Gas Turbine Emmissions and Control

g
GER-4211
GE Power Systems
Gas Turbine Emissions

and Control
Roointon Pavri
Gerald D. Moore
GE Energy Services
Atlanta, GA
Gas Turbine Emissions and Control

Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Emissions Characteristics of Conventional Combustion Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Nitrogen Oxides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Carbon Monoxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Unburned Hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Sulfur Oxides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Particulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Smoke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Dry Emissions Estimates at Base Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Dry Emissions Estimates at Part Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Simple-Cycle Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Exhaust Heat Recovery Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Other NOx Influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Emission Reduction Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Nitrogen Oxides Abatement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Lean Head End (LHE) Combustion Liners. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Water/Steam Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Carbon Monoxide Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Unburned Hydrocarbons Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Particulate and Smoke Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Water/Steam Injection Hardware. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Minimum NOx Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Maintenance Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Performance Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
GE Power Systems GER-4211 (03/01)
ii

Introduction
Worldwide interest in gas turbine emissions and
the enactment of Federal and State regulations
in the United States have resulted in numerous
requests for information on gas turbine exhaust
emission estimates and the effect of exhaust
emission control methods on gas turbine performance. This paper provides nominal estimates of existing gas turbine exhaust emissions
as well as emissions estimates for numerous gas
turbine modifications and uprates. (For sitespecific emissions values, customers should contact GE.) Additionally, the effects of emission
control methods are provided for gas turbine
cycle performance and recommended turbine
inspection intervals. Emission control methods
vary with both internal turbine and external
exhaust system emission control. Only the internal gas turbine emission control methods
lean head end liners and water/steam injection
will be covered in this paper.
In the early 1970s when emission controls were
originally introduced, the primary regulated
gas turbine emission was NOx. For the relatively low levels of NOx reduction required in the
1970s, it was found that injection of water or
steam into the combustion zone would produce
the desired NOx level reduction with minimal
detrimental impact to the gas turbine cycle performance or parts lives. Additionally, at the
lower NOx reductions the other exhaust emissions generally were not adversely affected.
Therefore GE has supplied NOx water and
steam injection systems for this application
since 1973.
With the greater NOx reduction requirements
imposed during the 1980s, further reductions
in NOx by increased water or steam injection
began to cause detrimental effects to the gas
turbine cycle performance, parts lives and
inspection criteria. Also, other exhaust emis-
sions began to rise to measurable levels of concern. Based on these factors, alternative methods of emission controls have been developed:
Internal gas turbine
Multiple nozzle quiet combustors
introduced in 1988
Dry Low NOx combustors
introduced in 1990
External
Exhaust catalysts
This paper will summarize the current estimated emissions for existing gas turbines and the
effects of available emission control techniques
(liner design and water/steam injection) on gas
turbine emissions, cycle performance, and
maintenance inspection intervals. The latest
technology includes Dry Low NOx and catalytic
combustion. These topics are covered in other
GERs.
Emissions Characteristics of
Conventional Combustion Systems
Typical exhaust emissions from a stationary gas
turbine are listed in Table 1. There are two distinct categories. The major species (CO2, N2,
H2O, and O2) are present in percent concentrations. The minor species (or pollutants)
such as CO, UHC, NOx, SOx, and particulates
are present in parts per million concentrations.
In general, given the fuel composition and
machine operating conditions, the major
species compositions can be calculated. The
minor species, with the exception of total sulfur
oxides, cannot. Characterization of the pollutants requires careful measurement and semitheoretical analysis.
The pollutants shown in Table 1 are a function
of gas turbine operating conditions and fuel
composition. In the following sections, each
pollutant will be considered as a function of
1

Major Species
Typical Concentration
(% Volume)
Source
Nitrogen (N2)
66 - 72
Inlet Air
Oxygen (O2)
12 - 18
Inlet Air
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
1-5
Oxidation of Fuel Carbon
Water Vapor (H2O)
1-5
Oxidation of Fuel Hydrogen
Minor Species
Pollutants
Typical Concentration
(PPMV)
Source
Nitric Oxide (NO)
20 - 220
Oxidation of Atmosphere Nitrogen

Oxidation of Fuel-Bound Organic Nitrogen
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)
2 - 20
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
5 - 330
Incomplete Oxidation of Fuel Carbon
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
Trace - 100
Oxidation of Fuel-Bound Organic Sulfur
Sulfur Trioxide (SO3)
Trace - 4
Oxidation of Fuel-Bound Organic Sulfur
Unburned Hydrocarbons (UHC)
5 - 300
Incomplete Oxidation of Fuel or Intermediates
Particulate Matter Smoke
Trace - 25
Inlet Ingestion, Fuel Ash, Hot-Gas-Path

Attrition, Incomplete Oxidation of Fuel or
Intermediates
Table 1. Gas turbine exhaust emissions burning conventional fuels

operating conditions under the broad divisions
of gaseous and liquid fuels.
NOx increases with the square root of

the combustor inlet pressure
Nitrogen Oxides
NOx increases with increasing

residence time in the flame zone
Nitrogen oxides (NOx = NO + NO2) must be

divided into two classes according to their
mechanism of formation. Nitrogen oxides
formed from the oxidation of the free nitrogen
in the combustion air or fuel are called thermal NOx. They are mainly a function of the
stoichiometric adiabatic flame temperature of
the fuel, which is the temperature reached by
burning a theoretically correct mixture of fuel
and air in an insulated vessel.
The following is the relationship between combustor operating conditions and thermal NOx
production:
NOx increases strongly with fuel-to-air
ratio or with firing temperature
NOx increases exponentially with
combustor inlet air temperature
NOx decreases exponentially with

increasing water or steam injection or
increasing specific humidity
Emissions which are due to oxidation of organically bound nitrogen in the fuelfuel-bound
nitrogen (FBN)are called organic NOx.
Only a few parts per million of the available free
nitrogen (almost all from air) are oxidized to
form nitrogen oxide, but the oxidation of FBN
to NOx is very efficient. For conventional GE
combustion systems, the efficiency of conversion of FBN into nitrogen oxide is 100% at low
FBN contents. At higher levels of FBN, the conversion efficiency decreases.
Organic NOx formation is less well understood
than thermal NOx formation. It is important to
note that the reduction of flame temperatures

to abate thermal NOx has little effect on organic NOx. For liquid fuels, water and steam injection actually increases organic NOx yields.
Organic NOx formation is also affected by turbine firing temperature. The contribution of
organic NOx is important only for fuels that
contain significant amounts of FBN such as
crude or residual oils. Emissions from these
fuels are handled on a case-by-case basis.
burning natural gas fuel and No. 2 distillate is

shown in Figures 14 respectively as a function of
firing temperature. The levels of emissions for
No. 2 distillate oil are a very nearly constant
fraction of those for natural gas over the operating range of turbine inlet temperatures. For
any given model of GE heavy-duty gas turbine,
NOx correlates very well with firing temperature.
Gaseous fuels are generally classified according

to their volumetric heating value. This value is
useful in computing flow rates needed for a
given heat input, as well as sizing fuel nozzles,
combustion chambers, and the like. However,
the stoichiometric adiabatic flame temperature
is a more important parameter for characterizing NOx emission. Table 2 shows relative thermal NOx production for the same combustor
burning different types of fuel. This table shows
the NOx relative to the methane NOx based on
adiabatic stoichiometric flame temperature.
The gas turbine is controlled to approximate
constant firing temperature and the products of
combustion for different fuels affect the reported NOx correction factors. Therefore, Table 2
also shows columns for relative NOx values calculated for different fuels for the same combustor and constant firing temperature relative to
the NOx for methane.
Low-Btu gases generally have flame temperatures below 3500F/1927C and correspondingly lower thermal NOx production. However,
depending upon the fuel-gas clean-up train,
these gases may contain significant quantities of
ammonia. This ammonia acts as FBN and will
be oxidized to NOx in a conventional diffusion
combustion system. NOx control measures such
as water injection or steam injection will have
little or no effect on these organic NOx
emissions.
Typical NOx performance of the MS7001EA,

MS6001B, MS5001P, and MS5001R gas turbines
Fuel
Stoichiometric
Flame Temp.
Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide (CO) emissions from a conventional GE gas turbine combustion system are
less than 10 ppmvd (parts per million by volume dry) at all but very low loads for steadystate operation. During ignition and acceleration, there may be transient emission levels
higher than those presented here. Because of
the very short loading sequence of gas turbines,
these levels make a negligible contribution to
the integrated emissions. Figure 5 shows typical
NOx (ppmvd/ppmvw-Methane)
1765F/963C 2020F/1104C
Firing Time
NOx (ppmvd/ppmvw-Methane) @
15% O2, 1765F/963C 2020F/1104C
Firing Time
Methane
1.000
1.000/1.000
1.000/1.000
Propane
1.300
1.555/1.606
1.569/1.632
Butane
1.280
1.608/1.661
1.621/1.686
Hydrogen
2.067
3.966/4.029
5.237/5.299
Carbon Monoxide
2.067
3.835/3.928
4.128/0.529
Methanol
0.417-0.617
0.489/0.501
0.516/0.529
No. 2 Oil
1.667
1.567/1.647
1.524/1.614
Table 2. Relative thermal NOx emissions

280
ISO Conditions
200
3/4 Load
160
No. 2 Oil
1/2 Load
120
Full Load
1/4 Load
80
40
0
Natural Gas
GT25056
NOX (ppmvw)
240
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
(F)
540
650
760
870
980
1090
(C)
Firing Temperature
Figure 1. MS7001EA NOx emissions

320
280
ISO Conditions
NOX (ppmvw)
240
3/4 Load
200
No. 2 Oil
160
1/2 Load
120
1/4 Load
Full Load
Natural Gas
40
0
GT25057
80
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
(F)
540
650
760
870
980
1090
(C)
Firing Temperature
Figure 2. MS6001B NOx emissions

CO emissions from a MS7001EA, plotted versus
firing temperature. As firing temperature is
reduced below about 1500F/816C the carbon
monoxide emissions increase quickly. This

characteristic curve is typical of all heavy-duty
machine series.

GT25058
200
ISO Conditions
NOX (ppmvw)
160
3/4 Load
No. 2 Oil
1/2 Load
120
1/4 Load
Full Load
80
40
Natural Gas
1/4 Load
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800 (F)
540
650
760
870
980 (C)
Firing Temperature
Figure 3. MS5001P A/T NOx emissions

GT25059
160
ISO Conditions
3/4 Load
NOX (ppmvw)
120
No. 2 Oil
1/2 Load
80
1/4 Load
Full Load
40
Natural Gas
0
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
(F)
540
650
760
870
980
(C)
Firing Temperature
Figure 4. MS5001R A/T NOx emissions
Unburned Hydrocarbons
Unburned hydrocarbons (UHC), like carbon
monoxide, are associated with combustion inefficiency. When plotted versus firing temperature, the emissions from heavy-duty gas turbine
combustors show the same type of hyperbolic

curve as carbon monoxide. (See Figure 6.) At all
but very low loads, the UHC emission levels for
No. 2 distillate and natural gas are less than
7 ppmvw (parts per million by volume wet).
Gas Turbine Machine Exhaust

CO (ppmvd)
GT25060
200
160
Natural Gas
120
1/4 Load
80
40
1/2 Load
Distillate
Oil
3/4 Load
Full Load
0
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200 (F)
430
540
650
760
870
980
1090
1200 (C)
Firing Temperature
Figure 5. CO emissions for MS7001EA

UHC (ppmvw)
GT25061
120
100
80
Natural Gas
60
1/4 Load
40
1/2 Load
3/4 Load
Full Load
Distillate
Oil
20
0
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200 (F)
320
430
540
650
760
870
980
1090
1200 (C)
Firing Temperature
Figure 6. UHC emissions for MS7001EA
Sulfur Oxides
The gas turbine itself does not generate sulfur,
which leads to sulfur oxides emissions. All sulfur
emissions in the gas turbine exhaust are caused
by the combustion of sulfur introduced into the

turbine by the fuel, air, or injected steam or
water. However, since most ambient air and
injected water or steam has little or no sulfur,
the most common source of sulfur in the gas
6

turbine is through the fuel. Due to the latest hot
gas path coatings, the gas turbine will readily
burn sulfur contained in the fuel with little or
no adverse effects as long as there are no alkali
metals present in the hot gas.
using the relationships above, the various sulfur

oxide emissions can be easily calculated from
the fuel flow rate and the fuel sulfur content as
shown in Figure 7.
There is currently no internal gas turbine technique available to prevent or control the sulfur
oxides emissions from the gas turbine. Control
of sulfur oxides emissions has typically required
limiting the sulfur content of the fuel, either by
lower sulfur fuel selection or fuel blending with
low sulfur fuel.
GE experience has shown that the sulfur in the

fuel is completely converted to sulfur oxides. A
nominal estimate of the sulfur oxides emissions
is calculated by assuming that all fuel sulfur is
converted to SO2. However, sulfur oxide emissions are in the form of both SO2 and SO3.
Measurements show that the ratio of SO3 to
SO2 varies. For emissions reporting, GE reports
that 95% of the sulfur into the turbine is converted to SO2 in the exhaust. The remaining
sulfur is converted into SO3. SO3 combines with
water vapor in the exhaust to form sulfuric acid.
This is of concern in most heat recovery applications where the stack exhaust temperature
may be reduced to the acid dew point temperature. Additionally, it is estimated that 10% by
weight of the SOx generated is sulfur mist. By
Particulates
Gas turbine exhaust particulate emission rates
are influenced by the design of the combustion
system, fuel properties and combustor operating conditions. The principal components of
the particulates are smoke, ash, ambient noncombustibles, and erosion and corrosion products. Two additional components that could be
considered particulate matter in some localities
are sulfuric acid and unburned hydrocarbons
that are liquid at standard conditions.
1600
1200
800
% Sulfur by Weight
0.6
0.4
400
60
40
SO3 (lb/hr)
20
12
16
20
Total Fuel Flow Rate (lb/sec)
40
80
120
GT25062
0.2
160
Sulfur Mist Emission

Rate (lb/hr)
80
100
1.0
0.8
SO2 (lb/hr)
SO3 /SO2
0.0658 by Weight
TYPICAL BASE LOAD

FUEL FLOW:
51P
61B
71EA
91E
4.7 lb/sec
6.2 lb/sec
13.0 lb/sec
18.5 lb/sec
Figure 7. Calculated sulfur oxide and sulfur emissions

lates are also reported as PM-10. Therefore PM10 is not shown in the tables. The nominal full
rated firing temperature for each gas turbine
model is also shown in Table 3.
Smoke
Smoke is the visible portion of filterable particulate material. The GE combustor design coupled with air atomization of liquid fuels has
resulted in a nonvisible plume over the gas turbine load range for a wide variety of fuels. The
GE smoke-measuring unit is the Von Brand
Reflective Smoke Number (GEVBRSN). If this
number is greater than 93 to 95 for the
MS7001E, then the plume will not be visible.
For liquid fuels, the GEVBRSN is a function of
the hydrogen content of the fuel. For natural
gas fuel, the smoke number is essentially 99 to
100 over the load range and visible smoke is not
present.
As can be easily seen in the table, at base load

without NOx abatement, the emissions of CO,
UHC, VOC, and particulates are quite low. The
estimated values of NOx vary between gas turbine designs and generally increase with the
frame size firing temperature.
Dry Emissions Estimates at Part Load

Simple-Cycle Turbines
At turbine outputs below base load the emissions change from the values given in Table 3.
These changes are affected by the turbine configuration and application and in some cases by
the turbine controls.
Dry Emissions Estimates at Base Load

The ISO non-abated full load emissions estimates for the various GE heavy-duty gas turbine
models are provided in Table 3. The natural gas
and #2 distillate fuel emission estimates shown
are for thermal NOx, CO, UHC, VOC, and particulates. For reporting purposes, all particu-
Single-shaft gas turbines with non-modulating

inlet guide vanes operating at constant shaft
speed have part load emissions characteristics
which are easily estimated. For these turbines
H2O/Steam Inj.
Gas
Gas
(FG1A/FG1B)
(FG1C/FG1F)
Firing Temp.
F/C
Gas
Dist.
MS5001P
MS5001P-N/T
1730/943
1765/963
128
142
195
211
25
25
42
42
MS6001B
2020/1104
161
279
25
65/42
MS7001B
MS7001B Option 3
MS7001B Option 4
MS7001EA
1840/1004
1965/1074
2020/1104
2020/1104
109
124
132
160
165
191
205
245
25
25
25
25
42
42
42
42
MS9001B
MS9001B Option 3
MS9001B Option 4
MS9001E
MS9001E
1940/1060
1965/1074
2020/1104
2020/1104
2055/1124
109
124
132
157
162
165
191
205
235
241
42
42
42
42
42
65
65
65
65
65
6FA
7FA
7FA
9FA
2350/1288
2400/1316
2420/1327
2350/1288
Two Shaft Units*

Model
Firing Temp.
F/C
S.C.
R.C.**
S.C.
S.C.
MS3002F
MS3002J
MS3002J-N/T
1575/1625/857/885
1730/943
1770/968
115
128
140
201
217
236
42
42
42
50
50
50
MS5002
MS5002B-N/T
1700/927
1770/966
125
137
220
255
42
42
50
50
H2O/Steam Inj.
Dry (Non-Abated)
* S.C. = Simple Cycle and R.C. = Regenerative Cycle

** Two-Shaft NOx Levels Are All on Gas Fuel
GT23289E
Dry (Non-Abated)
Single Shaft Units
Model
Table 3. NOx emission levels @ 15% O2 (ppmvd)


the NOx emissions vary exponentially with firing temperature as shown previously in Figures
14. The load points for each turbine are also
marked on these figures. Due to the conversions used in the various NOx reporting methods, the information in Figures 14 has been
redrawn in Figures 811. This information shows
the estimated ISO NOx emissions on a ppmvd
@ 15% O2, ppmvw, and lb/hour basis for
MS7001EA, MS6001B, MS5001P and MS5001R.
In these figures, the nominal peak load firing
temperature point is also given. It should be
noted that in some cases the NOx ppmvd@15%
O2 reporting method can cause number values
to increase as load is reduced (e.g., see the
MS5001P A/T in Figure 10.) Since the GE
MS9001E gas turbine is a scaled version of the
MS7001E gas turbine, the MS7001E gas turbine
figures can be used as an estimate of MS9001E
gas turbine part load emissions characteristics.
Many gas turbines have variable inlet guide
vanes that are modulated closed at part load
conditions in order to maintain higher exhaust
NOx (ppmv)
500
Mechanical drive gas turbines typically vary the

output load shaft speed in order to adjust the
turbine output to match the load equipment
characteristic. Single-shaft gas turbines operating on exhaust temperature control have a maximum output NOx emissions characteristic vs.
turbine shaft speed, as shown in Figure 14 for an
MS5001R Advanced Technology uprated tur-
Peak Load
1. NOx ppmvd @ 15% O 2 - Chaindashed Curve

2. NOx lb/hr - Dashed Curve
3. NOx ppmvw - Solid Curve
NOTES:
D - No. 2 Distillate
G - Methane Natural Gas
ISO Conditions
1200
1000
Full Load
800
400
300
600
3/4 Load
200
1
100
2
3
0
800
430
1/4 Load
NOx (lb/hr)
600
temperatures for waste heat recovery equipment located in the gas turbine exhaust. As
shown in Figure 12, closing the inlet guide vanes
has a slight effect on the gas turbine NOx emissions. Figure 12 shows the effect on NOx ppmvd
@ 15% O2 and Figure 13 shows the effect on
NOx lb/hr. The figures show both MS5001P
and MS7001E characteristics. They also show
normalized NOx (% of base load value) vs. %
base load. Curves are shown for load reductions
by either closing the inlet guide vanes while
maintaining exhaust temperature control and
for load reductions by reducing firing temperature while keeping the inlet guide vanes fully
open.
400
1/2 Load
100
G
D
G
D
G
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200
540
650
760
870
980
1090
1200
Firing Temperature
(F)
(C)
GT25063
Figure 8. MS7001EA NOx emissions

800
350
NOTES:
ISO Conditions
300
NOx (ppmv)
Peak Load
Full Load
600
250
500
3/4 Load
200
150
1/4 Load
700
400
1/2 Load
300
100
NOx (lb/hr)
400
200
50
100
G
D
G
0
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200
430
540
650
760
870
980
1090
1200
Firing Temperature
(F)
(C)
GT25064
Figure 9. MS6001B NOx emissions

500

Peak Load
Full Load
200
NOX (ppmv)
D
150
400
3/4 Load
1/4 Load
1/2 Load
300
NOTES:
ISO Conditions
100
200
NOX (lb/hr)
250
G
D
D
G
G
50
100
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
(F)
430
540
650
760
870
980
(C)
Firing Temperature
GT25065

bine. The characteristic shown is primarily due
to the gas turbine exhaust temperature control
system and the turbine thermodynamics. As
seen in Figure 14, as the turbine output shaft
speed is reduced below 100%, NOx emissions

decrease directly with turbine shaft speed. As
the speed decreases, the exhaust temperature
increases till the exhaust component tempera-
10
NOTES:
ISO Conditions
160
NOX (ppmv)
Peak Load

120
1/4 Load
400
360
Full Load
320
3/4 Load
280
1/2 Load
240
200
160
80
40
120
80
D
G
G
40
NOX (lb/hr)
200
0
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
(F)
430
540
650
760
870
980
(C)
Firing Temperature
GT25066
105
ISO Conditions
100
1.
2.
3.
4.
51P Closing IGVs

51P Dropping Firing Temperature
71E Closing IGVs
71E Dropping Firing Temperature
95
90
1
85
2
80
GT25067
% NOX @ Base Load - ppmvd @ 15% O2
75
75
80
85
90
95
100
% Base Load
Figure 12. Inlet guide vane effect on NOx ppmvd @ 15% O2 vs. load
ture limit is reached. Once the exhaust isothermal limit is reached, the variation of NOx emissions with speed will become greater. In Figure 16
this exhaust isothermal temperature limit is
reached at approximately 84% speed. Two-shaft
gas turbines also vary the output turbine shaft
speed with load conditions. However the gas turbine compressor shaft and combustor operating
conditions are controlled independent of the
output shaft speed. On a two-shaft gas turbine, if
the gas turbine compressor shaft speed is held
constant by the control system while on exhaust
11

ISO Conditions
1. 51P Closing IGVs
2. 51P Dropping Firing Temperature
3. 71E Closing IGVs
4. 71E Dropping Firing Temperature
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
65
2
75
GT25068
% NOX @ Base Load - Lb/Hour
105
85
80
90
95
100
% Base Load
Figure 13. Inlet guide vane effect on NOx lb/hour vs. load
110
Lb/Hr
100
ppmvd @ 15% O2
ppmvw
80
70
60
NOTES:
ISO Conditions
100% Compressor Speed = 5100 rpm
Natural Gas Fuel
Assumes Exhaust Isothermal Limit
Reached at 84 Percent Speed and Below
50
40
30
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
GT25069
NOX Values
90
120
Percent Compressor Speed
Figure 14. MS5001R A/T NOx emissions vs. shaft speed

temperature control, the NOx emissions are not
affected by the load turbine shaft speed.
Exhaust Heat Recovery Turbines

Regenerative cycle and waste heat recovery twoshaft gas turbines are normally controlled to
operate the gas turbine compressor at the minimum speed allowable for the desired load output. As load is increased from minimum, the
gas turbine compressor speed is held at minimum until the turbine exhaust temperature
reaches the temperature control curve. With
further increase in load, the control system will
increase the gas turbine compressor speed
while following the exhaust temperature control curve. If the turbine has modulated inlet
guide vanes, the inlet guide vanes will open first
when the exhaust temperature control curve is
12

reached, and then, once the inlet guide vanes
are fully open, the gas turbine compressor
speed will be increased.
The NOx vs. load characteristic is similar to the

MS3002J. However, this design turbine will
operate at low load with the inlet guide vanes
partially closed and at minimum operating gas
turbine compressor shaft speed. During initial
loading, NOx increases with firing temperature.
When the exhaust temperature control system
isothermal temperature limit is reached the
inlet guide vanes are modulated open as load is
increased. At approximately 90% load the gas
Figure 15 shows the NOx characteristic of a

regenerative cycle MS3002J gas turbine at ISO
conditions. Initially, as load is increased, NOx
increases with firing temperature while the gas
turbine compressor is operating at minimum
speed. For the turbine shown, the exhaust
isothermal temperature control is reached at
NOx (ppmvd) @ 15% O2
GT25070
220
200
180
160
140
NOTES:
ISO Conditions
Constant LP Shaft Speed
120
100
30
20
40
50
60
70
Percent Load
80
90
100
Figure 15. MS3002J regenerative NOx vs. load

approximately 48% load. The gas turbine compressor shaft speed is then increased by the control system for further increases in load up to
the 100% load point. At approximately 96%
load, the gas turbine exhaust temperature control curve begins to limit exhaust temperature
below the isothermal exhaust temperature due
to the increasing airflow through the turbine
and the NOx values are reduced by the characteristic shown.
For a typical regenerative cycle MS5002B
Advanced Technology gas turbine with modulated inlet guide vanes, the curve of NOx vs.
load at ISO conditions is shown in Figure 16.
turbine exhaust temperature control curve

begins to limit exhaust temperature below the
isothermal exhaust temperature due to the
increasing airflow through the turbine and the
NOx values are reduced. At approximately
91.5% load for this turbine calculation, the inlet
guide vanes are fully open and further increases in load are accomplished by increasing the
gas turbine compressor speed resulting in the
NOx reduction as shown.
Other NOx Influences

The previous sections of this paper consider the
internal gas turbine design factors which influ-
13
GT25071
NO x (ppmvd @ 15% O2)
250
200
150
NOTES:
ISO Conditions
Constant LP Shaft Speed
100
40
50
60
70
Percent Load
80
90
100
Figure 16. MS5002B A/T regenerative NOx vs. load

ence emissions generation. There are many
external factors to the gas turbine which impact
the formation of NOx emissions in the gas turbine cycle. Some of these factors will be discussed below. In all figures under this topic, the
NOx is presented as a percentage value where
100% represents the thermal ISO NOx value for
the turbine operating on base temperature control. For all figures except for the regenerator
changes discussed, the curves drawn represent
a single best fit line through the calculated
characteristics for frame 3, 5, 6, 7, and 9 gas turbines. However, the characteristics shape that is
shown is the same for all turbines.
Ambient Pressure. NOx ppm emissions vary
almost directly with ambient pressure. Figure 17
provides an approximation for the ambient
pressure effect on NOx production on a lb/hr
basis and on a ppmvd @ 15% O2 basis. This figure is at constant 60% relative humidity. It
should be noted that specific humidity varies
with ambient pressure and that this variation is
also included in the Figure 18 curves.
Ambient Temperature. Typical NOx emissions
variation with ambient temperature is shown in
Figure 18. This figure is drawn at constant ambient pressure and 60% relative humidity with the
gas turbine operating constant gas turbine firing temperature. For an operating gas turbine
the actual NOx characteristic is directly influenced by the control system exhaust temperature control curve, which can change the slope
of the curves. The typical exhaust temperature
control curve used by GE is designed to hold
constant turbine firing temperature in the
59F/15C to 90F/32C ambient temperature
range. The firing temperature with this typical
curve causes under-firing of approximately
20F/11C at 0F/18C ambient, and approximately 10F/6C under-firing at 120F/49C
ambient. Factors such as load limits, shaft output limits, and exhaust system temperature limits are also not included in the Figure 18 curves.
Based on the actual turbine exhaust temperature control curve used and other potential limitations that reduce firing temperature, the estimated NOx emissions for an operating gas turbine are typically less than the values shown in
Figure 18 at both high and low ambients.
Relative Humidity. This parameter has a very
14

Curve Drawn at 59F/15C, 60% Relative Humidity
100% - Base Load Value at ISO Conditions
90
80
1
70
60
1. NOx (lb/hr)/(ISO lb/hr)

2. NOx (ppmvd @ 15% O2 )/(ISO ppmvd @ 15% O2 )
40
50
10
11
12
13
14
0.62
0.68
0.75
0.82
0.89
0.96
GT25073A
NOX Percentage
100
15 psia
1.03 bar
Ambient Pressure
Figure 17. Ambient pressure effect on NOx Frames 5, 6 and 7

120
110
90
2
80
70
60
Curve Drawn at 14.7 psia/1.013 bar, 0% Relative Humidity

100% = Base Load Value at 59F ambient
50
1. NOx (lb/hr)/(ISO lb/hr)

2. NOx (ppmvd @ 15% O2 )/(ISO ppmvd @ 15% O2 )
40
GT25074A
NOX Percentage
100
20
40
60
80
100
120 (F)
-18
-7
16
27
38
49
(C)
Ambient Temperature
Figure 18. Ambient temperature effect on NOx Frames 5, 6 and 7

0% Relative Humidity
strong impact on NOx. The ambient relative
humidity effect on NOx production at constant
ambient pressure of 14.7 psia and ambient temperatures of 59F/15C and 90F/32C is
shown in Figure 19.
The impact of other parameters such as

inlet/exhaust pressure drops, regenerator characteristics, evaporative/inlet coolers, etc., are
similar to the ambient parameter effects
described above. Since these parameters are
15

150
140
110
100
90
1. NOx
2. NOx
3. NOx
4. NOx
80
(lb/hr)/(lb/hr at 59F/15C)
(ppmvd @ 15% O2 )/(ppmvd @ 15% O2 at 59F/15C)
(lb/hr)/(lb/hr at 90F/32C)
(ppmvd @ 15% O2 )/(ppmvd @ 15% O2 at 90F/32C)
70
0
20
40
60
Percent Relative Humidity
80
GT25075
NOX Percentage
130
120
Curves Drawn at 14.7 psia/1.013 bar

100% - Base Load Value at ISO Conditions
100
Figure 19. Relative humidity effect on NOx Frames 5, 6 and 7

usually unit specific, customers should contact
GE for further information.
Power Augmentation Steam Injection. The effect
of power augmentation steam injection on gas
turbine NOx emissions is similar to NOx steam
injection on a ppmvw and lb/hr basis. However,
only approximately 30% of the power augmentation steam injected participates in NOx reduction. The remaining steam flows through dilution holes downstream of the NOx producing
area of the combustor. 100% of the power augmentation steam injected is used in the conversion from ppmvw to ppmvd @ 15% O2.
Emission Reduction Techniques

The gas turbine, generally, is a low emitter of
exhaust pollutants because the fuel is burned
with ample excess air to ensure complete
combustion at all but the minimum load conditions or during start-up. The exhaust emissions
of concern and the emission control techniques
can be divided into several categories as shown in
Table 4. Each pollutant emission reduction technique will be discussed in the following sections.
Nitrogen Oxides Abatement

The mechanism on thermal NOx production
was first postulated by Zeldovich. This is shown
in Figure 20. It shows the flame temperature of
distillate as a function of equivalence ratio.
This ratio is a measure of fuel-to-air ratio in
the combustor normalized by stoichiometric
fuel-to-air ratio. At the equivalence ratio of
unity, the stoichiometric conditions are
reached. The flame temperature is highest at
this point. At equivalence ratios less than 1, we
have a lean combustor. At the values greater
than 1, the combustor is rich. All gas turbine
combustors are designed to operate in the lean
region.
Figure 20 shows that thermal NOx production
rises very rapidly as the stoichiometric flame
temperature is reached. Away from this point,
thermal NOx production decreases rapidly.
This theory then provides the mechanism
of thermal NOx control. In a diffusion flame
combustor, the primary way to control thermal
NOx is to reduce the flame temperature.
16

Lean Head End Liner
Water or Steam Injection
Dry Low NOx
CO
Combustor Design
Catalytic Reduction
UHC & VOC
Combustor Design
SOx
Control Sulfur in Fuel
Particulates & PM-10
Fuel Composition
Smoke Reduction
Combustor Design
- Fuel Composition
- Air Atomization
Particulate Reduction
Fuel Composition
- Sulfur
- Ash
GT25092
NOx
GT11657B
Table 4. Emission control techniques

No. 2 Oil, 10 ATM
Air Preheat 590 K (600F)
300
High CO
Emissions
2000
3000
(K)
200
High Smoke
Emissions
(F)
1500
2000
Rate of Production
of Thermal NO
NOx
d NO
Flame Temperature
Temperature
2500
4000
dt
(ppmv/MS)
100
1000
0.5
1.0
1.5
Equivalence Ratio
Lean
Rich
Figure 20. NOx production rate
Lean Head End (LHE) Combustion Liners

Since the overall combustion system equivalence ratio must be lean (to limit turbine inlet
temperature and maximize efficiency), the first
efforts to lower NOx emissions were naturally
directed toward designing a combustor with a

leaner reaction zone. Since most gas turbines
operate with a large amount of excess air, some
of this air can be diverted towards the flame
end, which reduces the flame temperature.
17

Leaning out the flame zone (reducing the
flame zone equivalence ratio) also reduces the
flame length, and thus reduces the residence
time a gas molecule spends at NOx formation
temperatures. Both these mechanisms reduce
NOx. The principle of a LHE liner design is
shown in Figure 21.
liner. It has extra holes near the head (flame)

end and also has a different louver pattern compared to the standard liner. Table 5 summarizes
all LHE liners designed to date. Field test data
on MS5002 simple-cycle LHE liners and
MS3002J simple-cycle LHE liners are shown in
Figures 2325.
It quickly became apparent that the reduction

in primary zone equivalence ratio at full operating conditions was limited because of the
large turndown in fuel flow (40 to 1), air flow
(30 to 1), and fuel/air ratio (5 to 1) in industrial gas turbines. Further, the flame in a gas turbine is a diffusion flame since the fuel and air
are injected directly into the reaction zone.
Combustion occurs at or near stoichiometric
conditions, and there is substantial recirculation within the reaction zone. These parameters
essentially limit the extent of LHE liner technology to a NOx reduction of 40% at most.
Depending upon the liner design, actual reduction achieved varies from 15% to 40%.
One disadvantage of leaning out the head end

of the liner is that the CO emissions increase.
This is clear from Figure 24, which compares CO
between the standard and LHE liner for a
MS5002 machine.
Figure 22 compares an MS5001P LHE liner to a

standard liner. The liner to the right is the LHE
Water/Steam Injection
Another approach to reducing NOx formation
is to reduce the flame temperature by introducing a heat sink into the flame zone. Both water
and steam are very effective at achieving this
goal. A penalty in overall efficiency must be
paid for the additional fuel required to heat the
water to combustor temperature. However, gas
turbine output is enhanced because of the additional mass flow through the turbine. By necessity, the water must be of boiler feedwater qual-
LHE Liner has same diameter and length as

standard liner shown at left.
mixing
holes
The number, diameter, and location of the

mixing and dilution holes is different in the
LHE liner.
dilution
hole
As a result,
more air is introduced in the head end
of the LHE combustor
NO x emissions decrease
Figure 21. Standard simple-cycle MS5002 combustion liner

18

GT25634
nozzles have been designed with additional passages to inject water into the combustor head
end. The water is thus effectively mixed with the
incoming combustion air and reaches the flame
zone at its hottest point. In Figure 26 the NOx
reduction achieved by water injection is plotted
as a function of water-to-fuel ratio for an
MS7001E machine. Other machines have similar NOx abatement performance with water
injection.
GER 3751-19
Figure 22. Louvered low NOx lean head end

combustion liners
ity to prevent deposits and corrosion in the hot
turbine gas path area downstream of the combustor.
Water injection is an extremely effective means
for reducing NOx formation; however, the combustor designer must observe certain cautions
when using this reduction technique. To maximize the effectiveness of the water used, fuel
Turbine Model
Steam injection for NOx reduction follows

essentially the same path into the combustor
head end as water. However, steam is not as
effective as water in reducing thermal NOx. The
high latent heat of water acts as a strong thermal sink in reducing the flame temperature.
In general, for a given NOx reduction, approximately 1.6 times as much steam as water on a
mass basis is required for control.
There are practical limits to the amount of
water or steam that can be injected into the
combustor before serious problems occur. This
has been experimentally determined and must
be taken into account in all applications if the
combustor designer is to ensure long hardware
life for the gas turbine user.
Laboratory Development Completed
First Field Test
December-98
December-98
April-97
Fall 1999
to be determined
March-99
April-97
1986
September-97
Over 130 operating in field
February-99
February-99
to be determined
to be determined
S/C MS3002F
S/C MS3002G
S/C MS3002J
S/C MS5002B, C, & D
S/C MS5001 (All Models)
R/C MS3002J
R/C MS5002B & C
Table 5. Lean head end (LHE) liner development
19

140
NOx Emissions (ppmvd @ 15% O2)
Standard
120
Symbols are field test

points collected in
Alaska, September
1997
LHE
100
Solid lines are

expectations, from
scaled lab NOx
emissions
80
60
Field test confirmed

~40% NOx reduction at
base load
40
Good agreement
between lab and field
20
0
1200
1400
1600
1800
650
760
870
980
2000
(F)
1090 (C)
Combustor Exit Temperature
Figure 23. Field test data: simple-cycle MS5002 NOx

300
Standard, Field
Standard, Lab
250
CO Emissions (ppmvd)
LHE, Field
200
Field test confirmed

small increase in
CO at base load,
larger increase at
part load conditions
LHE, Lab
150
Good agreement
between lab and
field
100
50
0
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000 (F)
650
760
870
980
1090 (C)
Figure 24. Field test data: simple-cycle MS5002 CO

Injecting water/steam in a combustor affects
several parameters:
1. Dynamic Pressure Activity within the
Combustor. Dynamic pressures can be
defined as pressure oscillations within
the combustor driven by non-uniform
heat release rate inherent in any

diffusion flame or by the weak
coupling between heat release rate,
turbulence, and acoustic modes. An
example of the latter is selective
amplification of combustion roar by
20

25
CO
(ppmvddry,
@ 15%
15%OO22))
CO Emissions
Emissions (ppmv,
NOx Emissions (ppmv, dry, 15% O2)
NO x Emissions (ppmvd @ 15% O2)
125
100
75
50
25
Standard
LHE (steam Off)
0
1700
1800
927
982Temperature (F)
Combustor Exit
Standard
LHE (steam Off)
20
15
10
1900 (F)
0
1700
1038 (C)
927
1800
1900 (F)
982
1038 (C)
30%
reduction
in NO
with with
negligible
increaseincrease
in CO. in CO.
30%
reduction
inxNOx
negligible
Injecting
steam
further
reduces
NOx . NOx.
Injecting
steam
further
reduces
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
GT25108
Ratio of NOx With Inj. to NOx Without

(ppmvd/ppmvd)
Figure 25. Field test data: simple-cycle MS3002J with steam injection for power augmentation
0.5
0.4
Natural Gas
0.3
Distillate Oil
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6
Water-to-Fuel Mass Ratio
0.8
1.0
Figure 26. MS7001E NOx reduction with water injection

the acoustic modes of the duct.
Frequencies range from near zero to
several hundred hertz. Figure 27 shows
dynamic pressure activity for both
water injection and steam injection for
an MS7001E combustor. Water
injection tends to excite the dynamic

activity more than steam injection.
The oscillating pressure loads on the
combustion hardware act as vibratory
forcing functions and therefore must
be minimized to ensure long hardware
21

Water
Ratio of RMS Dynamic

Pressure Levels - Wet Over Dry
2.2
Water
60-70% Load
Baseload
Peakload
2.0
1.8
Steam
Load
1.6
Distillate Fuel
1.4
Steam
1.2
1.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
Water/Fuel Mass Flow Ratio
Figure 27. MS7001E combustor dynamic pressure activity

life. Through combustor design
modifications such as the addition of a
multi-nozzle fuel system, significant
reductions in dynamic pressure activity
are possible.
2. Carbon Monoxide Emissions. As more
and more water/steam is added to the
combustor, a point is reached at which
a sharp increase in carbon monoxide
is observed. This point has been
dubbed the knee of the curve. Once
the knee has been reached for any
given turbine inlet temperature, one
can expect to see a rapid increase in
carbon monoxide emissions with the
further addition of water or steam.
Obviously, the higher the turbine inlet
temperature, the more tolerant the
combustor is to the addition of water
for NOx control. Figure 28 shows the
relationship of carbon monoxide
emissions to water injection for a
MS7001B machine for natural gas fuel.
Figure 29 shows the effect of steam
injection on CO emissions for a typical

MS7001EA. Unburned hydrocarbons
have a similar characteristic with NOx
water or steam injection as carbon
monoxide. Figure 30 shows the
MS7001EA gas turbine unburned
hydrocarbon versus firing temperature
characteristic with steam injection.
3. Combustion Stability. Increasing
water/steam injection reduces
combustor-operating stability.
4. Blow Out. With increasing
water/steam injection, eventually a
point will be reached when the flame
will blow out. This point is the
absolute limit of NOx control with
water/steam injection.
Carbon Monoxide Control

There are no direct carbon monoxide emission
reduction control techniques available within
the gas turbine. Basically the carbon monoxide
emissions within the gas turbine combustor can
be viewed as resulting from incomplete com-
22
Carbon Monoxide (ppmvd)
50
Fuel is Natural Gas
40
Firing Temperatures (F/C)
1460/793
30
1260/682
1665/907
20
10
1870/1021
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
Water Injection % of Compressor Inlet Air Flow
GT10284A
Figure 28. Carbon monoxide vs. water injection effect of firing temperature MS7001B
GT25080

CO (ppmvd)
200
Natural Gas With No Diluent Injection
160
Natural Gas With Steam Injection

to 42 ppmvd @ 15% O 2
120
80
40
Distillate Oil with

Steam Injection
to 65 ppmvd @ 15% O2
Distillate Oil with
No Diluent Injection
0
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200 (F)
430
540
650
760
870
980
1090
1200 (C)
Firing Temperature

bustion. Since the combustor design maximizes
combustion efficiency, carbon monoxide emissions are minimized across the gas turbine load
range of firing temperatures. Reviewing Figure 5
shows that the carbon monoxide emission levels
increase at lower firing temperatures. In some
applications where carbon monoxide emissions

become a concern at low loads (firing temperatures), the increase in carbon monoxide can be
lowered by:
reducing the amount of water/steam
23

UHC (ppmvd)
GT25081
120
Natural Gas with No Diluent Injection
100
80
60
Natural Gas with Steam Injection

to 42 ppmvd @ 15% O 2
40
20
Distillate Oil With

and Without
Diluent Injection
0
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200 (F)
320
430
540
650
760
870
980
1090
1200 (C)
Firing Temperature

injection for NOx control (if allowed)
or
closing the inlet guide vanes, which
will increase the firing temperature for
the same load.
Unburned Hydrocarbons Control

Similar to carbon monoxide, there are also no
direct UHC reduction control techniques used
within the gas turbine. UHCs are also viewed as
incomplete combustion, and the combustor is
designed to minimize these emissions. The
same indirect emissions control techniques can
be used for unburned hydrocarbons as for carbon monoxide.
Particulate and Smoke Reduction

Control techniques for particulate emissions
with the exception of smoke are limited to control of the fuel composition.
Although smoke can be influenced by fuel composition, combustors can be designed which
minimize emission of this pollutant. Heavy fuels
such as crude oil and residual oil have low

hydrogen levels and high carbon residue, which
increase smoking tendencies. GE has designed
heavy-fuel combustors that have smoke performance comparable with those which burn
distillate fuel.
Crude and residual fuel oil generally contain
alkali metals (Na, K) in addition to vanadium
and lead, which cause hot corrosion of the turbine nozzles and buckets at the elevated firing
temperatures of today's gas turbine. If the fuel is
washed, water soluble compounds (alkali salts)
containing the contaminants are removed.
Filtration, centrifuging, or electrostatic precipitation are also effective on reducing the solid
contaminants in the combustion products.
Contaminants that cannot be removed from the
fuel (vanadium compounds) can be controlled
through the use of inhibitors. GE uses addition
of magnesium to control vanadium corrosion in
its heavy-duty gas turbines. These magnesium
additives always form ash within the hot gas
path components. This process generally
24

requires control and removal of added ash
deposits from the turbine. The additional ash
will contribute to the exhaust particulate emissions. Generally, the expected increase can be
calculated from an analysis of the particular fuel
being burned.
In some localities, condensable compounds
such as SO3 and condensable hydrocarbons are
considered particulates. SO3, like SO2, can best
be minimized by controlling the amount of sulfur in the fuel. The major problem associated
with sulfur compounds in the exhaust comes
from the difficulty of measurement. Emissions
of UHCs, which are a liquid or solid at room
temperature, are very low and only make a
minor contribution to the exhaust particulate
loading.
Water/Steam Injection Hardware

The injection of water or steam into the combustion cover/fuel nozzle area has been the primary method of NOx reduction and control in
GE heavy-duty gas turbines since the early
1970s. The same design gas turbine equipment
is supplied for conversion retrofits to existing

gas turbines for either injection method. Both
NOx control injection methods require a microprocessor controller, therefore turbines with
older controls need to have their control system upgraded to Mark V or Mark VI
SPEEDTRONIC controls conversion. The
control system for both NOx control injection
methods utilizes the standard GE gas turbine
control philosophy of two separate independent methods for shutting off the injection flow.
The NOx water injection system is shown
schematically in Figure 31 and consists of a water
pump and filter, water flowmeters, water stop
and flow control valves. This material is supplied on a skid approximately 10 x 20 feet in
size for mounting at the turbine site. The water
from the skid is piped to the turbine base where
it is manifold to each of the fuel nozzles using
pigtails. The water injection at the combustion
chamber is through passages in the fuel nozzle
assembly. A typical water injection fuel nozzle
assembly is shown schematically in Figure 32.
For this nozzle design there are eight or twelve
Figure 31. Schematic piping water injection system
25
Fuel Gas Connection

Atomizing
Air Connection
Oil Connection
GT25085
Water Injection Inlet
Figure 32. Water injection fuel nozzle assembly

water spray nozzles directing the water injection
spray towards the fuel nozzle tip swirler. While
this design is quite effective in controlling the
NOx emissions, the water spray has a tendency
to impinge on the nozzle tip swirler and on the
liner cap/cowl assembly. Resulting thermal
strain usually leads to cracks, which limits the
combustion inspections to 8000 hours or less.
To eliminate this cracking, the latest design
water-injected fuel nozzle is the breech-load
fuel nozzle. (See Figure 33.) In this design the
water is injected through a central fuel nozzle
passage, injecting the water flow directly into
the combustor flame. Since the water injection
spray does not impinge on the fuel nozzle
swirler or the combustion cowl assembly, the
breech load fuel nozzle design results in lower
maintenance and longer combustion inspection intervals for NOx water injection applications.
The NOx steam injection system is shown
schematically in Figure 34, and consists of a
steam flowmeter, steam control valve, steam
stop valve, and steam blowdown valves. This

material is supplied loose for mounting near
the turbine base by the customer. The steaminjection flow goes to the steam-injection manifold on the turbine base. Flexible pigtails are
used to connect from the steam manifold to
each combustion chamber. The steam injection
into the combustion chamber is through
machined passages in the combustion can
cover. A typical steam-injection combustion
cover with the machined steam-injection passage and steam injection nozzles is shown in
Figure 35.
Water quality is of concern when injecting water
or steam into the gas turbine due to potential
problems with hot gas path corrosion, and
effects to the injection control equipment. The
injected water or steam must be clean and free
of impurities and solids. The general requirements of the injected water or steam quality are
shown in Table 6. Total impurities into the gas
turbine are a total of the ambient air, fuel, and
injected water or steam. The total impurities
26

Fuel Gas Connection
Distillate Fuel Inlet
GT25086
Water Injection Inlet
Atomizing Air Connection
Figure 33. Breech-load fuel nozzle assembly
Figure 34. Schematic piping steam injection system

requirement may lower the water or steaminjection quality requirements. It is important
to note that the total impurities requirement is
provided relative to the input fuel flow.
Minimum NOx Levels

As described above, the methods used to reduce
thermal NOx inside the gas turbine are by combustor design or by diluent injection. To see
27
GT25088
NOTE: This drawing is not to be used for Guarantees
Figure 35. Combustion cover steam injection
WATER/STEAM QUALITY
Total Dissolved Solids
Total Trace Metals
(Sodium + Potassium
+ Vanadium + Lead)
pH
5.0 ppm Max.

0.5 ppm Max.
6.5 7.5
NOTE: Quality requirements can generally

be satisfied by demineralized water.
TOTAL LIMITS IN ALL SOURCES

(Fuel, Steam, Water, Air)
Contaminant
Sodium + Potassium
Lead
Vanadium
Calcium
Max. Equivalent
Concentration
(ppm wt)
1.0
1.0
0.5
2.0
Table 6. Water or steam injection quality requirements
28

NOx emissions from each frame size without
any control, refer to Table 3. With the LHE liner
design, dry (no water/steam injection) NOx
emissions could be reduced by 1540% relative
to standard liner. This is the limit of LHE liner
technology.
With water or steam injection, significant reduction in NOx is achieved. The lowest achievable
NOx values with water/steam injection from GE
heavy-duty gas turbines are also shown in Table
3. The table provides the current minimum
NOx levels for both methane natural gas fuel
and #2 distillate fuel oil.
Maintenance Effects
As described previously, the methods used to
control gas turbine exhaust emissions have an
effect on the gas turbine maintenance intervals.
Table 7 provides the recommended combustion
inspection intervals for current design
Advanced Technology combustion systems used
in base load continuous duty gas turbines without NOx control systems and the recommended
combustion inspection intervals with the vari-
ous NOx control methods at the NOx ppmvd @

15% O2 levels shown. Both natural gas fuel and
#2 distillate fuel recommended combustion
inspection intervals are included. Review of
Table 7 shows that the increased combustion
dynamics (as the combustor design goes from
dry to steam injection) and then to water injection results in reductions in the recommended
combustion inspection intervals.
Performance Effects
As mentioned previously the control of NOx
can impact turbine firing temperature and
result in gas turbine output changes.
Additionally, the injection of water or steam also
impacts gas turbine output, heat rate, and
exhaust temperature. Figure 36 shows the
impact of NOx injection on these gas turbine
parameters when operating at base load for all
single shaft design gas turbines. Note that the
injection rate is shown as a percentage of the
gas turbine compressor inlet airflow on a weight
basis. The output and heat rate change is shown
on a percent basis while exhaust temperature is
Natural Gas/
No. 2 Distillate
ppmvd @ 15% O2
Natural Gas Fired Hours

of Operation
No. 2 Distillate Fired Hours

of Operation
MS5001P N/T
Dry
NSPS
142/211
87/86
42/65
42/42
12,000/12,000
12,000/12,000
6,000/6,000
6,000/6,000
12,000/12,000
6,000/6,000
6,000/6,000
1,500/4,000
MS6001B
Dry
NSPS
148/267
94/95
42/65
42/42
12,000/12,000
8,000/8,000
8,000/8,000
8,000/8,000
12,000/12,000
6,000/6,000
8,000/8,000
4,000/4,000
MS7001E
Dry
NSPS
154/228
96/97
42/65
42/42
25/42
8,000/8,000
8,000/8,000
6,500/8,000
6,500/8,000
8,000/8,000
8,000/8,000
8,000/8,000
6,500/8,000
1,500/3,000
6,000/6,000
147/220
42/65
8,000/8,000
6,500/8,000
8,000/8,000
6,500/8,000
MNQC
MS9001E
Dry
Inspection Intervals reflect current hardware. Older units with earlier vintage hardware will have lower Inspection intervals.
Base Load Operation.
NSPS NOx levels are 75 ppm with heat rate correction included.
GT25093
The above values represent initial recommended combustion inspection intervals. The intervals are subject to change based on experience.
Table 7. Estimated ISO NOx level effects on combustion inspection intervals

29

shown in degrees F. Review of Figure 36 shows
that turbine output is increased when NOx
injection is used. The gas turbine load equipment must also be capable of this output
increase or control changes must be made in
order to reduce the gas turbine output.
Summary
Change in Exhaust Temp
The emissions characteristics of gas turbines

have been presented both at base load and part
load conditions. The interaction of emission
control on other exhaust emissions as well as
-1.1
-2
the effects on gas turbine maintenance and performance have also been presented. The minimum controllable NOx levels using LHE and
water/steam injection techniques have also
been presented. Using this information, emissions estimates and the overall effect of the various emission control methods can be estimated.
It is not the intent of this paper to provide sitespecific emissions. For these values, the customer must contact GE.
-2.2 -4
-3.3 -6
-4.4 -8
% Output Increase
% Heat Rate Increase
4
2
0
-2
-4
1
10
0
Diluent Injection (% Compressor Inlet Flow)
Solid Line = Water Inj for 5001
Dashed Line = Steam Inj for 5001
Chaindashed Line = Water Inj for 61, 71, 91
Dotted Line = Steam Inj for 61, 71, 91
Figure 36. Performance effects vs. diluent injection
30

List of Figures
Figure 1.
MS7001EA NOx emissions
Figure 2.
MS6001B NOx emissions
Figure 3.
MS5001P A/T NOx emissions
Figure 4.
MS5001R A/T NOx emissions
Figure 5.
CO emissions for MS7001EA
Figure 6.
UHC emissions for MS7001EA
Figure 7.
Calculated sulfur oxide and sulfur emissions
Figure 8.
MS7001EA NOx emissions
Figure 9.
MS6001B NOx emissions

Figure 12. Inlet guide vane effect on NOx ppmvd @ 15% O2 vs. load
Figure 13. Inlet guide vane effect on NOx lb/hour vs. load
Figure 14. MS5001R A/T NOx emissions vs. shaft speed
Figure 15. MS3002J regenerative NOx vs. load
Figure 16. MS5002B A/T regenerative NOx vs. load
Figure 17. Ambient pressure effect on NOx frame 5, 6 and 7
Figure 18. Ambient temperature effect on NOx frame 5, 6 and 7
Figure 19. Relative humidity effect on NOx frame 5, 6 and 7
Figure 20. NOx production rate
Figure 21. Standard simple cycle MS5002 combustor liner
Figure 22. Louvered low NOx lean head end combustion liners
Figure 23. Field test data: simple-cycle MS5002 NOx
Figure 24. Field test data: simple-cycle MS5002 CO
Figure 25. Field test data: simple-cycle MS3002J with steam injection for power augmentation
Figure 26. MS7001E NOx reduction with water injection
Figure 27. MS7001E combustor dynamic pressure activity
Figure 28. Carbon monoxide vs. water injection effect of firing temperature MS7001B
Figure 31. Schematic piping water injection system
Figure 32. Water injection fuel nozzle assembly
Figure 33. Breech-load fuel nozzle assembly
Figure 34. Schematic piping steam injection system
Figure 35. Combustion cover steam injection
Figure 36. Performance effects vs. diluent injection
31

List of Tables
Table 1.
Gas turbine exhaust emissions burning conventional fuels
Table 2.
Relative thermal NOx emissions
Table 3.
NOx emission levels at 15% O2 (ppmvd)
Table 4.
Emission control techniques
Table 5.
Lean head end (LHE) liner development
Table 6.
Water or steam injection quality requirements
Table 7.
Estimated ISO NOx level effects on combustion inspection intervals
32

Gas Turbine Emmissions and Control

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Gas Turbine Emissions

Gas Turbine Emissions and Control

GE Power Systems GER-4211 (03/01)

Gas Turbine Emissions and Control

GE Power Systems GER-4211 (03/01)

Gas Turbine Emissions and Control

GE Power Systems GER-4211 (03/01)

Gas Turbine Emissions and Control

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Oxidation of Fuel Carbon

Water Vapor (H2O)

Oxidation of Fuel Hydrogen

Nitric Oxide (NO)

Oxidation of Atmosphere Nitrogen

Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Incomplete Oxidation of Fuel Carbon

Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)

Oxidation of Fuel-Bound Organic Sulfur

Sulfur Trioxide (SO3)

Oxidation of Fuel-Bound Organic Sulfur

Unburned Hydrocarbons (UHC)

Incomplete Oxidation of Fuel or Intermediates

Particulate Matter Smoke

Inlet Ingestion, Fuel Ash, Hot-Gas-Path

Table 1. Gas turbine exhaust emissions burning conventional fuels

NOx increases with the square root of

NOx increases with increasing

Nitrogen oxides (NOx = NO + NO2) must be

GE Power Systems GER-4211 (03/01)

NOx decreases exponentially with

Gas Turbine Emissions and Control

burning natural gas fuel and No. 2 distillate is

Gaseous fuels are generally classified according

Typical NOx performance of the MS7001EA,

Table 2. Relative thermal NOx emissions

GE Power Systems GER-4211 (03/01)

Gas Turbine Emissions and Control

Figure 1. MS7001EA NOx emissions

Figure 2. MS6001B NOx emissions

GE Power Systems GER-4211 (03/01)

monoxide emissions increase quickly. This

Gas Turbine Emissions and Control

Figure 3. MS5001P A/T NOx emissions

Figure 4. MS5001R A/T NOx emissions

GE Power Systems GER-4211 (03/01)

combustors show the same type of hyperbolic

Gas Turbine Emissions and Control

Gas Turbine Machine Exhaust

Figure 5. CO emissions for MS7001EA

Gas Turbine Machine Exhaust

Figure 6. UHC emissions for MS7001EA

GE Power Systems GER-4211 (03/01)

by the combustion of sulfur introduced into the

Gas Turbine Emissions and Control

using the relationships above, the various sulfur

GE experience has shown that the sulfur in the

Total Fuel Flow Rate (lb/sec)

Sulfur Mist Emission

TYPICAL BASE LOAD

Figure 7. Calculated sulfur oxide and sulfur emissions

GE Power Systems GER-4211 (03/01)

Gas Turbine Emissions and Control