Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Aircraft Structures Analysys
Aircraft Structures Analysys
Structural Design
Reader AE2-521N
Version 1.02
Mostafa Abdalla
Roeland De Breuker
Zafer G
urdal
Jan Hol
ii
iii
Modifications
Date
19/01/2008
19/01/2008
Version
Modification
1.01
Equation 3.9 changed
1.02
Equations 4.8 and 4.2 changed
iv
Contents
List of Figures
viii
1 Introduction
of Statically
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Determinate Beams
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CONTENTS
vi
of Statically Determinate
37
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Beams
55
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Members
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65
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66
67
69
69
List of Figures
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
5.1
5.2
5.4
5.5
5.6
6.1
5.3
vii
14
15
15
16
17
18
. 32
. 33
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34
34
35
36
LIST OF FIGURES
viii
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
7.1
8.1
8.2
8.3
9.1
9.2
9.3
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Chapter 1
Introduction
The primary purpose of this reader is to describe the use of analysis equations
and methodologies of structures for design purposes. It is common these days
that we hear from industry that the students graduating with engineering
degrees do not know how to design whether it is structures, or mechanical
systems, or systems from other engineering disciplines. We therefore put the
emphasis in this course on design.
Anybody who has some understanding of the design process, however, realises that without a thorough understanding of the use of analysis methods
it will not be possible to design at least a reliable system. It is, therefore,
important to establish a sound and firm analysis foundation before one can
start the design practice. The approach used in this reader, however, is different from the traditional one in which analysis and designs are taught in
different portions of the course. Instead we will use an approach in which
small portions (sections) of topics from analysis are first introduced immediately followed by their design implementation. A more detailed description
of the outline and the contents of the reader is provided in the following.
The reader is divided into two primary sections because of a very important concept, called statical determinacy, that has a very strong influence
on the way structures are designed. It is of course too early to completely
describe the impact of statical indeterminacy on design. It will be sufficient
to state at this point that statical determinacy simplifies the design process
of a structure made of multiple components by making it possible to design
individual components independent from one another. Structural indeterminacy on the other hand causes the internal load distribution in a given
structural system to be dependent on the dimensional and material properties of the individual component that are typically being designed. That is,
as the design of the individual components change the loads acting on those
components for which they are being designed also change. Hence, individ1
1. Introduction
and beam members, and plate segments. The primary difference between
the three types of components is the type of loads that are carried by them.
Truss members are two-load members which can only carry co-linear loads
(either tensile or compressive) acting along a line that passes through the
two pin joints connecting the member to other truss members or structural
components. Furthermore the member is assumed to be straight between the
two pins, hence no bending of the member is allowed. The beam members
are primarily used for carrying bending loads, which are typically induced by
more than two forces, or two force members with non co-linear forces. Finally,
plate segments are the more general form of a load carrying component,
reacting to in plane and out of plane loads. A more formal definition of these
components will be provided in appropriate chapters later on. For the time
being we only consider some examples to them in aircraft and spacecraft
structures.
Chapter 2
Stress Analysis and Design of
Statically Determinate Trusses
A lot of aerospace structures can be idealised as truss structures. This is
clearly illustrated in picture 2.1 where it can be seen that the ribs in the
wing are built up as a truss structure. Also in space applications, trusses
are widely used because of their simplicity and light-weightness. Now the
question rises: what is a truss?
2.1
Truss Properties
A truss is a structure built up from truss members, which are slender bars
with a cross-sectional area A and having a Youngs modulus E.
A generic picture is given in figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2:
Typical
www.compuzone.co.kr]
simple
truss
structure
[Courtesy
of
2.2
node, two forces in x and y direction act) that can be constructed for the
problem. The unknowns are the truss member forces and the reaction forces
at the truss supports. There are m truss member forces and r reaction forces.
So a necessary condition for static determinacy of a truss structure is
m + r = 2n.
(2.1)
Support Type
Reactions
Rx
Pinned node
Roller support
Ry
Ry
2.3
Truss Analysis
The internal forces created by an external loading to the truss can be solved
by using the method of joints. This method implies that the summation of all
forces
Pin either of the two directions at each node is equal to zero (
and
Fy = 0). The method of joints is highlighted in figure 2.5.
Fx = 0
2.3.1
Truss Definition
Defining and analysing a truss structure is not only a matter of stress analysis,
but also a matter of good book keeping. Therefore we define the nodal
locations, the members along with their begin and end nodes and material
properties in an orderly fashion. The ith node has the following location pi :
pi = {xi , yi }, i = 1 . . . n,
(2.2)
(2.3)
where m is the number of members. Each member has its Youngs modulus
Ej and cross-sectional area Aj . The length lj of the j th member is then
defined as:
q
lj = (xs xe )2 + (ys ye )2
(2.4)
Finally each node has its own applied force Pj , which can be zero in case
of the absence of the force.
2.3.2
Stress Analysis
Pj
.
Aj
(2.5)
Notice that only the cross-sectional area itself is needed for the calculation
of the member stress, so the shape of the cross section, albeit a square or
a circle, is irrelevant. Also notice that since a truss member can only take
normal forces, only normal stress is calculated, so no shear stress is present
in a truss member.
2.4
10
Stress Design
F
Anew
(2.6)
Keeping in mind that the original expression for the stress is = AFold ,
we get as full stressed design update criterion for the cross-sectional area the
following expression:
Anew
2.5
Aold
=
all
(2.7)
Example
Given is a three bar truss, shown in figure 2.6, with all element having equal
length. A force P is applied at node B in negative y direction. First freebody diagrams are drawn for each node separately. They can be viewed in
figure 2.7.
The equilibrium equations for node A are:
X
X
LBC
LAB
LAC
FAB
.
LAB
Fx+ : 0 = Ax + FAB
Fy+ : 0 = FAC
(2.8)
(2.9)
B
x
C
P
Figure 2.6: Three bar truss example
A
FAB
C
FAC
Cx
Ax
FBC
FAB
FAC
FBC
P
Cy
LBC
LAB
LAC
.
: 0 = P + FAB
LAB
Fy+
(2.10)
(2.11)
Fx+ : 0 = Cx + FBC
(2.12)
Fy+ : 0 = Cy + FAC .
(2.13)
2.5. Example
12
Solution of the six equations simultaneously yields the following expressions for the unknowns:
LBC
LBC
LAB
LBC
Ax = P
, Cx = P
, Cy = P, FAB = P
, FAC = P, FBC = P
LAC
LAC
LAC
LAC
(2.14)
By inspection it is evident that the reaction forces equilibrate each other
and the externally applied force P .
Now that the three member forces are known, their cross-sectional areas
can be changed such that each of the members becomes fully stressed using
equation 2.7. Assume the material has an allowable stress all , the new cross
sectional areas become:
(
AAB,new =
P LLAB
AC
all
, AAC,new
P LLBC
P
AC
=
, ABC,new =
all
all
)
(2.15)
Note that although some of the member forces were negative, their absolute value needs to be taken to calculate the cross-sectional areas because
obviously an area cannot be negative.
Chapter 3
Stress Analysis and Design of
Statically Determinate Beams
The objective of this chapter is to master the skills of analysing statically
determinate structures composed of beams or a combination of beam and
truss members using both the continuous and discrete approaches. The discrete approach is based on splitting the structure into short beam segments
over which the loading can be assumed constant. In this case, analysing the
structure is reduced to well-structured calculation which can be carried out
either by hand or using a computer.
3.1
What is a beam?
14
3.2
Equilibrium Equations
A beam has cross-section dimensions which are much smaller than the beam
length. For this reason a beam is usually sketched as lines representing the
beam axis. If we imagine the beam to be separated into two parts at a
certain (see figure 3.3) cross-section, the internal forces at that cross-section
will have a static resultant force and moment. When resolved along the local
beam axes, the static resultant is composed of three force components and
three moment components. The force component along the beam axis, x,
is termed the normal or axial force. The force components along the two
cross-section axes, y and z, are called shear forces. The moment component
along the beam axis is called the twisting moment or torque. The moment
components along the two cross-section axes are called bending moments.
16
+
+
(3.1)
pz
My(x+x)
My(x)
Vz(x)
Vz(x+x)
(3.2)
(3.3a)
(3.3b)
In these equations, px (x) is the distributed thrust load per unit length, py
and pz are the lateral distributed loads per unit length in y and z direction
respectively, and tx (x) is the distributid twisting moment per unit length.
The equilibrium equations 3.3 are valid when the applied distributed loads
vary smoothly. This, however, is frequently not the case. In many practical
situations, load introduction is abrupt and the loading can be idealised as
concentrated forces and/or moments. In such cases, the distribution of the
cross-sectional forces and moments is not continuous. Special jump conditions have to applied at such locations.
18
(3.4)
(3.5)
where Vz and Vz+ are the shear force right before and right after the applied
concentrated load Fz .
Similar jump conditions can be derived for all forces and moments. The
student should be able to carry out the derivation without difficulty.
Fz
pz
Vz(x+x)
Vz(x)
x
3.3
Stresses in Beams
Once the distribution of the internal forces and moments is obtained through
the integration of the equilibrium equations 3.3, the stress state at any point
of the cross section can be calculated. This might at first seem strange since
different loading can lead to the same internal force and moment resultant at
a given cross-section. The question arises whether the stress distribution due
to two statically equivalent loads are the same. The answer to this question
is that the stress distributions due to statically equivalent systems of loads
are not identically the same but are generally close away from the point
of application of load. This is a statement of the de St. Venant principle.
Stresses calculated based only on the resultant internal force and moment are
usually accurate enough away from points of load introduction, supports, and
discontinuity in the cross-sections.
If, for the sake of simplicity, we assume that the beam is loaded in the xz
plane only, the formulae for the stress distribution are particularly simple.
The distribution of the normal stress x is given by,
x =
N
My
z,
A
Iy
(3.6)
Vz Q
,
Iy t
(3.7)
where Q is the first moment of area of the part of the cross section up to the
point of calculation.
3.4
(i)
(3.8)
Vz(i) L = Vz(i1) R + Fz(i) , Vz(i) R = Vz(i) L + p(i)
z ` ,
3.5. Example
20
and
(i)
(i)
My(i) L = My(i1) R , My(i) R = My(i) L + Vz(i) L + p(i)
z ` /2 ` ,
(3.9)
where the L and R subscripts denote the left end and right end of the segment
respectively.
The above equations are very easy to program using Maple, Matlab, or
even using a simple excel sheet. The way the equations are used can be best
illustrated by an example.
3.5
Example
(3.11)
Similarly, equation 3.11 can be integrated and the integration constant determined by noting that at x = 0, the bending moment vanishes. The final
expression for the bending moment is,
My (x) =
x 4 x 5
p0 L2 x 3
10
5
+
.
20
L
L
L
(3.12)
To solve this example using the discrete approach we divide the beam
into ten segments. The results of the computation is summarised in Table
3.5. Sample Maple codes for discrete beam analysis are available online.
`
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
pz
142.6
385.9
578.1
725.4
833.6
908.9
957.1
984.4
996.6
999.9
Vz |L
0.0
71.3
264.3
553.3
916.0
1332.8
1787.3
2265.8
2758.0
3256.3
Vz |R
71.3
264.3
553.3
916.0
1332.8
1787.3
2265.8
2758.0
3256.3
3756.3
My |L
0.0
17.8
101.7
306.1
673.4
1235.6
2015.7
3028.9
4284.9
5788.5
My |R
17.8
101.7
306.1
673.4
1235.6
2015.7
3028.9
4284.9
5788.5
7541.6
3.5. Example
22
Chapter 4
Stress Analysis and Design of
Statically Determinate Plates
Plates are extensively used structural elements in aerospace constructions.
Skin material, ribs, aircraft floors, . . . ; their application possibilities are
infinite. An example of the use of plate material as aircraft skin is given in
figure 4.1. At the very dawn of aviation, aircraft wing and fuselage skins
were applied to preserve the required aerodynamic shape, and all the loads
acting on the vehicle were carried mainly by truss structures. However, with
the introduction of aluminium in the aircraft industry, this changed radiaclly.
The so-called fully stressed skin was invented. This means that the plates
forming the skin take their part of the loads.
A plate can be loaded mainly in two ways, in the plane of the plate and
perpendicular to its plane. The stress analysis of bending of plates has proven
to be too complicated to deal with in this course, and as such will not be
treated. Also the loading in the plane is not exactly trivial either, however,
there are some particular cases that will be investigated in this course. These
simplified cases already provide initial insight in the essentials of stresses in
plates.
4.1
24
4.2
Circle of Mohr
If a bi-axial stress state and a uniform shear stress are present, the question
is what the occurring normal and shear stress would be in any arbitrary
direction of the plate. On top of that, one might wonder what the maximum
normal and shear stress would be in the plate, and in which direction that
one would act. This issue is solved by looking at the force equilibrium in an
y
xy
x
xy
y
x
A0
x
x
xy
y
Figure 4.3: Free body diagram for the plate equilibrium equations
Keeping in mind that a force is the applied stress times the area over
which the stress is distributed, the force equilibrium in x and y-direction can
be written as
26
P
Fx : 0 = A0 x (A0 cos ) cos xy (A0 sin ) cos y (A0 sin ) sin
=
x cos2 + y sin2 + 2xy sin cos
(4.2)
= (x y ) sin cos + xy (cos2 sin2 )
.
Using standard trigonometric relations, the above expressions can be simplified even further:
y
y
= x +
+ x
cos 2 + xy sin 2
2
2
(4.3)
x y
=
2 sin 2 + xy cos 2
.
If the second of the above equation is substituted into the first one, one
obtains an expression of a circle:
2
x y
x + y
2
2
+ =
+ xy
(4.4)
2
2
This circle is called Mohrs circle. It is obvious that this is a circle in the
y
- plane and has as centre point x +
, which is the average normal
2
q
2
x y
2 . Assume the applied stresses ,
stress av and radius R =
+ xy
x
2
y and xy are known, the stresses and can be determined using the
equation of the circle of Mohr. The layout of the circle is given in figure 4.4.
It is clear that the maximum (1 ) and minimum (2 ) normal stresses can
be read off Mohrs circle directly (where the circle intersects with the axis), as well as the maximum shear stress. In some cases it can also occur
that 2 becomes larger than 1 in absolute value. Obviously 2 will be the
maximum normal stress in that case. Also the double of the direction in
which the normal stresses act can be read from the circle. It is the angle
between the -axis and the line connecting the circles centre point and the
(x , xy ) point. The reason why it is a double angle can be found in equation
4.3. The equation for the direction angle is
xy
1
= arctan
(4.5)
2
(x y )/2
, max
x , xy )
x y
2
R=
+ xy
2
2
tan 2 =
xy
x y
2
2
x + y
, 0
2 = , min
1 = , max
, xy )
4.3
Stress Design
told
all
=
told
all
tnew =
(4.6)
tnew
(4.7)
4.4. Example
4.4
28
Example
x or y is zero
xy is zero
x = y and
xy = x = y
x + y
100 + 50
=
= 75M P a
2
2
(4.8)
x y
2
2
2 =
+ xy
100 50
2
2
+ 252 = 35.36M P a
(4.9)
Using this information, the maximum normal and shear stress can be
found:
1 = av + R = 110.36M P a
max = R = 35.36M P a
(4.10)
(4.11)
xy = 25 MPa
x = 100 MPa
y = 50 MPa
1
25
= arctan
= 22.5
(4.12)
2
(100 50)/2
Assuming the initial thickness of the plate is 2 mm, the allowable normal
stress is 100 MPa and the allowable shear stress is 50 MPa, the fully stressed
thickness both for maximum normal and shear stress becomes, respectively:
110.36
2 = 2.2mm
100
35.36
=
2 = 1.4mm
50
tnew =
(4.13)
tnew
(4.14)
It is evident that one can get totally different answers based on the stress
criterion one uses.
4.4. Example
30
Chapter 5
Stress Concentrations and
Multiple Loads
5.1
Stress Concentrations
We have seen in the stress analysis methods of trusses, beams and plates that
one deals with average stresses uniformly distributed over the cross-section
of the structure. In most cases that is a fair assumption and leads to good
analysis results. However particular load introductions, holes in a structure
or sudden changes in cross-section can cause stress concentrations to occur.
These stresses are larger than the average stresses calculated far from those
critical locations, and as such can cause the occurring stress to become larger
than the allowable stress at certain locations in the structure. Therefore it is
important to take these stress concentrations into account and involve them
into the stress analysis.
Stress concentrations happen at places where there are discontinuities in
the structure, such as holes, cracks, cross-section changes. They are also
present at load introduction locations. It can be stated generally that brittle
materials are more susceptible to stress concentrations than ductile ones.
The reason for this is twofold. First of all cracks and cognates influence the
fatigue life of a structure, and it is generally known that brittle materials
are more sensitive to fatigue. Secondly the elevated stresses might cause
plasticity to emerge in the material. Also in this case, ductile materials are
more favourable than brittle ones.
The stress level at the stress concentration location, max , is higher than
the average stress in the structure, av . The ratio between these two stresses
is a measure for the intensity of the stress concentration and indicated with
the stress concentration factor K:
31
32
K=
max
.
av
(5.1)
De Saint-Venants Principle
The question is now how big the influence of such local phenomena is on the
remainder of the structure. De Saint-Venant postulated a theorem on this
matter, which is still accepted today. He claims that such local phenomena
have only a local influence. Far from the influence, the occurring stresses are
independent of how the loads are applied, or whether there are holes present
or not. This is depicted in figure 5.1. As a rule of thumb one may assume
for load introduction problems that the effect of the applied axial load is
relevant up to a distance equal to the width of the plate.
av
av
av
max
max
max
33
Cross-section change:
1. the ratio of the fillet radius r and the length of the smallest crosssection d.
2. the ratio of the smallest cross-section length to the largest crosssection length.
Symbols r and d are used multiple times, however, these are the conventions for hole and cross-section change stress concentration factors, so be
always mindful of what K factor you are dealing with.
The geometric definitions and K factor relations for the hole are given in
figure 5.2 while those for the cross-section change are given in figure 5.3.
Figure 5.2: Geometric definitions and K factor for a hole [Courtesy of Beer,
P.F., Mechanics of Materials]
5.2
The terms combined load and multiple loads are often used in design. In the
first case, a structure is submitted to a combination of loads simultaneously.
A good example is an aircraft wing; this structure is submitted to a lift force,
a drag force and an aerodynamic moment at the same time during flight (see
figure 5.4).
Calculating the stresses due to such a combined load can be approached
by calculating the internal normal and shear forces, and the bending and
torsional moments resulting from the combined load at the location where
34
35
P
all
P L2
2 .
E
Amin
Imin
(5.2)
(5.3)
32.3 2(b + h)
1
1
145.0 h2 ( h + b).
6
2
36
(5.4)
(5.5)
Chapter 6
Displacement Analysis and
Design of Statically
Determinate Trusses
No structure is rigid. The floor you were just walking on deformed under
your feet, the chair you are sitting on shortened just a little bit. However
not evident from every day life practice, everything deforms under a certain
loading. Especially in the aerospace industry, deformations are important
as a consequence of the design philosophy. Weight is the driving factor in
every aerospace design, and this constant striving for lightness renders structures to become flexible. The danger of such structures is that the occurring
displacements might jeopardise the structural functionality. Imagine that
because of weight savings, the torsional rigidity of a wing would be reduced.
This would result in large local angles-of-attack altering the aerodynamic
performance considerably.
Therefore a structure should always be designed such that it is able to
carry the applied loads without violating certain displacement constraints.
Because of that, displacement analysis of a structure is very important. Moreover, as we will see later, the internal stress distribution in a statically indeterminate structure depends entirely on the displacement field. This is a
second example the importance of displacement calculation.
In this chapter we will deal with the displacement of trusses. But first we
introduce a tool with which we can calculate displacements of trusses and
beams using energy principles. This tool is called the Dummy Load Method.
37
6.1
38
Energy Principles
Work W exerted on a structure is equal to a force F times the displacement
the force creates:
W = F
(6.1)
F
U
U
(6.2)
This means that the rate of change of the internal strain energy with the
displacement is equal to the applied force. Associated with virtual work is
F
U*
F
U*
U
(6.3)
Castiglianos Theorem
For linear structures, which we use thorugout this course, the relation between an applied force and the resulting displacement is linear F = k, where
k is the structural stiffness. It is evident from figure 6.3 that in the linear
case the internal energy is equal to the complementary energy U = U .
Therefore the following important relation can be derived from equations
6.2 and 6.3:
dU
= .
(6.4)
dF
This means that we can find the displacement in the direction of a
force F by differentiating the strain energy with respect to that force. This
equation is called the theorem of Castigliano. If multiple forces act on the
structure, each displacement in the direction of a particular force Fi is then
expressed as:
dU
= i .
dFi
(6.5)
40
U*
U
U*
U
dF =
F 2L
,
2EA
(6.6)
keeping in mind that F = k and that the stiffness k of an axial truss member
is equal to k = EA
. For an entire truss structure, the energy becomes the
L
summation over the individual contributions of each member:
n
X
Fi2 Li
U=
2Ei Ai
i=1
(6.7)
where n is the number of truss members in the truss structure. This equation
assumes the properties like cross-section, length and Youngs modulus to be
constant over the truss member.
If we apply Castiglianos theorem to the above expressions, we obtain an
expression for the displacement in the direction of a certain applied force P
(do not confuse with the internal forces F ):
n
X Fi dFi Li
dU
dP
=
=
.
dP
E
i Ai
i=1
(6.8)
i
The quantity dF
is how the internal force in truss member i changes if
dP
the external loading P changes. This is also denoted with the symbol fi :
X Fi fi Li
dU
=
.
dP
E
A
i
i
i=1
(6.9)
6.2
Displacement Design
6.3. Example
42
Ei Ai
Fn fn Ln
= 0 .
En An
(6.10)
6.3
Example
B
x
fAB
ax
fAC
1
cx
fBC
fBC
fAB
fAC
cy
X
X
LBC
LAB
LAC
fAB
.
LAB
Fx+ : 0 = ax + fAB
Fy+ : 0 = fAC
(6.11)
(6.12)
LBC
LAB
LAC
: 0 = 1 + fAB
.
LAB
Fy+
(6.13)
(6.14)
Fx+ : 0 = cx + fBC
(6.15)
Fy+ : 0 = cy + fAC .
(6.16)
Solution of the six equations simultaneously yields the following expressions for the unknowns:
LBC
LAB
LBC
LBC
, cx =
, cy = 1, fAB =
, fAC = 1, fBC =
ax =
LAC
LAC
LAC
LAC
(6.17)
Note that the reaction forces are indeed the ones we predicted, which gives
confidence that our solution is correct indeed. Note furthermore that the
i
indeed. The minus sign comes from the opposite
dummy forces fi are dF
dP
signs of P and the dummy load.
If then equation 6.8 is applied, and assuming lengths LAC and LBC are
equal to L (to simplify the resulting expression), we obtain for the vertical
displacement:
6.3. Example
44
P 2(1 + 2)L
=
.
(6.18)
EA
Since we chose the dummy load to be positive upwards, the resulting
displacement is negative, since node B will displace downwards under the
applied load P . Verify this by inspection.
Assume we prescribe the vertical displacement, positive upwards according to the dummy load direction, to be 0 . All geometric values are known,
except the cross-sectional area AAC . The other cross-sectional areas are all
equal to A. Determine that value in order the displacement to be 0 .
!
FAC L
FBC L FAB 2L
0 =
+
+
.
(6.19)
EAAC
EA
EA
The unknown can now be solved as:
AAC =
P LA
A E 0 (2 2 + 1)P L
(6.20)
Chapter 7
Displacement Analysis and
Design of Statically
Determinate Beams
In this chapter, we consider the calculation of beam displacements and rotations at selected points. This is done, as explained before for trusses, by
applying the unit load method. Again, we restrict ourselves to beams in the
x-z plane subject to lateral loading.
If it is desired to calculate the displacement at a certain point p, we
apply a unit later force at p. The direction of the unit load is arbitrary (it
can be pointing up or down). It must be kept in mind that the displacement
calculated will be in the direction of the load. Thus, a negative displacement
means that the actual sense of the displacement is opposite to that of the
unit load. Similarly, if it is desired to calculate the beam rotation at a certain
point, we apply a unit moment at this point.
The bending moment distribution due to the application of the unit load
(force or moment) is denoted by my (x). Then, the displacement (or rotation)
at the given point in the direction of the unit load is given by,
Z
=
my (x)My (x)
dx,
EI(x)
(7.1)
beam
7.1. Example
46
n
(i) (i)
X
m
y M
y
i=1
EI (i)
dx,
(7.2)
where,
(7.3)
(i)
7.1
Example
m(x) = 1
(7.5)
ZL
(L x2 )dx =
q0 L3
6EI
(7.6)
Check this expression with the basic mechanics expression for a tip rotation of a beam loaded under a distributed load.
q0
1
A
7.1. Example
48
Chapter 8
Analysis of Statically
Indeterminate Trusses
In previous chapters, statically determinate trusses have been discussed. Also
the way to determine whether a structure is determinate or indeterminate
and the degree of indeterminacy is explained. This basically breaks down to
checking whether the number of available equilibrium equations is equal to
the number of unknown forces in the system. If that is the case, then the
structure is statically determinate. If not, the number of missing equations
indicates the degree of indeterminacy. A structure can be indeterminate
for several reasons. Trusses are often indeterminate for redundancy reasons,
meaning that additional truss member are added to the structure in case
another member would fail. This makes the stress analysis of trusses more
complex since additional equations need to be formulated in order to solve
for all unknowns. Such equations can be formulated as displacement compatibility equations, as will be explained next.
8.1
Displacement Compatibility
50
=
Pi
Pi
F1
F1cut
F2
F3
F3 f1cut
F2cut
F3 f2cut
unit F
loads 3
51
det =
X F cut f cut Li
i
Ei Ai
(8.1)
Ei Ai
(8.2)
(8.3)
Note that in the above equation, the only unknown is the indeterminate
force F3 . If the value for that force is known, the internal force distribution is
defined. It can be seen from equation 8.3 that the force F3 is a function of the
geometric parameters such as cross-sectional areas and Youngs moduli. This
means that if the geometry changes, the internal force distribution is altered
as well. It is important to keep this in mind when designing an indeterminate
structure.
8.2
8.3. Example
52
8.3
Example
Consider the six bar truss shown in figure 8.3. This statically indeterminate
square truss with length L = 1000 mm is loaded by a force P = 1500 N which
is applied vertically in downward direction at node C. The cross-sectional
areas of the truss members are the same and equal to 15 mm2 . The Youngs
modulus is 200 GP a.
B
FAD
FAD
A
C
L
E
200 103
200 103
200 103
200 103
200 103
200 103
A
15
15
15
15
15
15
L
1000
1000
1414
1414
1000
1000
Fsd
-1500
-1500
0
2121
0
0
f
-0.7071
-0.7071
1.0
1.0
-0.7071
-0.7071
sd
5.0000 104
5.0000 104
0
7.0710 104
0
0
f L
0.354
0.354
0.0
1
0
0
1.707
f 2 L/EA
1.667 104
1.667 104
4.714 104
4.714 104
1.667 104
1.667 104
1.609 103
53
(8.4)
E
200 103
200 103
200 103
200 103
200 103
200 103
A
15
15
15
15
15
15
L
1000
1000
1414
1414
1000
1000
F
f
-750
-1
-750
-1
-1061
0
1061 1.414
750
0
750
0
2.500 104
2.500 104
3.536 104
3.536 104
2.500 104
2.500 104
f L
0.250
0.250
0.0
0.707
0
0
1.207
8.3. Example
54
Chapter 9
Analysis of Statically
Indeterminate Beams
In the previous chapter, statically indeterminate trusses have been discussed.
Obviously, beams can be indeterminate as well. The reason why beams are
indeterminate is because of redundancy reasons as well, or often supporting
truss members are connected to beams to restrict displacements or redistribute stresses yielding lighter designs for the beam. Just as for trusses, this
makes the stress analysis of the beam more complex, since the number of
available equilibrium equations is smaller than the number of internal forces
and moments that need to be solved for. Therefore displacement compatibility equations need to be formulated, which will make the internal force and
moment distribution dependent on the structures geometry.
The principle of static indeterminacy and analysis is basically the same
as for trusses. This is discussed in the previous chapter. However, there
are certain differences, as already highlighted in the chapters on statically
determinate trusses and beams. The main issue is that beams, apart from
axial forces, can also take bending moments. This extends the principle of
displacement compatibility of beams to displacement and rotation compatibility.
9.1
56
should yield the same result. This can be a convenient way of checking
the correctness of the solution.
Identify the displacement and rotation compatibility at the locations
where the statically indeterminate forces and moments have been removed. At those locations, calculate the displacements and rotations
in the direction of the released forces using the dummy load method.
Next calculate the displacements and rotations, again in the aforementioned directions, due to the released forces and moments.
Sum up all individual displacements and rotation and equate them
to zero. Obtain an equation for each displacement and rotation that
needs to be compatible. As such, you will get as many equations as
unknowns, which should be a solvable system of equations.
In case of beams, it is convenient to use the principle of flexibility coefficients. This technique is highlighted in the following section.
9.2
Flexibility Coefficients
fBA
fAA
57
P1
P2
B
P1
||
P2
B
1xRB
A
fBBRB
fCBRB
1xRC
fBCRC
fCCRC
(9.1)
(9.2)
9.3
Example
9.3. Example
58
q0
B
A
=
q0
B
A
+
q0
B
A
RB
(9.4)
59
q0 L4
+ fBB RB .
(9.5)
8EI
By adding the sign, we assume the force RB to be acting in the downward
direction. Try to figure out yourself why. The solution of this equation gives
the expression for the unknown force RB :
0=
3
RB = q0 L.
(9.6)
8
Note the minus sign, indicating that the force RB acts in the opposite
than defined, meaning the force points upwards, which is consistent with the
physical problem.
9.3. Example
60
Chapter 10
Analysis of Statically
Indeterminate Plates
The analysis of plates is rather intricate, as already indicated in the chapter
on statically determinate plates. Only in exceptional cases of uniaxial or
biaxial stress states, analytical methods can offer a way out. In this chapter,
it is explained how internal stresses in plates can be calculated for indeterminate plates. Again, just as in the case of trusses and beams, displacement
compatibility is the key to solving the stress state.
As a start, we consider a statically determinate plate. If a square plate of
length L and thickness t is loaded in x-direction with a force P , the resulting
P
stress in that direction is x = Lt
, and according to Hookes law, the strain
P
is x = ELt
. Due to the Poisson effect, which accounts for the fact that a
plate shrinks in a direction perpendicular to the loading direction, the strain
in the transverse direction is y = x . is the Poisson ratio, with has a
typical value of around 0.3 for metals. Note that the stress in the transverse
direction remains zero.
10.1
Let us first consider a simple biaxial stress state plate, which is given in figure
10.1.
Obviously there is a stress in x-direction due to the applied force P ,
but because of both side restraints on the plate, there is normal stress in
y-direction as well due to the constraint force Ry . The displacement in xdirection is defined as:
x =
PL
Ry
,
Ewt
Et
61
(10.1)
62
Ry
Ry
10.2
Multimaterial Plates
63
P
L
Al
Brass
wa
wb
wa
Al
Al
Brass
Al
y
wa
wb
wa
Figure 10.2: Indeterminate multimaterial plates (left: one statically indeterminate force, right: two statically indeterminate forces)
64
Chapter 11
Actuated Structures
Linear actuation can be achieved through various means. A simple example
is the change in length of bars under thermal actuation (sometimes referred
to as thermal load). Hydraulic and pneumatic cylinders, which work with
pressurised liquids and gases respectively, are the most common commercially
available linear actuators. A more modern version of similar devices are the
electrically actuated active material systems such as piezoelectric devices.
While we consider temperature as an actuation, the methods presented
here are also applicable for the practically important case of thermal loading.
For many aerospace structures such as launchers, reentry vehicles and engines, structural components are subject to elevated temperatures that lead
to considerable stresses and deformations. The stress and deflection analysis of thermally loaded structures follows the same methodology as thermal
actuation.
11.1
Thermal Actuation
A bar with a uniform cross section A will change its length due to a uniform
applied change in the temperature T . The change in length is linearly
proportional to the temperature change, as shown in figure 11.1. Typically
this relation is represented in terms of thermal strain, and is given by the
relation,
T = T.
(11.1)
where is the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE). This is a special one
dimensional case of a more general three dimensional description of thermal
expansion, and is sometimes called linear coefficient of thermal expansion. In
general, application of the thermal field would also generate strain in other
65
66
directions (like in the cross-sectional expansion of a bar), but for the time
being we will ignore that for one-dimensional bars.
11.2
Piezoelectric Actuation
(11.2)
67
V
.
t
(11.3)
11.3
More than often, the actuators described above will have to operate under
mechanical loads acting on the members. In this section we will assume that;
68
the entire bar is made of a material that will be actuated, the cross sectional
area of the bar is uniform A, the modulus is E , and the bar is under the
action of an axial load F . Also, for simplicity, we will consider the thermal
case only; the piezoelectric case being similar.
Under the action of combined thermal and mechanical load, the strain
that the active member will experience is the superposition of the strains
due to the thermal load and the mechanical loads,
= T + M
(11.5)
The mechanical part of the strain, M , is the one responsible for the
generation of mechanical stress, thus,
= EM ,
(11.6)
where E is Youngs modulus of the material. The stress in the member can
be expressed as,
F
= .
(11.7)
A
The strain in the member is,
= T +
F
.
EA
(11.8)
Clearly, when the applied external force is zero then the total strain of the
actuator is force free (M = 0) and is equal to the T .
The other extreme case is when the expansion of the bar is completely
restrained ( = 0). In this case, the corresponding force is called the blocked
force, Fb , which can be computed by setting = 0 in 11.8 to obtain,
Fb = E T A,
(11.9)
(11.10)
69
11.4
11.5
Example
(11.12)
11.5. Example
70
FAD
FAD
A
C
L
E
200 103
200 103
200 103
200 103
200 103
200 103
A
15
15
15
15
15
15
L
1000
1000
1414
1414
1000
1000
Fsd
-1500
-1500
0
2121
0
0
f
-0.7071
-0.7071
1.0
1.0
-0.7071
-0.7071
sd
5.0000 104
5.0000 104
0
7.0710 104
0
0
f L
0.354
0.354
0.0
1
0
0
1.707
E
200 103
200 103
200 103
200 103
200 103
200 103
A
15
15
15
15
15
15
L
1000
1000
1414
1414
1000
1000
F
-750
-750
-1061
1061
750
750
-1
2.500 104
-1
2.500 104
0
3.536 104
1.414 3.536 104
0
2.500 104
0
2.500 104
f L
0.250
0.250
0.0
0.707
0
0
1.207
f 2 L/EA
1.667 104
1.667 104
4.714 104
4.714 104
1.667 104
1.667 104
1.609 103
71
1.9 105
1.9 105
1.9 105
1.9 105
1.9 105
1.9 105
E
200 103
200 103
200 103
200 103
200 103
200 103
A
15
15
15
15
15
15
L
1000
1000
1414
1414
1000
1000
T
0
0
0
1
0
0
f
-0.7071
-0.7071
1.0
1.0
-0.7071
-0.7071
sd
0
0
0
1.9 105
0
0
f L
0
0
0
0.0269
0
0
0.0269
f 2 L/EA
1.667 104
1.667 104
4.714 104
4.714 104
1.667 104
1.667 104
1.609 103
(11.13)
E
200 103
200 103
200 103
200 103
200 103
200 103
A
15
15
15
15
15
15
L
1000
1000
1414
1414
1000
1000
F
f
11.81
-1
11.81
-1
-16.7
0
-16.7 1.414
11.81
0
11.81
0
3.935 106
3.935 106
5.565 106
1.344 106
3.935 106
3.935 106
f L
3.935 103
3.935 103
0.0
2.687 102
0
0
0.019
(11.14)