/2
occurs along plane at 45 to 1
Similarly for tensile test.
Case (ii)

2 < 0 < 1

1 - 2
M.C.

Fails when

= max
= y =

y
2

1 - 2 = y

i.e., when

material will not fail.

Lets do an easy example.

6.2 Von Mises Failure Criterion; The stress ellipse

(ductile materials)
Trescas criterion does not work well for ductile materials. Early hypothesis
material fails when its strain energy exceeds a critical value (cant be true
as no failure occurs under uniform compression).
Von Mises: failure when strain energy due to distortion, UD, exceeds a
critical value.
UD = difference in strain energy (U) due of a compressive stress C equal to
the mean of the principal stresses.

C =

1
[ + 2 + 3 ]
3 1

UD =

1 2
+
2E 1
1
=
(1
12G

22 + 32 + 2 (1 2 + 2 3 + 3 1 ) 3C 2 + 6C 2

2E
2

- 2 ) + ( 2 - 3 ) + ( 3 - 1 )

M.C.

Tresca failure when max (I) y)

Von Mises failure when root mean
square of {a, b, c} critical value

Compare with (y, , ) . simple tensile test failure

Failure if

1
(1 - 2 )2 + (2 + 3 )2 + (3 - 1 )2 > 1 2y + 02 + 2y
12G
12G

{( - )

+ ( 2 + 3 ) + (3 - 1 ) > 2 2y
2

Lets do a simple example.

Example Tresca's Failure Criterion

The same pipe as in the first example (D = 0.2 m, t' = 0.005 m) is subject to
an internal pressure of 50 barg. What torque can it support?

PD
= 50 N / mm 2
4t'
PD
h =
= 100 N / mm 2
2t'

L =

Calculate stresses

and 3 = r 0

Mohr's Circle
(100,)

50

100

s
(50,)

Circle construction

s = 75 N/mm2
t = (252+2)

The principal stresses

1,2 = s t

Thus 2 may be positive (case A) or negative (case B). Case A occurs if is

small.

10

Case A
(100,)

100 1

2 50

s
(50,)
Case B

(100,)

100

50

(50,)

We do not know whether the Mohr's circle for this case follows Case A or
B; determine which case applies by trial and error.
Case A; 'minor' principal stress is positive (2 > 0)
Thus failure when

max = 12 y = 105N / mm 2

11

For Case A;

max =

1
2

1
2

[75 +

(252 + 2 )]

2 = 135 252

= 132.7N / mm 2
1 = 210 N / mm2 ; 2 = 60 N / mm2

Giving

Case B;
We now have max as the radius of the original Mohr's circle linking our
stress data.
Thus

max = 252 + 2 = 105

= 101.98N / mm2

Principal stresses

1,2 = 75 105

1 = 180N / mm2 ; 2 = 30N / mm 2

Thus Case B applies and the yield stress is 101.98 N/mm2. The torque
required to cause failure is

T = D2 t' / 2 = 32kNm
Failure will occur along a plane at angle anticlockwise from the y (hoop)
direction;

102
2 = 76.23 ;
75
2 = 90 - 2 = 6.9

tan(2 ) =

12

Example

More of Von Mises Failure Criterion

From our second Tresca Example

h = 100N / mm 2
L = 50 N / mm 2
r 0 N / mm2
What torque will cause failure if the yield stress for steel is 210 N/mm2?
Mohr's Circle
(100,)

50

100

s
(50,)

Giving

1 = s + t = 75 + 252 + 2

At failure

UD =

2 = s t = 75 252 + 2
3 = 0
1
( 1 2 ) 2 + ( 2 3 ) 2 + ( 3 1 ) 2 }
{
12G

13

Or

(1 2 ) 2 + ( 2 3 ) 2 + ( 3 1 ) 2 = ( y )2 + (0)2 + (0 y ) 2
4t 2 + (s t)2 + (s + t) 2 = 2 2y
2s2 + 6t 2 = 2 y2
s 2 + 3t 2 = 2y
752 + 3(252 + 2 ) = 210 2

= 110 N / mm 2

The tube can thus support a torque of

D2 t'
T=
= 35kNm
2
which is larger than the value of 32 kNm given by Tresca's criterion - in this
case, Tresca is more conservative.

14

7. Strains
7.1. Direct and Shear Strains
Consider a vector of length lx lying along the x-axis as shown in Figure
1. Let it be subjected to a small strain, so that, if the left hand end is fixed
the right hand end will undergo a small displacement x. This need not be
in the x-direction and so will have components xx in the x-direction and
xy in the y-direction.

xy
xx

lx

Figure 1

We can define strains xx and xy by,

xx =

xx
;
lx

xy =

xy
lx

xx is the direct strain, i.e. the fractional increase in length in the direction
of the original vector. xy represents rotation of the vector through the
small angle 1 where,
1 tan 1 =

xy
l x + xx

xy
lx

= xy

Thus in the limit as x 0, 1 xy.

Similarly we can define strains yy and yx = 2 by,

yy =

yy
ly

yx =

yx
ly

 yx
Figure 2

yy

y
ly

as in Figure 2.

lx

Or, in general terms:

ij =

ij
li

where i, j = 1,2,3

The ENGINEERING SHEAR STRAIN is defined as the change in an

angle relative to a set of axes originally at 90. In particular xy is the
change in the angle between lines which were originally in the x- and ydirections. Thus, in our example (Figure 2 above):
xy = ( 1 + 2 ) = xy + yx or

xy = ( 1 + 2 )

depending on sign convention.

yx

A'

xy

B'

C'
Figure 3b

Figure 3a

Positive values of the shear stresses xy and yx act on an element as

shown in Figure 3a and these cause distortion as in Figure 3b. Thus it is
sensible to take xy as +ve when the angle ABC decreases. Thus
2

 xy = +( 1 + 2 )

Or, in general terms:

ij = ( ij + ji )
and since

ij = ji,
we have

ij = ji.

Note that the TENSOR SHEAR STRAINS are given by the averaged
sum of shear strains:

1
1
1
1
ij = ( ij + ji ) = ( 1 + 2 ) = ji
2
2
2
2

7.2 Mohrs Circle for Strains

The strain tensor can now be written as:

11
1
ij = y 21
2
1 y
2 31

1
y12
2

22
1
y32
2

1
y13
11
2
1
1
y 23 = y12
2
2
1
33 y13
2

1
y12
2

22
1
y 23
2

1
y13
2

1
y 23
2

33

where the diagonal elements are the stretches or tensile strains and the
off diagonal elements are the tensor shear strains.
Thus our strain tensor is symmetrical, and:
3

 ij = ji
This means there must be a co-ordinate transformation, such that:

ij '

ij

such that :
1 0
ij = 0 2
0 0

0
0

we only have principal (=longitudinal) strains!

Exactly analogous to our discussion for the transformation of the stress
tensor we find this from:

ij ' = aik a jl kl

cos

= sin
0

sin
cos
0

0 cos

0 sin
1 0

sin
cos
0

1 cos 2 + 2 sin 2

= 1 cos sin + 2 cos sin

And hence:

0 1 0

0 0 2

1 0 0

0
0

1 cos sin + 2 cos sin

1 cos 2 + 2 sin 2
0

0
3

11 ' = 1 cos 2 + 2 sin 2

1
1
= (1 + 1 ) ( 2 1 ) cos 2
2
2

22 ' = 1 sin 2 + 2 cos 2

=

1
1
(1 + 1 ) + ( 2 1 ) cos 2
2
2

1
2

12 ' = 12 ' = 1 cos sin + 2 cos sin

1
( 2 1 ) sin 2
2

For which we can draw a Mohrs circle in the usual manner:

Note, however, that on this occasion we plot half the shear strain against
the direct strain. This stems from the fact that the engineering shear
strains differs from the tensorial shear strains by a factor of 2 as as
discussed.

7.3 Measurement of Stress and Strain - Strain Gauges

It is difficult to measure internal stresses. Strains, at least those on a
surface, are easy to measure.

Glue a piece of wire on to a surface

Strain in wire = strain in material

As the length of the wire increases, its radius decreases so its

electrical resistance
increases and can be readily measured.
In practice, multiple wire assemblies are used in strain gauges, to
measure direct strains.
strain gauge
_
_
_

45

Strain rosettes are employed to obtain three measurements:

7.3.1 45 Strain Rosette
Three direct strains are measured

Mohrs circle for strains gives

principal strain

120

/2
B

2
B

radius t
so we can write

circle, centre s,

A = s + t cos(2 )
B = s + t cos(2 + 90) = s t sin( 2 )
C = s t cos(2 )

3 equations in 3 unknowns
Using strain gauges we can find the directions of Principal strains

/2

7.4 Hookes Law for Shear Stresses

St. Venants Principle states that the principal axes of stress and strain are
co-incident. Consider a 2-D element subject to pure shear (xy = yx =
o).
o

The Mohrs circle for stresses is

o
X

where P and Q are principal stress axes and

pp = 1 = o
qq = 2 = o
pq = qp = 0

Since the principal stress and strain axes are coincident,

pp = 1 =
=

o
E

1
E

2
E

(1+ )

qq = 2 =

2
E

1
E

o
(1+ )
E

and the Mohrs circle for strain is thus

/2

the Mohrs circle shows that

Y
Q

qq

pp

xx = 0
xy
2

X (0, )
xy

o
E

(1 + )

So pure shear causes the shear strain

o

o
/2

/2

and

2 o
(1+ )
E
But by definition o = G

so

G=

o
E
=
2(1+ )

Use St Venants principal to work out principal stress values from a

knowledge of principal strains.
Two Mohrs circles, strain and stress.

1 =

1
E

2 =
3 =

1
E

1
E

3
E

3
E

3
E

So using strain gauges you can work out magnitudes of principal strains.
You can then work out magnitudes of principal stresses.
Using Tresca or Von Mises you can then work out whether your
vessel is safe to operate. ie below the yield criteria

10