Professional Documents
Culture Documents
• (i) the boundaries between biomedical and • Conceptual literature consists of articles or
behavioral research and the accepted and routine books written by authorities
practice of medicine, (ii) the role of assessment of risk- giving their opinions,
benefit criteria in the determination of the experiences, theories,
appropriateness of research involving human subjects, or ideas.
(iii) appropriate guidelines for the selection of human
subjects for participation in such research and (iv) the Sources for literature review
nature and definition of informed consent in various • A primary source: is the description of an
research settings. investigation written by the person who conducted it
Code of Ethics for Nurses
• The Code of Ethics for Nurses, revised in 2000,
• A secondary source: is a description of a study
or studies prepared by
is a guide for action based on social values and needs. someone other than the
The Code has served as the standard for nurses original researcher
worldwide since it was first adopted in 1953. The new
version, revised for the first time in 27 years, responds to Where can literature be found?
the realities of nursing and health care in a changing
society. • Journal articles
The use of a framework
• Books
• Conference proceedings
• Worldviews are mental lenses or cognitive and
perceptual maps that we continually use to find our way
• Government and corporate reports through the social landscape surrounding us.
• Newspapers • They are extremely encompassing in content
and pervasive in adherence.
Where can literature be found? • They are composed of beliefs, belief systems
• Theses and dissertations and social values associated with them.
Terminologies
• Internet – electronic journals
• A concept is a term that abstractly describes
• CD – ROM and names an object, a phenomenon, or an idea, thus
• Magazines providing it with a separate identity or meaning.
• Constructs are concepts at very high level of
Reading the literatures abstraction and have general meaning
• Read the easier articles first • Variables are more concrete and are narrow in
• Scan the article – Read the abstract first. their definition.
Hypothesis
Ma. Irma Bustamante, RN, PhD
Framework
Ma. Irma Bustamante, RN, PhD
Definitions
• The hypothesis is a tentative, declarative
Definitions statement about the relationship between two or more
• A framework is the abstract, logical structure of variables.
meaning that guides the development of the study and • It is a tentative explanation for certain behaviors,
enables the researcher to link the findings to nursing's phenomena or events
body of knowledge. which have occurred or will occur.
• It is the conceptual underpinnings of a study. • It is an educated guess which needs
to be tested.
Definitions Characteristics
• Theoretical framework is based on theories. • It should be reasonable.
• Conceptual framework is rooted on specific
concepts or conceptual model • It should state in definite terms, the relationship
• Both provides the structure for examining a between variables.
problem and serves as a guide to examine relationships
between variables. • It should be testable.
The use of a framework Sources
• In quantitative research, the framework is a • Observations of phenomena
testable theory that may emerge from a conceptual
model or may be developed inductively from published • Real life experiences
research or clinical observations • May be generated from relationships expressed
• In qualitative research, the initial framework is a in theories.
philosophy or a worldview. A theory consistent with the
philosophy is developed as the outcome of the study.
• Literature review
• Results of previous researches
Types
• Null hypothesis (Ho) is a statement of a no
relationship, no difference, no effect or no interaction. It
is tested with statistics. Research Designs
• Example Ma. Irma C. Bustamante, RN, PhD
There is no relationship between nursing admission
test results and board examination ratings among the
graduates of nursing schools in Manila. Definitions
• Research design is the plan, structure, and
Types strategy of an investigation.
• Alternative or research hypothesis (H1) is the • Research method is the totality of how the
expectation based on theory. This could either be: study is carried out. It includes the design, sample,
• Directional – specifies the direction of the setting, instruments,
relationship. interventions, procedures, and
data analysis.
• Non-directional – only specifies that there is a
relationship.
Interrelationship: Design, Problem, Literature Review,
Types Framework, and Hypothesis
• Examples Quantitative Designs
Quantitative Experimental
• Notation:
RS O1 X O2
• Pre-experimental design is a research design RC O3 O4
that does not include mechanisms to compensate for the RS X O5
absence of either randomization or a control group. RC O6
Done as a preliminary study.
Designs: Pre-experimental Quantitative Experimental
• One shot case study • Quasi-experimental designs are studies
• Notation
involving an intervention in which subjects are not
randomly assigned to treatment conditions but the
X O researcher exercises controls to enhance the study’s
• Where: internal
X – Treatment/intervention validity.
O - Posttest Quasi-experimental Designs
• Time series experiment
Designs: Pre-experimental O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8
• Posttest only design with comparison group
• Notation • Non-equivalent control group design
O1 X O2 basic research because all extraneous factors other than
--------------------- those of interest can be controlled or accounted for (e.g.,
O3 O4 age, gender, genetics, nutrition, environment, co-
morbidity, strain of infectious agent)
Threats to Experimental Validity Epidemiological Designs
Observational studies
• Internal validity: refers to the condition that the
1. Cohort (Incidence, Longitudinal Study) - A
observed differences on the dependent variable are a prospective, analytical, observational study, based on
direct result of the manipulation of the independent data, usually primary, from a follow-up period of a group
variable, not some other variable in which some have had, have or will have the exposure
of interest, to determine the association between that
Threats to Experimental Validity exposure and an outcome.
• Threats to internal validity Epidemiological Designs
History effect: an event that is not related to the 2. Case-Control Study - A retrospective, analytical,
planned study but occurs during the time of the study observational study often based on secondary data in
and could influence the responses of subjects to the which the proportion of cases with a potential risk factor
treatment are compared to the proportion of controls (individuals
without the disease) with the same risk factor. The
Threats to Experimental Validity common association measure for a case-control study is
Selection threat is more likely to occur in studies in the odds ratio.
which randomization is not possible Epidemiological Designs
Maturation is defined as growing older, wiser, stronger, 3. Ecologic (Aggregate) Study - An observational
hungrier, more tired, or analytical study based on aggregated secondary data.
more experienced during the study. Aggregate data on risk factors and disease prevalence
Unplanned and unrecognized from different population groups is compared to identify
changes can influence the findings associations.
of the study. Epidemiological Designs
4. Cross-Sectional (Prevalence Study) Study - A
Threats to Experimental Validity descriptive study of the relationship between diseases
Mortality is due to subjects who drop out of a study and other factors at one point in time (usually) in a
before completion defined population
Epidemiological Designs
• External validity refers to the condition wherein 5. Case Series - A descriptive, observational study of
the results are generalizable or applicable to groups and a series of cases, typically describing the manifestations,
environments outside of the experimental setting clinical course, and prognosis of a condition.
Epidemiological Designs
Epidemiological Designs 6. Case Report - Anecdotal evidence. A description of
• Two broad classifications a single case, typically describing the manifestations,
1. Observational studies – examine associations clinical course, and prognosis of that case.
between risk factors and outcomes Qualitative Designs
2. Intervention studies – explore the • Qualitative designs uses systematic,
association between interventions and interactive approach which is used to describe life
outcomes experiences and give them meaning.
Epidemiological Designs Qualitative Phenomenology
• Observational studies • Phenomenological design is used to describe
1. Analytical – determinants and risk of disease experiences as they are lived
2. Descriptive – patterns and frequency of disease
Epidemiological Designs • Bracketing is the suspension of the
researcher’s preconceptions, prejudices and beliefs so
• Intervention or experimental studies - provides
that they do not interfere
the strongest clinical evidence. with or influences their description of
1.) Randomized Controlled Clinical Trial (RCT) - A the respondent’s experience.
prospective, analytical, experimental study using primary
data generated in the clinical environment. Individuals
similar at the beginning are randomly allocated to two or Qualitative Grounded Theory
more treatment groups and the outcomes the groups are
compared after sufficient follow-up time. Properly • Grounded theory provides a way to transcend
executed, the RCT is the strongest evidence of the experience – to move it from a description of what is
clinical efficacy of preventive and therapeutic procedures happening to understanding the process by which it
in the clinical setting. happens.
Qualitative Ethnographic
Epidemiological Designs
2. Randomized Cross-Over Clinical Trial - A
• Ethnographic design provides a mechanism
prospective, analytical, experimental study using primary for studying our own culture and that of others.
data generated in the clinical environment. Individuals
with a chronic condition are randomly allocated to one of
two treatment groups, and, after a sufficient treatment Qualitative Historical
period and often a washout period, are switched to the • Historical design is the systematic collection
other treatment for the same period. and critical evaluation of data relating to past
Epidemiological Designs occurrences.
3. Randomized Controlled Laboratory Study - A External criticism: authenticity and genuiness of data
prospective, analytical, experimental study using primary Internal criticism: worthiness or
data generated in the laboratory environment. truthfulness of data
Laboratory studies are very powerful tools for doing
Qualitative Philosophical Inquiry
• Sampling frame is a list of all cases, objects, or
• Philosophical inquiry considers an idea or an groups of cases in the populations.
issue from all perspectives by extensively exploring the
literature, examining conceptual meaning, raising
• Generalizing means that the findings can be
questions, providing answers, and suggesting the applied to the population.
implications of those answers. • Representativeness means that the sample
Qualitative Critical Social Theory must be like the population in as many ways as possible.
• Critical social theory dares to question the
unquestioned and uncovers injustice and inequity in the
society. Categories of Sampling Plans
• Probability sampling: a process in which each
Qualitative Feminist Research element of the population has an equal chance of being
• Feminist research is based on the premise chosen for the sample. There is randomization.
that gender is a central construct in a society that
privileges men and marginalizes women. It seeks to • Non-probability sampling: elements are
equalize power relations by using a broad range of selected by non-random methods
methodologies. Sample Size
Case Study RULE: The larger the sample, the more representative
• Involves an extensive exploration of a single unit of the population.
of study, such as a person, family, group, community, or • Minimum acceptable sample size
institution, or a very small number of subjects who are 1. Descriptive: 10 – 20% of the population
examined intensively. 2. Correlational: 30 subjects
It may have both quantitative and 3. Ex post facto: 15 subjects
qualitative elements. 4. Experimental: 15 – 30 subjects per group
Used for rare, interesting, or Gay and Diehl,1992
representative cases
Sample Size
Triangulation
• Slovin’s Formula
• It is the combined use of two or more theories, n = N
methods, data sources, investigators, or analysis 1 + Ne2
methods in the study of the same phenomenon. Where: n = sample size
N = population
e = desired margin of error
Remember ( 0.05 or 0.01 )
The KEY in choosing the research design
The best research design is the one that is most Probability Techniques
appropriate for the problem and the purpose of the
study. • Simple random: sampling by chance either by
lottery or by the use of table of random numbers
Probability Techniques
• Stratified random: involves taking certain areas
Sample of the population, dividing the areas into sections, and
Ma. Irma C. Bustamante, RN, PhD then taking a random sample from each section.
Definitions Probability Techniques
• Sampling involves selecting a group of people, • Systematic sampling: every nth name from a
events, behaviors, or other elements with which to roster of names can be taken as
conduct a study. sample.
• Sampling plan defines the process of making K = N/n
the selection. Where: K = sampling interval
N = population
• Sample defines the selected group of people or n = sample size
elements.
• Population or target population is the entire Probability Techniques
set of individuals or elements who meet the sampling • Cluster sampling: sampling in groups
criteria.
Probability Techniques
Definitions
• Multi-stage sampling: used for extremely large
• Sampling criteria list the characteristics populations. It proceeds through a set of stages from
essential for membership in the target population. larger to smaller sampling units.
• Accessible population is the portion of the
target population to which the researcher has Non-probability Techniques
reasonable access. • Purposive or judgmental: subjects are hand
• Elements are the entities that make up the picked to be included in the sample, based upon the
sample or the population researcher’s knowledge of the population.
Communicating Research
Ma. Irma C. Bustamante, RN, PhD
Communicating research
• Communicating research findings, the final
step in the research process, involves developing a
research report and disseminating it through
presentations and publications to audiences of nurses,
health care professionals, policy makers, and health
consumers.
Advantages
• Researchers are able to advance the knowledge
of a discipline.
• Researchers receive personal recognition and
professional advancement
• It promotes critique and replication
• It helps identify additional problems
• Promotes the use of research findings in
practice
Avenues for communicating research
• Publication in journals including on-line journals
• Oral presentation in conferences
• Poster presentation in conferences
• Publication in conference proceedings
• Publication in other sources e.g.
books, newspapers, magazines
REMEMBER
Genius is the ability to reduce the complicated to
the simple.
C. W. Cheran