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2 Korosi Pada Keramik
2 Korosi Pada Keramik
5.1 Introduction
Corrosion may be defined as the physical and chemical alteration of a material due to
its interaction with the environment of interest. It must be emphasized that corrosion
resistance is not a material property but a system property and real environments have
a high variability in both chemical and physical boundary conditions.
Corrosive alteration leads to a change in the desired original properties and so
corrosion usually, but not exclusively, has adverse effects and causes a decrease in
strength, toughness, hardness, and increases wear. There are many reasons for the
degradation of properties by corrosion. Decrease of the cross-section carrying the
load, pitting, stress induced by phase changes, and grain separation are some of
the common features.
Some hard materials, namely Sic and Si3N4,are designed to serve at high temperatures, where corrosion resistance is an essential feature. This is the reason
why a large proportion of the ceramic literature on corrosion, including recent
textbooks [ 1-51, deals with these materials.
In order to react with the environment, the material must not be in equilibrium
with it. The hard materials covered in this chapter are non-oxides and hence this
condition is fulfilled for all of them in almost every application environment, including ambient air. The applicability of hard materials thus rests on the kinetics of the
processes.
Before discussing individual materials we will introduce important terms and
concepts in corrosion like attack modes, media classes, location of attack, kinetics,
and their parameters. We feel that this is necessary for understanding of the discussion of the materials, because there is no generally accepted standard procedure
that allows us to compare the corrosion behavior of materials as easily as other
properties like mechanical strength or hardness.
141
The more common classification scheme is to divide the corrosive media into their
state of aggregation, that is to subdivide into corrosion by solids, liquids and gases.
While solid state corrosion is rarely dealt with, we have vast amount on literature on
hot gas corrosion. The case of corrosion by liquids is commonly further subdivided
into more specific cases, such as aqueous corrosion (e.g. acids and water), corrosion
by glasses, metal melts and salt melts. The last case is for historic reasons known in
the form of a rather misleading expression: hot corrosion. A special case, which
spans from the liquid into the gaseous state is given by the corrosion in hot water
systems: hydrothermal corrosion.
At first glance this may not make too much sense, but the experience is that the
different names mentioned above correspond to main forms of the attack mode and
often refer to different application temperature levels.
142
local corrosion with bubble and pit formation is the result, at least in the early stages
of this oxidation [7].
If the secondary phase is a grain-boundary phase, which allows a relatively fast
transport of the corroding agent into the material via the grain boundaries, we
will have an attack of the main material and/or the grain-boundary phase not
only on the surface, but in a zone stretching out into the bulk of the specimen.
This is known as internal corrosion.
Despite its localized character on a microscopic scale, intergranular corrosion
may be quite homogenous on the macroscopic scale. Additionally, the process of
internal corrosion is also capable of slowing down with time, so it may offer some
protective quality.
It must be emphasized that those processes do not exclude each other. Internal
corrosion may occur while a scale is formed on the outside. We will discuss the
problem in the context of the individual materials.
+ 402H SiOt
(1)
143
and
Si + O2 H Si02.
Calculations of the oxygen partial pressure P(0,) for the boundary condition both
by simply taking the values from the JANAF-tables [12] or by using a modern
thermochemical program [ 131 yield similar results with an equilibrium P(0,) as
low as
bar at 1000C. The prediction from the equilibrium would thus be,
that at conditions with P ( 0 2 ) > lop2*bar we should find the formation of a silica
layer on a bare Si surface. Experimental observation shows that this only takes
place at P(02)-levels more then 20 orders of magnitude higher.
Wagners solution was to transform the problem into a physically controlled one.
Silica is formed at conditions, which allow its condensation from the gas phase in
equilibrium with the substrate:
4Si +
Si02
* SiO.
(3)
If reaction (1) is fast, a concentration gradient of O2 inwards and SiO outwards must
exist. Then the interdiffusion coefficients and the effective thickness of the boundary
layer will control whether the critical P(Si0) of the condensation reaction (3) is
reached or not. From tables and estimations of those physical constants we can
relate back to the oxygen pressure of the bulk gas necessary to induce the critical
P(Si0) on the surface. The calculation yielded reasonable results for the activepassive boundary of Si in streaming atmospheres with low oxygen contents and
accordingly the theory was later applied to other silica-formers [ 14,151.
This success story demonstrates that equilibrium calculations disregarding physical boundary conditions can be misleading, and that thermochemical calculation is
capable of giving good results if those boundaries are taken into account.
(4)
where J = mass flux, k , = reaction coefficient, ci = concentration of agent at interface, and for first-order reactions a linear law follows under steady-state conditions.
The basic shape of the kinetics for diffusion control can be seen by looking at
Ficks first law
J=
-D-dc
dl
where I = diffusion path length. With constant conditions, the gradient from the
surface to the bulk of the corrosive medium becomes constant, 1 stays constant
and accordingly the flux, J , becomes constant with time. Therefore the change in
144
10
- 5
.-0
In
In
a
0
2
v
-8
-5
AX = kit.
(6)
This expected linearity is usually experimentally confirmed. A theoretical prediction
of the size of the h e a r rate constant kl in E q . (6) for a given temperature and
composition of medium and material is possible, when thermodynamic data are
available to calculate the reaction, and boundary parameters such as the geometry
of the sample, viscosity, stream velocity, Schmidt and Reynolds numbers are
known or can be estimated [16].
Other approaches to active corrosion prediction utilizing thermochemical calculations [8,17,18] require the experimental determination of effective parameters.
They show both the importance of physical boundary conditions and the extremely
low level of partial pressures at which active corrosion is potentially dangerous.
In Fig. 1 a model case applying such simplified kinetic equations [17] is illustrated.
Thermodynamic calculations for Sic in H2 yield partial pressures of about lo- bar
for SiH4 and CH4 even at moderate temperatures of 1 100C, so that the reaction
Sic + 4H2 w SiH4 + CH4
(7)
145
(ax)2
= k,t
(8)
or
ax=
fi.
(9)
The derivation of the parabolic law above is only a good approximation for a situation with a sufficiently thick pre-existing scale. It has been shown in a classic paper
by Deal and Grove [19] on the oxidation of silicon, that the correct parabolic law
should recognize the chemical reaction rate and the gas transport coefficient along
with the diffusion coefficient. Their analysis demonstrated that the parabolic rate
law is rather
(ax)2
+ axA = B ( t +).
(10)
146
with the logarithmic rate constant klog.The same equation is valid for a more
complex situation, pertinent to ceramic systems. If the diffusion through a scale is
rate controlling and the scale crystallizes a phase, which is either completely blocking for the agent or has a diffusion coefficient much smaller than the original scale,
the effective cross section for the agent transport is likewise diminished. For a constant crystallization rate we will end up with Eq. (1 1).
However, natural nucleation and crystal growth is complex, dependent on many
variables and usually not constant with time. The energy requirements are often so
strongly temperature dependent that we see either none or full crystallization. Thus
in pure systems we will often have kinetic breaks with time or temperature rather
u)
._
=I
P
2
c
300
2.200
ln
Q)
c
u)
.-0
Jt>.
m
-
100
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
3 I0
147
then a nice curve following Eq. (11) exactly. This may be different for systems in
which phase formation or crystallization is linked to chemical changes of the
scale, induced by diffusion of components from the interior.
The shapes of curves with behavior according to the basic laws is illustrated in
Fig. 2. It is obvious from Fig. 2 that data from a single point (here: t = 28 and
x = 100) would not allow prediction of the behavior at any other time unless the
law is specified.
148
*Oo0
n
=!
1500-
cu
1000-
.-0
5
500-
20
40
60
80
100
10
Time (a.u.)
Figure 4. Growth change due to developing diffusion coefficients, D.
149
30
Time (a.u.)
Figure 5. Typical development of layer growth with increasing temperature in porous media with
pore closure due to passive corrosion.
Ax = k,t +
+ klogIog(t)
500
I000
1500
Time (a.u.)
Figure 6. Model for complex growths kinetics after Eq. (1 1) [21] with individual contributions.
150
6
- 4
?
m
% 2
c
m
c
0 0
.-0)
a
3 -2
-4
0
20
40
60
80
Time (a.u.)
Figure 7. Weight change curves obtained from the simultaneous action of parabolic weight gain and
two different linear weight loss rates (para-linear behavior).
151
easy ranking they are hardly capable of producing quantitative data outside the
narrow conditions set by the standardized experimental set-up [25].
For hot corrosion testing burner rigs can be applied [26].The agent is injected into
the flame of the burner and the sample is held or agitated at a distance, which allows
deposition of the corrosive agent from the gas phase at a constant rate.
In the ordinary furnace test for gas corrosion the samples are placed in a furnace
for a given time in the atmosphere of interest. The advantage of the furnace test is
that many different samples can be tested in one set of conditions, the drawback that
it gives only one data point in time per experiment. The pitfalls are apparatus
related: Temperature and atmosphere constancy have to be guaranteed, crosscontamination must be avoided, and interaction with furnace linings and crucible
material minimized. The danger of those points is often underestimated; there are
reports of different results from a mere change in the furnace size [27].
Contamination by furnace linings is a source of error for all corrosion experiments. There is ample evidence that the commonly used linings of A1203-ceramics
do contaminate samples with A1 and alkalis via gas phase transport, even if highpurity A1,03 is used. The contamination is strongly enhanced in wet atmospheres
[281.
In situ measuring of corrosion is mostly done by thermogravimetric measurement, that is the monitoring of a weight change during a isothermal period of
time. The advantage here is that the true shape of changes is recorded, which
allows proper kinetic modeling. The limitations of the method come firstly from
the apparatus: Resolution, accuracy, precision, and the often unchecked longterm stability are major points of concern. The pitfalls of contamination by furnace
interior and crucibles, and local atmosphere changes are identical to those mentioned above.
For coarse estimations of danger levels in corrosion nonisothermal thermogravimetry or differential thermal analysis (DTA) can be used.
152
layer thickness
corroded size
For homogenous surface attack by active corrosion the case simplifies to the
recession as there is no scale growing and the remaining cross section is of virgin
material.
The parameter of interest is then the recession rate, which is identical to kl of
Eq. (6) for linear kinetics. In corrosion science the SI-units ms-' or the more
vivid unit mmyear-' of engineering practice are useful. The relation to mass loss
is obtained by multiplying by the density of the lost material to yield kgmp2s-'
or equivalent units.
It should be emphasized again that this parameter is useless unless the physical
boundary conditions are specified. The quotation of partial pressures of outgasing
species is often more meaningful.
A problem arises when the attack is localized, because the attack is then different
for different phases and the outer surface is no longer identical to the virgin material.
The evaluation of penetration depth and rate may be performed in some cases using
dye tests. If penetration goes with formation of porosity, dyes like methylene-blue or
phosphorescing agents can be applied to show the depth of corrosion in cross
sections.
More complex situations, such as with chemical modification of the grainboundary phase, may be measured in optical thin sections, but they need usually
more careful evaluation by chemical profiling with microanalytical techniques.
Note that the kinetics of active corrosion may then deviate strongly from linear
kinetics because leaching by liquid media or evaporation out of channels often
involves diffusional problems.
A k1 is then not the parameter for ranking. A better choice would be the reference
to critical effects, such as the 'time needed for 0.1 mm penetration at 0.7 T,' [36].
Regrettably, such parameters are extremely scarce in the literature.
As the experimental determination and the investigations afterwards are highly
time-consuming and expensive, an often followed method of characterization is
by the effect of corrosion on mechanical properties, usually strength or wear properties [37,38], in addition to thermogravimetric data.
153
Changes (a.u.)
0.0 \
Moving to the more complex cases with scale growth, Fig. 9 shows the range of
kinetic curves one may find. Figure 9 shows a parametric study for a single case of
para-linear behavior. Not even the sign of the curves is constant. We must therefore
discuss the individual contributions.
For linear scale growth the discussion above is valid. For processes of retarded
scale growth with time we describe the layer growth by k, (units of m2 s-l or equivalents) for simple parabolic behavior (Eq. (8)).
The calculation of the appropriate mass change unit is not as straightforward as
in the linear case. This is because the mass change recorded by weighing or thermobalance is measuring the difference in masses and not the mass of the layer.
The latter may be inferred if the chemical reaction and the properties of the scale
material are known, introducing a stoichiometric factor u. As an example the
reaction
Sic
+ 1 4 0 2 = SiO2 + CO
(13)
means that I mole of the condensed product Si02 (= 1Msio2= 60.09g with a
density psio2 of 2 . 2 g ~ m -in
~ the amorphous state) is produced from 1 mole of
S i c (= 40.09 g). Thus a recorded mass change of Ax = nMproduct- nkfmaterial
(= 19.99g) in Eq. (12) represents the production of a full mole of S O 2 . In general
it follows that the factor u is defined from the reaction equation as
(nM)condensed
U =
(nM)condensed
product
product
- (nM)material
'
(14)
which is 3 for reaction (13). Because of the form of Eq. (8) the two k, are hence
related by
[ y1
Pproduct
2
[$1
k,(layer-thickness) -
= kp(mass-change)
U2
154
Neglecting the factor u has lead to occasional inconsistencies in the literature. The
discussion of it seems trivial but a close look at Eq. (14) shows that for other cases,
for example
SiBCN3
(16)
u can become very large with the result that substantial scale production may occur
almost invisible to thermogravimetry.
The layer thickness derived from any of the kinetic equations may be recalculated
to give a solution for homogeneous recession:
From this discussion one might conclude that layer thickness measurements are the
better choice for monitoring passive corrosion. While this is true from the point of
resolution (ellipsometry allows the determination of scales down to the nm scale) it
is difficult for high-temperature in situ recording and it implies dense transparent
layers, which may not be the case.
Thus a safe characterization will ask for both quantities to be measured independently. Inconsistencies between measured and calculated values from Eq. (15) will
then immediately point to problems concerning scale structure and/or internal
corrosion.
Additional recording of mechanical property changes has the advantage of
including information on potentially dangerous new flaw populations derived by
corrosion. The overlay of several parameters (flaw geometry, cross-section changes,
stress field changes) will not allow us to use mechanical testing as the only criterion.
Thus, at the present time we prefer to compare and rank materials in terms of time
needed for penetration to a certain depth at the temperature of interest to make any
type of kinetic equation accessible. The fixed critical condition is taken to be
0.1 mm, following Ashby and Jones [36], the time unit is in years to give a measure
for engineering practice. An engineer may then be able to decide that a material is
not useful for long-term applications if it drops to log t, < 0 at the temperature of
interest where tc is the critical time in years for a penetration of 0.1 mm. In the
following sections on the materials this is calculated but the uncertainties have to
be kept in mind.
5.6 Materials
5.6.1 Diamond and Diamond-like Carbons
Diamond is known to resist all acids and most other chemical substances in the
low-temperature range to 100C. However, transformation of diamond into
other carbon phases may occur under local contact stress at room temperature
[39,401
5.6 Materiuls
155
Diamond will be etched by caustic alkalis and some oxidizing salts, for example
by NaClO and KOCl at 380C [41], and K and Na nitrates above 400C. Diamond
reacts with metals, which form carbides (e.g. W, Ta, Ti, and Zr) or which dissolve
carbon (e.g. Fe, Co, Mn, Ni, and Cr) [42]. Detailed knowledge of the temperatures
of reactions with metals is reviewed in the context of experiments with metals for the
catalysis of diamond synthesis [43].
Diamond corrosion is usually a problem of oxidation and graphitization. Graphitization in inert atmospheres was observed at about 1500C and becomes very fast at
2100, where sizable diamonds are converted to graphite within minutes [44]. An
extrapolation of the data gives a T M 1450C for t, = 0. It has been reported that
graphitization is prevented in pure H2 up to 2200C [45].
Surface graphitization associated with concurrent oxidation, which may be found
at T > 600C, is not thought to be a true conversion but an autocatalytic surface
reaction involving CO, species.
The oxidation of diamond is clearly an active corrosion process. At least up to
700C diamond has a fast reacting { 11 1)-plane, an intermediate { 1 lo} and a slow
{ 100)-plane, which indicates reaction control. At higher temperatures and/or
lower oxygen pressures gas diffusion becomes rate determining in analogy with
graphite [46],and this is indicated by a more even attack [47]. Hence corrosion
rates are faster or start at lower temperatures for fine powders compared to films
and the corrosion in air is faster than in low-oxygen environments [48].
At 720C diamond will burn in an oxygen jet. It is often stated in the literature
that oxidation starts at 600C. The theoretical onset of oxidation should be well
below 600"C, because from the etching rates of Evans [44] for the { 111)-plane in
1 bar oxygen a t, well below zero ( ~ 0 . 0 2 )is calculated. Linear extrapolation
would give T M 340C for tc = 0. However, in analogy with graphite there may
be an accumulation of C-0 complexes at the surface, which is faster then their
removal between 300C and 500C [49]. Surface graphitization at T > 600C
points in this direction.
Also in analogy with other carbon forms, impurities may act as catalysts for the
oxidation, which can decrease oxidation temperatures by more then 100C and
increase rates by orders of magnitude [50].
To a first approximation the temperature sensitivity of the oxidation rate at
T < 800C is less dependent on the structure of diamond (films) then on crystallographic orientation, the data for the diamond faces bracket those of thin layers [47].
As described in more detail in the contribution on hydrothermal synthesis of
diamond in this book, hydrothermal reactions start for fine powders at 7OO0C,
but a significant etching and dissolution of large diamond grains is observed only
at T 2 800C [51].
5.6.2 Carbides
The carbides considered as hard materials include B4C, WC, and Sic. In oxidizing
environments, in particular, their behavior is so different that they can not be compared directly.
156
5.6 Materials
157
(18)
Since the action in the liquid state is regarded as most effective, the first condition
for the window of hot corrosion is given by the melting and dewpoint of Na2S04.
The melting point of 884C does not vary much, the dewpoint depends on pressure,
S-content of the fuel and NaC1-concentration in the atmosphere. For conditions
with NaCl > 1 p.p.m. and combustion pressures of 100 bar it is calculated to be
1100-1200C from Eq. (18).
However, the effective corrosion action is generally believed not to be by the
sulfate itself. It stems from the activity of N a 2 0 arising from the decomposition
Na2S04
* N a 2 0 + SO3
(19)
x Si02 + N a 2 0 H N a 2 0 (SiO2).,.
(20)
This is the reason why other compounds releasing alkali oxide on decomposition,
such as Na2C03,have similar hot corrosion effects. It should be noted that complex
salts, in particular those containing vanadium, can have an even stronger hot
corrosion effect, as is well known from metals and oxides [69,70].
From Eq. (19) it can be calculated that only for conditions with a low P(SO3)will we
have a dissociation sufficient to drive reaction (20) to the right side. Consequently the
window of hot corrosion has a third axis, the P ( S 0 3 )of the combustion, and it has been
computed [71] that the window should only open for low-S fuels (<0.5%, a condition
met by many modern fuels) and at comparatively high temperatures (FZ>IOOO"C).
In reality the attack already starts at the melting point of Na2S04. This is
attributed to internal controlling factors. Many Sic-based materials contain free
carbon, which promotes the dissociation of Na2S04 and makes the silicate melt
more basic. The dramatic attack of Na2S04 on S i c with free carbon has been
confirmed experimentally [72].
As is described in more detail for Si3N4,recent studies suggest that free carbon is
an enhancing factor but not a necessary condition [73,74]. S i c may act as the
reducing agent to promote sulfate dissociation either directly or via an oxygen
gradient in the silica scale consumed by reaction (20).
158
It is very difficult to quantify hot corrosion in laboratory experiments with preloaded samples, because the salt melts propagate rapidly both by spreading and
gas phase transport, resulting in uneven coverage of the sample and changes with
time.
A much better constancy of conditions is achieved in burner-rig methods [75-781.
However, even here a quantification is difficult as the usually highly porous
scales containing sulfate, silicate and silica are liable to spalling. Furthermore, the
attack is often in the form of pitting, and so there is a change in exposed surface
and the attack is nonuniform. The statistical nature of pit distribution is probably
not due to a distribution of secondary phases but the result of the action of surface
tension effects, because two immiscible liquids (sulfate and silicate) with differing
surface stresses are present [74].
Therefore, while weight changes of chemically cleaned corroded samples are good
indications for the strength of attack, they remain unsatisfactory and a widely used
criterion is by the influence of corrosion on mechanical properties. Even for cases
with good control of chemical changes, a prediction of the effect on strength can
not follow directly, because the fractures occur usually from the newly formed
pits (Fig. 10 [78]).
None the less, as seen in Fig. 10, the relation between pit size and failure is evident
for most Sic materials. A model for the prediction of properties from corrosion
conditions would thus have to give an expression for the formation and growth
of pits with time, temperature, and external properties. The author is not aware
of a fully consistent model to yield this result.
Thus we are left with individual studies. A study on commercial Sic [78] yielded
the typical result that a reduction in strength of 20-30% is obtained after 4 0 h
exposure at 1000C.
500
z
d
5E
(ac)"', pm
200 100
50
400
--0.75K,c
(a~)"~
300
;200
3
c
0 Type A
0 Type B
A Type C
100
0 Type D
0.1
0.2
(Pit dimensions)-'", (ac)-'", pm-"'
0.3
Figure 10. Relation of fracture stress and pit dimension from a study of four different Sic materials
1781.
5.6 Materials
159
Figure 10 also shows that the relation with pit size is not true for all Sic-materials:
Type D shows no correlation and has a much stronger decrease in strength
(= -50%). It was a material with free silicon. It follows that Si-Sic has less hot
corrosion resistance and that the attack and its consequences are due to the
distribution of the preferentially corroded Si.
To improve the hot corrosion resistance current developments aim for a protection by mullite-based coatings [79,80].
5.6.2.1.5 Corrosion by Hot Gases Halogens do not form condensed species with Si
at the temperatures of interest. Thus, if they are pure (no oxygen or water present)
they will automatically induce active corrosion behavior and calculated pressures of
species like SiF4 or SiCI4over Sic will be as high as the concentration of F and C1 in
the gas.
In the presence of enough oxygen to form silica, these pressures will be significantly reduced for the case of attack by C12 and accordingly lower corrosion
rates are measured [81]. However, pressures of SiC14 over Si02 can exceed
lop6bar at temperatures above 700C in high-C12 environments.
Calculated pressures for an attack by H2 are likewise significant even at low
temperatures [8]. The calculated main low-T species is CH4, but the kinetics are
so unfavorable for its formation that in reality the beginning of significant active
corrosion is at temperatures above 13OO0C,as is known from etching studies [82].
This is only true for pure Sic: grain boundaries and secondary phases in sintered
S i c are attacked at temperatures as low as 1000C [83].
For the survival of S i c it is therefore of great importance whether silica is formed
or not. The boundary for the active-to-passive oxidation is described in Fig. 1 1. It
shows the literature data and a Wagner-type theoretical model [15] based on the
H i m 76
Gulbranran
66
Vaughn
so
-8
1,200
1,400
1,600
1,800
2,000
Temperature ("C)
Figure 11. Transition temperatures and oxygen pressures for active and passive modes of oxidation
of Sic after [15].
160
influence of carbon activity and the presence of condensed SiO. Even though the
model might be challenged in view of new thermodynamic data, arguing against
condensed SiO, the general position of the boundary between active (I) and passive
oxidation is known from the experiments.
The region denoted active (11) in Fig. 11 is for a special situation, when the
pressures of the produced gas species (CO) exceed 1 bar, which can lead to bubble
formation and spalling, and hence quasi-active behavior, even though nominally
silica is produced. Experimental evidence for this was obtained at temperatures of
about 1760C [84].
It should be noted that the oxygen pressures for the transition in Fig. 1 I should
not be confused with those obtained by COX-equilibria.Despite low oxygen partial
pressures of, for example CO in equilibrium with carbon, we have passive oxidation
of S i c up to x 1400Cin CO, because CO is a reactive and oxidizing gas species for
S i c [52,85,86]! Consequently active corrosion in COX-environmentsis measured
only at very high temperatures [87].
In passive oxidizing environments S i c forms silica (Eq. (13)). For pure S i c a
parabolic behavior is evident [88]. For SSiC there is evidence that oxygen does not
penetrate deeply into the interior [89], leading to a relatively homogeneous surface
oxidation.
Therefore SSiC has often parabolic oxidation rate constants nearly as good as
chemical vapor deposition (CVD)-Sic and powder. From a data collection [53]
plus some more recent data [88] the critical time t, for 0.1 mm recession is computed
and shown in Fig. 12. We have omitted data from experimental changes, which were
deliberately made with high additive contents to study their influence on oxidation.
It is evident from Fig. 12 that basically all cases meet a long-term stability criterion up to very high temperatures.
Some cautionary remarks have to be added: At very high temperatures the
kinetics may not be adequately described by the parabolic law; at T > 1700C the
problem of active (11) oxidation will become important; SSiC can show bubble
and pit formation at much lower temperatures, which is usually attributed to the
additives B and/or A1 [90].
This bubble-and-pit formation is sometimes only present after a incubation
period of several lOOh at T > 1600C. Most oxidation studies run only for times
< 100 h. Therefore long-term studies may be necessary for true qualification of Sic.
Industrial utility of Sic is not guaranteed by a sufficient resistance to oxidation
by O2 or air. The influence of other components of the atmosphere or transferred
impurities has to be evaluated. Often this is difficult because strong variations in
temperature and gas composition are encountered.
None the less it has been shown that SSiC can resist flue gases of aluminum
remelting furnaces for up to 1000h without much change in strength [91], although
this is certainly not true for all plants of this type [92]. Similarly nitrogen-based gases
of the system N2-H2-C0 did not decrease the strength of SSiC, while endothermic
gases had an adverse effect (-20-50%) at 1200-1300C [93,94] in long-term
experiments. Typically B-doped Sic behaved better then Al-doped or those with
free Si. A good resistance of Sic-based materials to SO2 or H2S has also been
reported [95].
5.6 Materials
161
" 4
*
* *
* ssic
A powder&SC
A
CVD
1000
800
900
1200
1100
1300
1400
1600
1800
1500
1700
Temperature ("C)
Figure 12. Calculated critical times (years) for 0.1 mm recession of S i c materials, using the data
compilation of [53].
162
boron oxide, and 0.25-0.7% free boron. Dense and additive-free B4C specimens did
not interact with 10% sulfuric acid either at room temperature or on boiling. A
small mass loss (<O. 1 mg cm-2) in the initial period of boiling can be explained by
surface impurities. As has been shown [98],the corrosion resistance of boron carbide
powder in water, mineral acids and alkalis is largely dependent on its purity and the
ordering of the crystalline structure. The studies on the electrochemical behavior of
hot-pressed boron carbide in H2SO4 and NaOH solutions [99] have demonstrated
that the corrosion resistance of B4C depends to a large extent on the content of
additives and impurities.
However, during heating, strong oxidizing acids and oxidant mixtures such as
Cr03 H2SO4, KIO3
H3P04, K2Cr207 KIO3, Cr03 + H2SO4 + H3P04,
KMn04 H2SO4, H2SO4 HC104 K2Cr207[98] oxidize free carbon present
in many boron carbide materials. To remove free carbon from B4C, alkaline
solutions of hydrogen peroxide, bromine, and others were also used [98].
+ 8 H2,
(21)
+ H20 + 2 HBO2,
(22)
+ 3 H20 + 2 H3B03.
(23)
B2O3
and
B203
Gaseous boric acid removes a boron oxide film. The rates of formation and removal
of the B2O3 film are equal at 550-600C in air with a dew point of 25-70C and at
650C with a dew point of 88C. At higher temperatures, B203 is formed at a higher
rate than it is removed by the interaction with water vapor. Therefore, at low
temperatures boron carbide is oxidized with water vapor more rapidly than with
dry air, at high temperatures the situation is quite the opposite [2].
Hydrothermal corrosion of B4C has been studied theoretically and experimentally [loo]. Reaction (21) as well as reactions leading to the formation of CH4 and
CO are possible. Reactions that lead to the formation of carbon oxides dominate
only at low pressures and carbide:water ratios. Under all other conditions, the formation of methane has been predicted. HB02, H3B03and H3B306gas molecules,
which were predicted by thermodynamic simulation under various temperatures
and pressures, are very stable thermodynamically. They may condense to some
type of boric acid on cooling.
Unlike Sic, boron carbide did not show any evidence of free carbon formation
under hydrothermal conditions. Neither thermodynamic simulation, nor experiments
show the formation of elemental carbon under hydrothermal conditions. Even the
traces of carbon that were present in the as-received B4C powder disappeared after
a hydrothermal treatment.
Tests of a hot-pressed B4C-lO%SiAlON composite demonstrated high corrosion
resistance up to 500C. Even at 500"C, almost no changes of the sample surface
occurred under the experimental conditions.
5.6 Materials
163
+ 4 0 2 ++ 2 B 2 0 3+ C02
(24)
should dominate. This reaction was confirmed by the results of experimental
investigations on powders and sintered specimens [ 1091.
Oxidation of boron carbide powders starts at about 600C. Studies on hot-pressed
B4C containing iron, aluminum, magnesium, calcium, titanium, silicon, and other
impurities at a level of up to 4% and oxidized in air [lo41 demonstrated that upon
nonisothermal heating of specimens exothermal effects due to oxidation can be
registered above 600C. A detectable mass gain starts above 700C. At 1000C the
oxidation process intensifies and above 1200C the material starts oxidizing considerably, with a high thermal effect. At temperatures above 12OO0C,the specimen weight
decreases due to the B203vaporization, the rate of which increases significantly at this
temperature [ 1091. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis of oxidized specimens did
not reveal any solid oxidation products other than B203.This is in agreement with
the thermodynamic calculations [98] and the experimental investigations showing
that reaction (24) dominates B4C oxidation.
The kinetic curves obtained under isothermal conditions (Fig. 13) follow the
paralinear law (Fig. 7) with competing B4C oxidation and B 2 0 3 vaporization.
3,
F o
E -10
-20
<
-300
t, h
Figure 13. Oxidation kinetics of hot-pressed B4C at: (1) 800C; (2) 900C; (3) 1000C;(4) 1100C;
and (5) 1250C; reproduced from [2].
164
Thus, the oxidation kinetics due to the boron oxide vaporization at temperatures
above 1200C result in weight loss of specimens (Fig. 13), which becomes linear
in time after the first 30min of oxidation. On oxidation at temperatures below
1100C a liquid boron oxide layer (T, of amorphous B2O3 is 450C [llO])
uniformly covers the specimen surface.
Under the conditions of active B203 vaporization the diffusion of impurities
apparently does not exert great influence on the oxidation process, unlike in the
case of oxidation of silica formers. One may suppose that up to 1200C the
oxidation rate of B4C is controlled by the oxygen diffusion through the B203
layer.
Differencesin the thermal expansion coefficients of B203 and B4C lead to cracking of the oxide layer after cooling from high temperatures. The XRD analysis
revealed B203 and H3B03 in the surface layer of oxidized specimens. However,
H3B03 is not formed during the oxidation of materials, but during the exposure
of specimens to air at room temperature for several days due to the hydration of
boron oxide according to reaction (23). The oxidized specimens kept in air were
covered with a white film due to the hydration of boron oxide.
It is important to note that the specimens of ceramics oxidized at 1400C had a
graphite layer of up to 30 pm thickness under the B203film [107]. If the oxidation
process was accompanied by friction, the graphitized layer was formed at much
lower temperatures. The formation of free carbon was also observed upon oxidation
of B4C-Sic composites [l 111.
Active oxidation of B4C at a low partial oxygen pressure leads to the formation
of gaseous boron oxides and removal of them from the surface of the specimen.
Similar to other materials, porosity increases the reactive surface of boron carbide
specimens and weight gain on oxidation [1061.
All the above primarily refers to materials containing relatively small amounts of
impurities. However, boron carbide ceramics usually contain 7-20% Al or A1203to
increase hardness and 6-1 3% silicon to improve mechanical characteristics [98].
Aluminum- and silicon-doped materials often exhibit structural nonuniformity.
They have areas of pure boron carbide, and silicon- and aluminum-doped areas
[107].
In contrast to the oxidation of the additive-free material, weight gain instead of
its loss is observed above 1200"C, that is the rate of oxide formation is higher than
the rate of its vaporization. Electron microscopy investigations of specimen surfaces of Si- and Al-doped materials heated to 1430C demonstrated glassy oxide
layers containing boron, oxygen, silicon, and aluminum. Thus, the oxide layer is
a borosilicate glass. Crystallization of aluminum borates forming needle-like
crystals also has been found in our work. The dissolution of silica and alumina
in boron oxide retards the rate of its vaporization. In general, addition of silicon
and aluminum to boron carbide facilitates the formation of borosilicate glass on
oxidation and decreases the rate of boron oxide vaporization, thus increasing
the oxidation resistance of the material [ll 11 [2]. However, to form a continuous
protective layer on the specimen surface, it is necessary to provide a uniform
distribution of additives in the material excluding the existence of pure boron
carbide areas.
5.6 Materials
165
B4C reacts with C 0 2 to yield B203 and CO or free carbon [96]. Boron carbide
neither interacts with sulfur and phosphorus vapors, nor with nitrogen up to
1200C. BN can be formed upon reaction with nitrogen at higher temperatures,
or when ammonia is added. With chlorine it reacts above 1000C to form BC13
and graphite. Bromine and iodine do not react with B4C [98].
5.6.2.1 Tungsten Carbide
166
5.6.3 Nitrides
5.6.3.1 Silicon Nitride
In many cases the references quoted for Sic can be used to access corrosion data on
Si3N4-basedmaterials [2,3, 5, 35, 53, 54, 116, 1171. Si3N4ceramics are much more
complicated in their behavior because sintered types come with a significant amount
of grain-boundary phase, which determines the overall behavior.
5.6.3.1.1 Corrosion by Liquid Media The higher susceptibility of Si3N4ceramics to
corrosion by liquid media is already apparent from reports on hydroabrasive wear,
which is much higher then the wear of S i c [55].
It is not the attack of the matrix Si3N4,which controls aqueous corrosion but that
of the grain-boundary phase. Often this grain-boundary phase is a oxidic silicate
glass with or without small nitrogen contents. To predict the corrosion resistance
in water, acids, and bases the reader is thus referred to the literature on glass and
glass corrosion [118,119].
Rules of thumb would imply that a glass with more network-modifiers is less
corrosion resistant to corrosion, materials with less glass content are better and
that a greater crystallinity of the grain-boundary phase is of advantage.
The kinetics of the leaching processes are often linear for H F and strong bases,
while selective acid etching can be parabolic. Leaching is always associated with a
loss in strength and tends to correlate linearly with degree of dissolution from the
glass matrix as has been shown for H F and HCl with Y - and Al-leaching [120].
At 70C a treatment for 240 h with 1 M HCl can reduce the bending strength by
z 50%.
5.6.3.1.2 Hydrothermal Corrosion The onset of reactions of Si3N4 powder with
water at 100 MPa according to
(25)
starts at temperatures below 200C [61], probably at about 130C [121]. At 500C
the powder is completely oxidized within a few hours.
Reaction (25) would suggest a passivating behavior but the solubility of silica is
favored even at low temperatures in the alkaline water present due to the dissolution
of NH3. Hence basic reaction kinetics are linear, it is a form of active corrosion.
The grain-boundary phase of Si3N4-ceramicsmay be even stronger affected by
hydrothermal corrosion. This leads to pit formation at conditions of 300C and
8.6MPa [122]. The shape and depths of pit formation depend on the additive
type. It is interesting to note that a hot isostatically pressed (HIP) Si3N4 without
sintering additives was attacked more strongly then those with additives, because
the grain boundaries with silica from the oxygen content of the powder were leached
and resulted in grain dislodgment [ 1231.
It should be noted that hydrothermal corrosion should not be confused with corrosion by wet atmospheres and that the behavior changes at higher temperatures
when N2 + H2 is the product gas rather then NH3 [60].
5.6 Materials
167
5.6.3.1.3 Corrosion by Metals Reactions of Si3N4 with metals and alloys are a
complex issue, because the atmosphere both for oxygen and nitrogen partial
pressures plays a role and silicides, nitrides, or ternary compounds can form. A
good compilation of the partly conflicting observations has been provided [1161.
For the interaction of the related SiAlONs and Fe-based alloys see published
work [124].
Predictions for reactions can be made on the basis of Ellingham-type diagrams. In
noble gas atmospheres or under vacuum, Si3N4reacts readily with most transition
elements below 1000C and with many other metals at varying temperatures.
Whether this is true for a given Si3N4 ceramic under application conditions
depends on many parameters like a silica layer protection, diffusion coefficients,
wetting behavior etc. The reader is here referred to the reference mentioned above
[116].
5.6.3.1.4 Corrosion by Salt Melts Hot corrosion of Si3N4 has been extensively
studied and reviewed by researchers at NASA labs [67,68,77, 125, 1261. The basic
attack is that on the protective silica layer, which makes the behavior similar to
that of Sic and basic mechanisms can be taken from the chapter on S i c above.
Recent investigations [74] gave more insight into the details of the kinetics, which
is shown in Fig. 14. The surface tension differences between sulfate and silicate melts
result in a fractal pattern of hillocks of silicate melt beneath the sulfate, hereby
exposing unaltered silica with a strong oxygen potential gradient to the sulfate.
On consumption of this silica the decomposition of the sulfate is enhanced up to
a gas bubble formation. The exposed areas are the sites for stronger corrosion,
which can ultimately produce pits. However, the process does slow down, when
the sulfate is used up or a critical thickness of silicate layer is reached.
There is a strong indication that the grain-boundary phases modify the development. Wide shallow pits and/or exposure of individual Si3N4-grainsare observed
[127,128], and Na advances into the grain-boundary phase.
The resulting degradation of mechanical properties is of similar order as for S i c
(20-50%) [26,127,129]. However, it seems that the degradation is not linear with
time but levels out with time [129]. Furthermore, in pitted samples there is an
increase in the Weibull modulus, with the result that the failure stress at low failure
probabilities is decreasing much less than the average strength [ 1301.
Taking into account the higher level of initial strength of Si3N4-basedceramics
the remaining strength after hot corrosion is usually higher compared to SIC.
5.6.3.1.5 Corrosion by Hot Gases Active corrosion has usually an even more
pronounced effect on strength, compared to Sic, as the phase between the grains
may vanish leading to grain dislodgment and inhomogeneous internal corrosion
[ 1311. All gases which produce high partial pressures of Si-bearing species (namely
halogens) are therefore dangerous, particular in low-oxygen environments [ 1321341.
In mixed and oxidizing atmospheres Si3N4 has a superior resistance to C1containing environments relative to Sic materials [ 135-1 371. A small water content
in H2S-H2 mixtures is also capable of producing a silica scale, which slows down
168
of the Na-sulfate
with amounts of
immiscible at 9OOOC
1
-
Ess
n
Na,SO,
(watersoluble)
Na,O * @i02
3J
SiO,
(not watersoluble)
Figure 14. Schematic model for the hot corrosion kinetics of silica-formers after [74].
5.6 Materials
169
corrosion [ 1341. As for Sic the plain influence of a water vapor content in oxidizing
environments is probably moderate [ 1381 unless it transports impurities.
The active(1)-to-passive transition has been discussed with some controversy but
most models [14,139,140] and experimental data [141-1431 point to very similar
conditions as outlined in Fig. 11 for Sic.
The passive oxidation of pure Si3N4has been intensively studied. Thermodynamic
data suggest that a two-step oxidation
(26)
+ N2
(27)
2 Si3N4+ 1; O2 H 3 Si2N20 N2
and
Si2N20 14 O2 + 2 SiOz
...
::'"""": .: ,
1 -0
-1
0
.
-21
HPISSN
-3
800
1200
1000
900
1100
1400
1300
,,,
1800
1600
1500
1700
Temperature ("C)
Figure 15. Calculated critical times (years) t, for 0.1 mm homogeneous recession by parabolic silica
scale growth on Si3N4-basedmaterials using data from the collection of [53].
170
A number of things can be learned from Fig. 15. First, sintered Si3N4 never
reaches the level of oxidation resistance of pure Si3N4. Typically a temperature
difference of 250C exists to have comparable behavior for even the best qualities.
Second, at low to moderate temperatures pure Si3N4oxidizes much slower then
S i c (Fig. 12), but sintered Si3N4is comparable to Sic. Third, there is a very wide
scattering of results for sintered Si3N4.And last, but not least, at about 1400C
there is a rapid breakdown in log t, to values below and much below zero, indicating
very rapid oxidation of sintered Si3N4.
The reasons for these features are manifold and again related to the presence of
grain-boundary phases. We often have a very complex passive oxidation behavior
with leaching of grain-boundary constituents to the scale, crystallization, internal
oxidation, bubble formation, scale cracking, and other features. All these
phenomena are different for different systems and vary with the amount and
exact composition of the additives, For detailed information the reader is referred
to the textbooks and proceedings already mentioned and some reviews, which cite
papers from a vast amount of literature [140,152, 1531.
We have to point out some facts, which should make the reader cautious in interpreting Fig. 14 too strictly. At low temperatures some Si3N4 types (sintered with
pure Y or rare earth additives) contained secondary phases, which oxidize rapidly
and with large volume increases to yield the oxide phase. Since at low temperatures
(<lOOOC) the outer scale becomes ridged, it leads to cracking of the specimen [154]
and breakaway or pseudolinear behavior. This is part of the reason why there is such
a large spread in data from Si3N4ceramics even at low temperatures.
Particularly at T > 1300"C, we commonly have deviations from the parabolic law
and all the forms described in Sections 4.3.2 and 4.4.3 can be observed. Since the
extrapolation to t, is done on the basis of a parabolic approximation it will not
give very reliable t,.
Perhaps the most disturbing characteristic of sintered Si3N4 oxidation is the
appearance of internal oxidation accompanied by outer scale growth. Leaching of
grain boundary constituents into the scale (Fig. 16) is observed for Y, Al, Mg,
REE, and others to varying degrees. The leaching is connected to internal oxidation
and is for some cases the rate limiting step [156]. In the leached zone, which extends
into the sample with the same order of magnitude as the outer scale thickness, we
often find increased porosity and hence decreased hardness [155]. At least this
zone must be incorporated into the value for penetration but can not be gained
from measuring layer thickness or mass change.
There is furthermore recent evidence from transmission electron microscopy
(TEM) studies for the dissolution of matrix grains in the grain-boundary phase
during oxidation at high temperatures, which widens the grain boundary films as
a function of depth into the material [157,158]. This type of penetration will be
even more difficult to detect and quantify.
Therefore, for most Si3N4 ceramics it will be necessary to have mechanical
property measurements along with corrosion to evaluate their applicability. None
the less there are rules of thumb, which may help in materials selection. The most
important one is that the level at which oxidative corrosion becomes the prime
problem, is connected to the eutectic of the system sintering additive(s) + Si02.
5.6 Materials
171
Figure 16. EDX map for Y and SEM picture of SSN oxidized at 1400Cfor 990 min [ 1551, showing
a leaching zone beneath the scale.
This may well apply also to the pure Si3N4 qualities, because here the eutectic
Si3N4-Si02 in the vicinity of 1600C may be the ultimate temperature for longterm use [1591.
The challenge for sintered Si3N4to be applicable at T > 1400C has found first
success in studies which show that, for example, additions of MoSi, and surface
treatments are capable of enhancing the oxidation resistance [ 160, 1611.
5.6.3.2 Boron Nitride
Hard materials based on dense crystalline modifications of boron nitride find wide
application in cutting tools [162]. Since these materials are produced at high
pressures, the size of samples is usually small. Corrosion has been studied primarily
in view of abrasive and tool applications of BN and the data are limited.
However, there exists much information on corrosion of hexagonal graphite-like
BN. Similar to the graphite and diamond phases of carbon, the reaction products
are the same for all modifications of BN. However, hard modifications of BN typically show a higher corrosion resistance. Thus the available information on graphitic
BN can be used for evaluation of the lowest corrosion resistance limit of hard BN.
Although materials based on the high-pressure phases possess very high hardness
and strength, they are unstable at high temperatures, which imposes restrictions on
their application. When they are heated in air, along with oxidation, the wurzite and
sphalerite modifications can be transformed into the graphitic one [ 1621.
5.6.3.2.1 Corrosion by Liquid Media The resistance of pure boron nitride to attack
by diluted acids is lower than that to attack by concentrated ones and decreases in
172
+ 4HF H NH4BF4
(28)
and on heating with ammonium fluoride and concentrated sulfuric acid by the
reaction
BN 3 NH4F 2 H2S04 % 2 (NH4)2S04 BF3.
(29)
(30)
Nitride excess leads to a certain amount of KCN. If carbon is present, the reaction
proceeds as follows:
4 BN
(31)
4BN+302~22203+2N2.
(32)
The oxidation of boron nitride as well as boron carbide is distinguished by an oxide
layer remaining in a liquid state and vaporizing considerably over the whole
temperature range. However, the study of the mechanisms of oxidation of boron
nitride materials is complicated by the existence of several BN modifications with
considerable differences in their structure and properties. The oxidation of a
stable hexagonal a-modification of BN with a graphite lattice has been studied
most thoroughly [104].
The studies on Hexanite-R ceramics based on the wurzite modification of boron
nitride [164] demonstrated that the oxidation kinetic curves (Fig. 17) were very
similar to that for B4C (Fig. 13). A rather high oxidation resistance is also exhibited
5.6 Materials
E -1
-2
3O
173
1
t, h
Figure 17. Oxidation kinetics of wurzite BN Hexanite-R at: ( I ) 900C; (2) 1000C; (3) 1IOo"C, and
(4) 1200C; reproduced from [2].
+ 3 H 2 0 @ H3B03+ NH3.
(33)
Boron nitride is resistant to hydrogen and sulfur dioxide; it reacts with fluorine at
room temperature by the reaction
2 BN + 3 F2 @ 2 BF3 + N2.
(34)
The absence of interaction with other halogens and some halides can be used for
removal of boron, boron carbide and other impurities from boron nitride [98].
5.6.4 Carbonitrides
5.6.4.1 Silico-carbonitrides
The few investigations available for the new precursor-derived silico-carbonitrides
do not permit their corrosion behavior to be assessed in detail. Most studies of
interest here deal with thermal stability only.
The issue of thermal stability is important for these phases, because precursorderived ceramics are amorphous and have stoichiometries where detrimental
structural and chemical changes may occur on crystallization. The highest
temperatures recorded so far come from phases in the system Si-B-C-N
(2000C [166]).
For the carbonitrides, the stoichiometry of the amorphous product is
Si3+.TN4Cs+p
[167] and thus in terms of possible crystallization products there is
always C in addition to Si3N4 and Sic. In precursor-derived Si-C-N-ceramics,
174
Si3N4 3 C @ 3 Sic
+ 2N2
(35)
5.6 Materials
175
wide stoichiometry range and almost never exist in the stoichiometric composition.
Due to their structural identity, they also form solid solutions in the Ti-C-N system.
Oxygen can be dissolved in the material until saturation of carbon or nitrogen
vacancies [179] with no changes in the f.c.c. (NaC1) crystal structure. In all cases,
whether we consider TIN, Tic, and TiC,N, materials, the oxidation behavior is
similar and these rutile-formers will be analyzed together.
The peculiarities of the defect structure of TIC and TiN allow for oxygen dissolution on the first stage of oxidation. Titanium oxides appear later, when the material
structure is saturated with oxygen. Anatase was observed at lower temperatures
and/or short oxidation times ( 5 min). With increasing time and temperature, rutile
is formed as the only oxidation product [108].
Oxidation of TIN powders [180], thin films [177], and dense bodies [I081 was
extensively investigated. It was shown that oxidation of TiN, following a logarithmic law, starts at room temperature. Above 500C the oxidation rate increases and
the kinetics follow a parabolic law. Oxidation of a TiN powder prepared by plasma
vapor phase synthesis and having the specific surface area of 46 m2 g-' is noticeable
above e2250"C and results in the formation of Ti02 as anatase and brookite at lower
temperatures, and as rutile at higher temperatures [181].
The scales formed at oxidation of sintered TIN in air can be divided into two
major types with the following layer systems: At low temperatures ( 5800C)
TiN-dense Ti02-air; at high temperatures (1000C) TiN-porous Ti02-dense
Ti02-air.
The latter can develop into a multilayered scale during the long-term oxidation
above 1000C [181]. Growth of such rutile scales was based on the simultaneous
diffusion of titanium and oxygen ions through the oxide layer in opposite directions.
We can suppose that the fine grain inner layer grows by inward diffusion of
oxygen, while the coarse grain outer layer grows by outward cation diffusion.
Oxidation of TIC is similar to that of TIN. Many carbides of transition metals
form carbon at the carbide-oxide interface. In the case of TIC, no carbon was
formed [182]. Oxidation of titanium and carbon at 1000C occurs with the same
rate [183].
Both TiN and TIC are widely used in ceramic matrix composites for improving
electrical conductivity and mechanical properties [ 178, 184,1851. The formation of
a rutile scale was observed on the surfaces. The growth of such a scale should be
related to the diffusion of titanium to the surface of the composite and its oxidation
according to the reaction:
2TiN + 2 0 2 = 2Ti02
+ N2.
(36)
The protective properties of rutile are fairly low compared to those of alumina or
silica. Thus, the presence of TiN or TIC limits the high-temperature applications
of the above composites. At small amounts and particle size of TIN in silicon nitride
ceramics, a continuous silicate film can be formed, covering TIN particles and
protecting them from further oxidation [ 1781.
Thermodynamic analysis of the chemical equilibria in water-carbide systems
[loo] indicated that carbon, corresponding oxides, CH4, C 0 2 , CO, and H2 are the
main products of hydrothermal corrosion of metal carbides in the temperature
176
range 300-1000C. There exists a possibility for selective etching of T i c and carbon
layers formation. A low H 2 0 to carbide molar ratio results in the formation of
carbon layers. Lower pressure is beneficial here. A high H 2 0 to carbide molar
ratio means that under equilibrium conditions carbon can be oxidized to CO and
C02. Experimental studies showed that no protective oxide layer was formed
upon hydrothermal corrosion of carbides of transition metals. Raman spectra
obtained from the hydrothermally treated TIC powders demonstrated the presence
of graphite. Anatase crystals were also observed on the surface of TIC. With growing temperature, anatase was partly transformed to rutile [loo]. This is in agreement
with other published data on corrosion of TIC and TiN [186].
References
177
more significant and the oxidation kinetics can be described by a parabolic law with
an apparent activation energy of 472 kJ mol-' .
References
1. R. J. Fordham, D. J. Baxter, and T. Graziani (Eds), Corrosion of advanced ceramics. Key Eng.
Muter. 1995, 113, 256.
2. Y . G. Gogotsi and V. A. Lavrenko, Corrosion o f High-Performance Ceramics, Springer
178
References
179
180
References
181
182
190.
191.
192.
193.
194.