Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Table of contents
Introduction..........................................................................................................................................3
Large volume boilers ...........................................................................................................................3
Shell type boilers..............................................................................................................................3
Fire tube boilers ...............................................................................................................................4
Water tube boilers ................................................................................................................................6
Introduction......................................................................................................................................6
Natural circulation boilers................................................................................................................6
General .........................................................................................................................................6
Natural circulation principle ........................................................................................................6
Advantages and disadvantages.....................................................................................................7
Natural circulation design ............................................................................................................8
Introduction..............................................................................................................................8
Circulation ratio .......................................................................................................................8
Driving force of natural circulation .........................................................................................9
Downcomers ..........................................................................................................................10
Wall tubes ..............................................................................................................................11
Headers...................................................................................................................................12
Boiling within vertical evaporator tubes ................................................................................12
Heat transfer crisis .................................................................................................................12
Optimization of natural circulation design.............................................................................13
Special designs .......................................................................................................................13
Assisted or forced circulation boilers.............................................................................................14
General .......................................................................................................................................14
Principle of forced circulation....................................................................................................14
Flow distribution between parallel riser tubes ...........................................................................15
Boilers types...............................................................................................................................15
Lamont boilers .......................................................................................................................15
Controlled circulation boilers.................................................................................................16
Advantages and disadvantages...................................................................................................16
Once-through boilers......................................................................................................................17
General .......................................................................................................................................17
Once-through boiler types..........................................................................................................17
General ...................................................................................................................................17
Benson design ........................................................................................................................17
Sulzer design ..........................................................................................................................18
Ramzin design........................................................................................................................18
Spiral wall tubes.........................................................................................................................19
Multiple pass design...................................................................................................................19
Advantages and disadvantages...................................................................................................19
Operation....................................................................................................................................20
Manufacture and use of once-though boilers .............................................................................20
Internet links ..............................................................................................................................21
Combined circulation boilers .........................................................................................................21
General .......................................................................................................................................21
References ..........................................................................................................................................22
ii
Introduction
As presented in the previous chapter, boilers can be classified by their combustion method, by
their application or by their type of steam/water circulation.
This chapter will describe the different types of steam/water circulation in boilers. It will not
discuss steam/water circulation for the applications listed in Figure 1 under Others (i.e.
nuclear, solar, and electric). [1]
Steam boilers
Large volume
Water tube
Others
Fire tube
Natural
circulation
Solar
Gas tube
Assisted/forced
circulation
Electric
Shell
Once-through
Nuclear
Combined
circulation
boilers are the most used type of large volume boilers. Also electric boilers where water is heated
with an electrode source can be considered large volume boilers. However, large volume boilers
are today used for small-scale steam and hot-water production only and, overall, they are not
common in large-scale industrial use anymore. [1]
1. Turning chamber
2. Flue gas collection
chamber
3. Open furnace
4. Fire tube
5. Burner seat
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Fire tubes
Manhole
Hatch
Cleaning hatch
Steam outlet
Water inlet
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Figure 4: Schematic of the Hyrytys TTKV-fire tube hot-water boiler from Figure 2 [Hoyrytys].
4
Fire tube boilers generally have tubes with a diameter of 5 cm or larger. They are usually straight
and relatively short so that the hot gases of combustion experience a relatively low pressure drop
while passing through them. The path of the flue gases goes from burners/grate, through one of
the chambers, to the other end of the chamber. There the flue gases turn to reverse direction and
return through the fire tubes and continue then to the stack (Figure 4).
1. Turning chamber
2. Flue
gas
collection
chamber
3. Open furnace
4. Flame tube
5. Burner seat
6. Manhole
7. Fire tubes
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Water space
Steam space
Outlet and circulation
Flue gas out
Blow-out hatch
Main hatch
Cleaning hatch
Main steam outlet
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
Figure 5: Schematic of the Hyrytys TTK fire tube steam boiler from Figure 3 [Hoyrytys].
Fire tube boilers have a fairly large amount of contained water so that there is a considerable
amount of stored heat energy in the boiler. This also allows for load swings where large amounts
of steam or hot water are required in a relatively short period of time, as often happens in process
applications. Fire tube boilers can take a great deal of abuse and inattention and still function at
competent levels. Fire tube boilers have a life expectancy of 25 years or more. Boilers that are
older than 75 years are still known to be in operation. Consistent maintenance and careful water
treatment go a long way towards insuring the long life of these boilers.
Nowadays fire tube boilers are mostly used as district heating boilers, industrial heating boilers
and other small steam generators. Fire-tube boilers are not anymore used for electricity
production because of their upper limits (4 MPa steam pressure and about 50 kg/s steam mass
flow). The steam pressure limit is based on the fact that when the steam pressure in the boiler
rises, thicker fire tubes and chambers are needed thus the price of the boiler rises. As a result of
this, boiler types where water/steam mixture is inside the tubes have lower prices for the same
steam capacity and pressure. Fire-tube boilers can reach thermal efficiencies of about 70 percent.
There are also special types of fire-tube boilers such as scotch marine boilers and firebox boilers,
but they will not, however, be discussed further here. The rest of this chapter concentrates on the
main types of water tube boilers.
5
Superheaters
Steam drum
Economizer
Downcomers
Mud drum
Evaporator
(riser tubes)
Feedwater
pump
The saturated water flows next from the steam drum through downcomer tubes to a mud drum
(header). There are usually a couple of downcomer tubes, which are unheated and situated
outside the boiler.
6
The name "mud drum" is based on the fact that a part of the impurities in the water will settle
and this 'mud' can then be collected and removed from the drum.
The saturated water continues from the header to the riser tubes and partially evaporates. The
riser tubes are situated on the walls of the boiler for efficient furnace wall cooling. The rises
tubes are sometimes also called generating tubes because they absorb heat efficiently to the
water/steam mixture. The riser tubes forms the evaporator unit in the boiler.
After risers, the water/steam mixture goes back to the steam drum. In the steam drum water and
steam are separated: the saturated water will return to the downcomer tubes and the saturated
steam will continue to the superheater tubes. The purpose of this separation is to protect the
inside of the superheater tubes and turbine for impurity deposition.
The steam from the steam drum continues to the superheater, where it is heated beyond its
saturation point. After the last superheater stage the steam exits the boiler.
This type of circulation is called natural circulation, since there is no water circulation pump in
the circuit. The circulation happens by itself due to the water/steam density differences between
the downcomers and risers. [4]
Advantages and disadvantages
Natural circulation (NC) boilers have the following advantages compared to other circulation
types:
NC boilers are more tolerant on feed water impurities than other types of water tube
boilers
NC boilers have lower internal consumption of electricity than other water tube boiler
types.
NC boilers have a simple construction. Therefore the investment cost is low and the
reliability of the boiler high.
NC boilers have a wide partial load range, practically even 0-100 % have the feature to be
held in a stand-by state, which means "warm at full pressure".
NC boilers have constant heat transfer areas independent of boiler load, since the drum
separates the three heat exchangers - economizer, evaporator and superheater - from each
other.
NC boilers have simpler process control, due to the big volume of water/steam side,
which behaves as a "buffer" during small load rate changes.
Natural circulation boilers have the following disadvantages compared to other circulation types:
NC boilers have a high circulation ratio (between 5 and 100), which leads up to massive
dimensions of the evaporator as the amount of water circulating in wall tubes can be up to
100 times of the mass flow of steam generated. This increases the requirement for space
and steel.
NC boilers need large diameters (large volume) of all tubes where the water/steam
mixture flows. This is because smaller diameters in tubes would cause pressure drop and
thus higher boilers would be needed for adequate pressure difference.
NC boilers need more accurate dimensioning as compared to other boiler types.
7
NC boilers are quite slow in start-up and "stop" situations (also when the load rate
changes a lot) because of the large water/steam tube volume (about 5 times the
water/steam volume of a once through boiler).
NC boilers are only suitable for subcritical pressure levels (practically for steam pressures
under 180 bar in the steam drum). This is due to the lack of density difference in
supercritical steam, and thus the lack of a driving force.
NC boilers have problems with more frequently occurring tube damages, due to the
relative large diameter of the boiler tubes.
NC boilers are sensitive to pressure variations. Sudden pressure drops or build-ups causes
increased rate of evaporation and thus the steam drum water level will also rise. This can
lead to water passing into the superheater tubes and water circulation problems that lead
to tube damages.
NC boilers require a steam drum, which is a very expensive part of the boiler.
m& raisers
m& feedwater
(1)
normal values are between 6 and 10, for controlled circulation boiler between 4 and 5,
respectively. Once through boilers generate the same mass rate of steam as has been fed to
boiler, thus their circulation ratio is 1.
Driving force of natural circulation
The driving force of the natural circulation is
based on the density difference between
water/steam mixture in riser and downcomer
tubes, of which the riser tubes represent the
lower density mixture and downcomer tubes
the higher density mixture. The driving
pressure can be defined as following:
pd = g (H evaporator H boiling ) ( dc r )
(2)
h h
H evaporator
h U
(3)
where h is the enthalpy [kJ/kg] of saturated steam, and h enthalpy of saturated water (at the
pressure of the steam drum), U is the circulation ratio, and h is the enthalpy change caused by
the rise in evaporation pressure (because of the subcooling of water in downcomer tubes).
Downcomers
Downcomer tubes have a relatively large
diameter because the entire water amount for
the evaporator flows through the downcomer
tubes before it is lead to wall tubes (riser
tubes). Normally the amount of downcomer
tubes is between one and six.
Downcomer tubes are placed outside the boiler
to prevent the water from evaporating, which
could decrease the driving force of natural
circulation (decrease average density in
downcomer tube). If downcomer tubes have to
be placed inside boiler construction, heat load
to downcomers has to be strongly restricted to
prevent downcomer tubes from water boiling.
Possible boiling in downcomer tubes
complicates circulation because the steam
bubbles travel upwards and thus increase
pressure loss.
10
Wall tubes
Pressure loss caused by wall tubes (or risers,
evaporator tubes) of a natural circulation boiler
should be at low level because of the natural
circulation principle. Thus, vertically installed
riser tubes in natural circulation boilers have a
larger diameter than riser tubes in forced
circulation boilers.
All natural circulation boilers must have an
upwards-rising arrangement of wall tubes
because of the circulation principle. There are
variations on how sharp the rise is:
In conservative vertical furnace boilers the wall
tubes are placed in a straight vertical direction Figure 12: Photograph of the furnace wall [3].
(Figure 11 and Figure 13). In corner tube
(Eckrohr) boilers the wall tubes are arranged as
slightly rising or horizontal wall-tube banks.
This particular boiler has a furnace height of 40
m. The diameters of the water tubes are about
60 mm. The riser tubes are all welded together,
and form a gas-tight panel construction, a tube
wall. Since the boiler is a recovery boiler, the
floor barely slopes (Figure 12 and Figure 14),
in order to support the smelt, and is therefore a
different structure than coal-fired boilers
(which have a wedge-shaped floor for
collecting ash).
Headers
The word "header" (Figure 15) is used in boiler
technology for all collector and distributor
pipes, including the mud drum (Figure 16).
The most important design parameter for
headers is diameter. It is defined by the flow
rate and the number of tubes connected to the
header (here the number of riser tubes).
Header construction is basically a miniature
version of a simple steam drum (diameters are
smaller than the ones of steam drums).
However, in headers there are usually no
internals except the orifices in forced
circulation and once-through principle boilers.
Small diameter headers are constructed from a
tube with welded front and end plates, whereas
the big headers are made of bent steel plates in
the same way as steam drums.
13
In a forced/assisted circulation boiler, the circulation pump (Figure 20) provides the driving force
for the steam/water circulation. Since the pump forces the circulation, the evaporator tubes can
be built in almost any position. Greater pressure losses can be tolerated and therefore the
evaporator tubes in a forced circulation boiler are cheaper and have a smaller diameter
(compared to natural circulation evaporator tubes).
The saturated water flows next from the steam drum through downcomer tubes to a mud drum
(header). There are usually a couple of downcomer tubes, which are unheated and situated
outside the boiler. The headers that distribute the water to the evaporator tubes are equipped with
chokers (flow limiters) for every wall tube in order to distribute the water as evenly as possible.
The water continues to the riser tubes, where it evaporates.
14
The steam is separated in the steam drum and continues through the superheaters, as in natural
circulation boilers.
This type of circulation is called forced circulation, due to the existence of a water circulation
pump in the circuit. The steam/water circulation is forced by the pump and does not rely on
density differences as in natural circulation.
Flow distribution between parallel riser
tubes
Smooth flow distribution from header to riser
tubes prevents riser tubes from overheating. In
forced circulation boilers (in this context oncethrough boilers and combined circulation
boilers belong to this group as well)
water/steam is pushed through evaporator
tubes with a pump. Pressure loss strongly
defines the water distribution between several
parallel-coupled tubes. The tubes with biggest
steam fraction (highest pressure loss) get thus
the least amount of water (i.e. not enough
cooling water).
It has been marked that a smooth water
Figure 21: Schematic of an orifice for water
distribution between tubes is easiest to practice
tubes
with orifices (chokes, flow limiters) situated in
inlet of each riser tube (Figure 21). They give
extra pressure loss in each tube and thus the proportional differences in flow losses between
parallel tubes become insignificant. Orifices are dimensioned separately for each riser tube to
provide a smooth distribution of flow between parallel riser tubes (evaporator tubes).
Another possibility is to place small diameter tubes as mouthpieces in each riser tube and thus
increase the pressure losses. However, tubes utilizing orifices is a more common practice.
Boilers types
Lamont boilers
The most usual type of forced circulation boilers is the Lamont type, named after an engineer
who developed this boiler type. In this type of boilers the pump forces the steam/water
circulation. The operational pressures remain below 190 bar because with higher pressures the
share of the heat of evaporation becomes too low. The wall tube direction arrangement is not
limited for the Lamont type. The pressure loss in wall tubes is 2-3 bar.
Applications for Lamont boilers:
Customized boilers, where the boiler dimensions are determined e.g. by the building where
the boiler will be placed.
Heat recovery steam generators (HRSGs) and boilers equipped with separate combustion
chambers
15
FC boilers can use tubes with smaller diameter than boilers based on natural circulation
due to the more efficient (pump-assisted) circulation.
FC boilers have a wide suitability range of power plant sizes.
An FC boiler gives also more freedom for placement of heat transfer surfaces and can be
designed in almost in any kind of position (thus forced circulation is very common in
HRSG:s, boilers in gas turbine based combined-cycle power plants).
FC boilers have a low circulation ratio (3-10).
Water circulation not reliable on density differences because circulation pump is taking
care of the circulation whenever the boiler is operated.
Forced circulation boilers have the following disadvantages compared to other circulation types:
FC boilers have restrictions regarding the placement of the circulation pump, since it has
to be placed vertically below the steam drum. Otherwise the saturated water could boil
(cavitate) in the circulation pump.
FC boilers have a higher internal electrical consumption. The circulation pump consumes
typically about 0,5-1,0 % of the electricity produced by the controlled circulation unit in
question.
FC boilers need a higher level of water quality than boilers based on natural circulation.
FC boilers require a mass flow rate of 1000-2000 kg/(m2s) for maximum pressure levels.
FC boilers are only suitable for subcritical pressure levels (practically for operation
pressures under 190-200 bar). This is due to the lack of density difference in supercritical
steam, which is the principle for the operation of the steam/water seperation in the steam
drum.
FC boilers require a circulation pump and flow limiting orifices, which increase the
capital cost of the boiler.
FC boilers are sensitive to pressure variations. Sudden pressure drops or build-ups causes
increased rate of evaporation and thus the steam drum water level will also rise. This can
lead to water passing into the superheater tubes and water circulation problems that lead
to tube damages.
FC boilers require control and regulation of the co-operation between the feed water
pump and circulation pump, which is difficult in controlled circulation units.
A steam drum is required, which is a very expensive part of the boiler.
Reliability of FC boilers is lower than that of natural circulation boilers, due to possible
clogging of orifices and failures in circulation pump operation.
16
Once-through boilers
General
A once-through (or universal pressure) boiler
can be simplified as a long, externally heated
tube (Figure 22). There is no internal
circulation in the boiler, thus the circulation
ratio for once-through boilers is 1.
In contrast to other water tube boiler types
(natural and controlled circulation), oncethrough boilers do not have a steam drum.
Thus, the length of the evaporator part (where
saturated water boils into steam) is not fixed
for once through boilers.
Once-through boilers are also called universal
pressure boilers because they are applicable for
all pressures and temperatures. However, oncethrough boilers are usually large sized boilers
with high subcritical or supercritical steam
pressure. A large modern power plant unit
(about 900 MWth) based on the once-through
design can be over 160 m high with a furnace
height of 100 m.
The once through boiler type is the only boiler type suited for supercritical pressures (nowadays
they can reach 250-300 bars). The available temperature range for once through type is currently
560-600 C. Pressure losses can be as high as 40-50 bar.
Once-through
boilers
need
advanced
automation and control systems because of
their relatively small water/steam volume.
They do not either have a buffer for capacity
changes as other water tube boiler types do.
Once-through boiler types
General
There are three main types of once through
boilers: Benson, Sulzer and Ramzin design.
Benson design
The simplest and most common design is the
Benson design (UK, 1922). In Benson boilers,
the point of complete evaporation (where all
the water has turned into steam) varies with the Figure 23: Benson design once-through boiler.
capacity load of the boiler (Figure 23). The
temperature of the superheated steam is
regulated by the mass flow ratio of fuel and
17
18
OT boilers can use tubes with smaller diameter than boilers based on a steam drum due to
their lack of internal circulation.
OT boilers have a secure external water circulation (relies on process feed water pump)
19
Spiral (rifled) water wall tubes are more resistant against dryouts than smooth evaporator
tubes.
OT boilers have a no internal circulation (circulation ratio = 1) and thus there are no
regulation or design needed for the internal circulation.
The OT boiler is the only boiler able to operate at supercritical pressures, since there is no
density dependant steam separation needed (the Sulzer-bottle is not used for supercritical
steam values).
OT boilers do not use a steam drum, which decreases boiler expenses.
Once-through (OT) boilers have the following advantages compared to other circulation types:
OT boilers require high level of water control, since the steam/water goes directly
through the boiler and into the turbine.
OT boilers require complicated regulation control, due to small water/steam volume (no
buffer for capacity changes), lack of steam drum, and the fact that the fuel,air and water
mass flows are directly proportional to the power output of the boiler.
OT boilers require a large mass flow rate of 2000-3000 kg/(m2s) in furnace wall tubes.
Spiral wall tubes are more expensive than smooth wall tubes due to a more complicated
manufacture process.
OT boilers have no capacity buffer, due to the lack of a steam drum and their oncethrough nature.
Operation
The basic difference between once through boiler types has traditionally been the point of total
evaporation in tubing. However, supercritical pressure range operation removes this clear
difference between water and steam states, and thus both Sulzer and Benson boilers are similarly
operated in supercritical pressures.
However, the development has led to constant point of evaporation also for Benson boilers
(thanks to improved process control) and nowadays the operational behaviour of once through
boiler is very similar. Today the biggest operational differences between Benson and Sulzer
types are the control system and heat-up procedures.
Overall, all once through boilers need certain special arrangements for heat-up procedure and
low capacity operation.
Manufacture and use of once-though boilers
Benson boilers are nowadays mostly manufactured by companies that belong to the Babcock
group (Deutsche Babcock, etc.). Sulzer boilers are mostly manufactured (by license) by ABB
Combustion Engineering, Mitsubishi, EVT, Andritz, etc. Ramzin boilers can be found in Russia.
Most of the new capacity of conventional steam power plants is based on once through principle,
because it allows higher steam pressures and thus higher electricity efficiency.
A Sulzer boiler can be found e.g. at Naantali power plant in southwestern Finland (also at
Mussalo power plant). The boiler of the Meri-Pori power plant, situated in western Finland, is
based on a Benson type. Also Inkoo and Haapavesi power plants use Benson design boilers.
20
Internet links
Here's a list of links to interesting reading regarding once-through boilers:
The main manufacturer of this type of boilers is ABB Combustion Engineering and other
companies with a license from ABB CE. However, Mitsubishi is practically the only license user
company outside USA.
21
References
1.
Esa Vakkilainen, lecture slides and material on steam boiler technology, 2001
2.
3.
4.
22