UNIT 7 PILE FOUNDATIONS

Structure
7.1 Introduction
Objectives

7.2 Conditions Suitable for Piles

7.3 Soil Properties and Mobilisation of Resistance
7.4 Types of Piles
7.4.1 Classification Based on Funcaon
7.4.2 Class~ficationBased on Material
7.4.3 Classification Based on Installation Method
7.4.4 Classification Based on Soil Displacement

7.5 Installation of Piles

7.5.1 Driven Piles
7.5.2 Bored Piles

7.6 Carrying Capacity of Piles Using Soil Properties

7.6.1 Driven Piles
7.6.2 Bored Piles

7.7 Dynamic Pile Driving Formulae

7.8 Penetration Resistance Tests
7.9 Pile Load Tests

7.11 Uplift Resistance

7.12 Negative Skin Friction
7.13 Lateral Capacity
7.14 Summary
7.15 Answers to SAQs

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Situations are encountered in the field when the upper soil levels have a very low bearing
capacity or when the column loads are very large. Footings in these cases may cxcupy a
large percentage of the area beneath the structure and may not be economical or safe. Pile
foundations are adopted in these cases. Piles are relatively long and slender members that
are used to transmit foundation loads through soils of low bearing capacity to deeper
stronger soil or rock. They are also sometimes used to resist heavy uplift forces lateral
forces.
The piles carry the load through friction generated along the shaft and the tip resistance
due to end b-aring. If the tip of the piles rest on a strong stratum such as rock, derise sand
or gravel, a major portion of the load will he carried by the resistance developed at the
base of the pile. These piles are called 'End-Bearing Piles' or 'Point Bearing Piles'
(Figure 7.1). Sometimes, it is not possible to drive the pile to rest on a strong stratum at a
great depth a major portion of the carrying capacity will then be camed by the shaft
resistance due to adhesion developed between the embedded surface of the pile and
surrounding soil. Such piles are called 'Friction Piles9or 'Floating Piles'.
Piles are of marly types depending upon material, shapes and method of installation or
functional requirement. The decision to choose a proper type is based on the soil profile
and the structure type. Piles are generally placed in groups, the number in a cluster varying
from 2 to greater than 60. The piles in the group are joined by a reinforced concrete cap so
that the pile cluster can act as a unit. The general problem in the analysis of pile
foundation is that of determining the safe carrying capacity of a group and not the capacity
of a single pile.
Foundation Engineering -11

(a)Bearing Pile (b) Friction Pile

Figure 7.1
Objectives
This unit will enable you lo identify field conditions where pile foundations can be used
and give a description of different types of piles available. It will also help you in
calculating the load carrying capacity of single and group of piles.
By the end of the unit, you should be able to:
identify the situations when piles can be used,
. know the different types of piles available,
calculate the carrying capacity of single piles for different soil condition,
calculate the carrying capacity of group of piles, and
. methods of installation.

7.2 CONDITIONS SUITABLE FOR PILES

When do we use piles? We have already stated that area of footings may become very
large in some cases and may occupy a large percentage of area beneath the structure. An
example is worked out to give you a clear idea.
Example 7.1
A multi-storey building is supported by a 6 x 4 group of columns. Each column
carries a load of 200 kN. The allowable carrying capacity of the soil can be
assumed to be 100 k ~ l m ' .The spacing between columns is 3 m.
Solution
Load carried by each column . = P = 200 kN
Allowable carrying capacity of the soil (q) = 100 k ~ l m ~
Area of the footing required by each column (p/q)= 200/100 = 2 m2
Therc are 24 columns.
So number of footings required = 6 x 4 = 24
Total area of footings = 24 x 2 = 48 m2
Total area of the structure = (3 x 5)(3 x 4) = 180 m2(approximately)
Percentage area occupied = (481180) x 100 = 26.7
Since area of footings is less than 50 percent of total area, footings can be used.
Now let us assume, that the column loads are each 500 kN.
The total area of footings will be = (5001100)x 24 = 120 m2
The percentage area occupied by footings = (1201180) x 100 = 66.7
 In this case footings are not likely to be economical. Either pile or raft foundation Pile Foundaiionr I
has to be used.
Now suppose each column carries a load of 800 kN
Then the area of b e footings =(800/100) x 24 = 192 m2
This is greater than the area of the structure itself. Raft foundation is nobfeasible.
Only pile foundation or other deep foundations are possible.
You can see that sinlilar situation will prevail when the soil has a poor bearing capacity
resulting in a large area of shallow foundation.
A basic situation for,a pile foundation is where soft soil exists near the ground surface.
The pile foundation transmits the structure load through the soft soil to the firm strata
below as shown in Figure 7.1

SAQ 1
In a soil profile consisting of 4 in Ihick dense sand underlain by very soft clay to
great depth, piles 6 m length have been used to support a two-storey building. What
is your opinion regarding the choice'?

7.3 SOIL PROPERTIES AND MOBILISATION OF

RESISTANCE
You have to remember a condition that is unique to pile foundation- the disturbance of
the soil caused by pile installation. In footings, the soil in the active zone is generally not
affected by the consuuction activities as shown in Figure 7.2. Hence undisturbed soil
properties are used to determine the carrying capacity of the footing. But when a pile is
installed the soil is extensively disturbed during pile driving or drilling. Hence undisturbed
soil parameters cannot be used to compute the carrying capacity of piles. Normally, a
correction factor is applied to the undisturbed soil parameters to account for the
disturbance. Magnitude of the correction factor depends on the soil type and the method of
pile installation.

(a) Footing (b) Pile

Figure 7.2 :Soil Disturbance

Another factor that should be borne in your nlind is the fact that the tip resistance and shaft
resistance of the pile are not mobilised simultaneously. The frictional resistance is
mobilized at displacements of 0.5-2% of the pile diameter while deformations of 5 to 10%
of pile diameter of the pile tip is required to fully mobilise the base capacity. Figure 7.3
shows the resulls of a test performed on a 60 cm diameter, 10 m long pile installed in stiff
clay. The shaft capacity of 600 kN is mobilised at a displacement of 3 mm while the base
capacity of400 kN is mobilised at a displacement of 30 mm. You can see that if a factor of
$2.5is applied to the ultimate load of 1000 kN, more than 90% of the load is carried by the
Foundation Engineering -11

SHAFT
kN
BASE

SET T LEMENT, m m

Figure 7.3: Mobiiisation of Resistance

shaft at the working load of 400 kN.The mobilisation of resistance by friction and bearing
is important. You can select different combinations of diameter and length to carry a
particular load. The settlement of the pile will depend on the relative proportion of end
bearing and shaft resistance.
SAQ 2
i) A precast concrete pile is driven in
a) loose sand, and
b) stiff clay.
What soil disturbance do you expect in each case?
ii) Underreamed bored piles undergo larger settlement than straight shaft bored
piles. Do you agree with the statement?

7.4 TYPES OF PILES

The piles may be classified in a number of ways based on different criteria such as
i) Function
ii) Material
iii) Installation
iv) Soil Displacement
I
7.4.1 Classification Based on Function
Bearing piles are used to transfer the load to pile tip to a stronger stratum passing through
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weak soil or water.
Friction piles are used to transfer the load by means of skin friction developed along the
surface area of the pile.
Sheet piles are used as retaining structures and bulk heads.
Batter piles are inclined piles installed to resist horizontal or inclined forces.
Tension or uplift piles are used to resist uplift forces due to hydrostatic pressure or
overturnins! moment due to horizontal forces.
Compaction piles are used to compact granular soils to increase their bearing capacity.
They are not normally required to carry any load.
Anchor piles are used to provide anchorage against horizontal puli in a sheet pile.
Fender piles are used to protect water front structures against impact from ships.
 7.4.2 Classification Based on Material Pile Foundations

a) Timber Piles
Timber piles have been used since prehistoric times to support waterfront
structures. The normal length is about 8 m and the diameter 25 to 40 cm. Timber
piles perform very well in completely dry or fully submergt d conditions. Alternate
wetting and drying reduces the life of timber pile. Cresoting and other chemical
impregnation methods are adopted to protect the timber piles. Timber piles are
strapped with steel bands at the top to prevent splitting while driving. Excessive
driving may cause the separation of fibres at the tip. This can be controlled through
use of a metal shoe for the tip. The maximum carrying capacity will be about
150-250kN.
b) Steel Piles
Steel piles can be H piles or tube piles or box piles. They can be driven to great
depths and length can be easily increased by welding. Precautions have to be taken
against corrosion. Large diameter pipe piles are capable of resisting impact forces
efficiently. The carrying capacity will be about 1000-1100 kN.
I c) Concrete Piles
The piles can be precast driven piles, cast-insitu driven or bored piles.
C i) Precast Concrete Piles
These are normally of square section for short and moderate lengths but circular,
octagonal or hexagonal shapes with special type of joints are preferred for longer
lengths. The structural designof precast piles are governed by the need to provide
sufficient strength against the stresses caused by lifting and handling the piles and
subsequent driving of the piles. They are reinforced similar to columns. ?he piles
require space for casting and storage, time for curing and heavy driving equipment
for handling and driving. The quality of concrete can be inspected before it is
driven. The pile is stable in soft soil. But you have to bear the noise and vibration
caused during driving and they cannot be installed in sites of low head room.
ii) Cast-in-situ Driven Concrete Piles
These are available in a wide variety of proprietory types. They can be either
straight or tapered. Straight type is for end-bearing situation while tapered section is
pfeferred for friction. During installation a casing or shell with a mandrel at the
bottom is driven into the ground to the required length. After driving, the mandrel is
removed and the hollow casing filled with concrete. The casing is usually lifted and
removed during concreting. The length of the pile can be adjusted to suit varying
level of bearing stratum and it is possible to form enlarged bases. Precautions have
to be taken against necking or waisting in soft soils. They are not suitable when
artesian tlow is present and for river and marine structures.
iii) Bored Cast-in-situ Concrete Piles
For installing such piles holes are drilled and these are filled with concrete. These
'types of piles are now becoming more popular in India since heavy driving
equipment is not needed. The soil removed in boring can be inspected. They can be
installed in large diameters and great lengths. Noise and vibration is reduced. Bored
piles are also susceptible to squeezing and necking. Boring may loosen sandy and
1 gravclly soils thus resulting in loss of friction. Special precautions are to be taken to
prevent the holes from caving in soft soils and sands. In such cases casing pipes can
be used. Another method is to use bentonite slurry to support the pile walls.
d) Underreamed Bored Piles
Bored files with enlarged bases are also used in some special situations. These are
known as Underreamed Bored Piles and have been successfully used in India to
support single and two-storey buildings built on residual expansive soil.
e) Composite Piles
When yciu have a situation when the upper portion has to project above water, steel
and concrete or wood and concrete piles can be used. Lower portion below water
can be either of timber or steel while the upper portion can be of concrete.
7.4.3 Classification Based on Installation Method
The main types of piles based on installation in general, are as follows:
i) Driven Piles: Preformed units usually in timber, concrete or steel are driven
into the soil by the blows of a hammer.
ii) Driven and Cast-in-dtu Piles: These are formed by driving a tube with a
closed and into the soil and filling the tube with concrete.
iii) Jacked Piles: Steel or concrete piles jacked into the soil.
iv) Bored and Cast-inplace Piles: Bored and cast in place piles are formed by
boring a hole into the soil and then filled with concrete.
7.4.4 Classification Based on Soil Displacement
The disturbance to the soil during installation varies with the method. The driven piles and
jacked piles displace the soil as they are installed and are called Displacement Piles. In
loose sands, the displacement may compact the soil and increases the strength; however in
stiff clay, such installation may crack the soil and reduce the strength.
Bored piles are "Non-displacement" piles since soil is first removed by boring a hole into
which concrete isplaced. Frictional resistance is normally reduced by boring operation.
You have to remember the basic difference between displacement and non-displacement
piles when calculating carrying capacity.
SAQ 3
i) Match the following
a) Wooden Piles a) Handling Stresses
b) Steel Piles b) Necking and Waisting
C) Resent Concrete Piles C)Corrosion
d) Cast-in-situ Concrete Piles d) Wetting and Drying
ii) State whether the following statements are true or false
a) Bored pile is a displacement pile.
b) Underreamed bored pile is used in expansive soil.
c) Batter piles are inclined piles.

7.5 INSTALLATION OF PILES

The piles can be installed by thumping the pile by a pile hammer or by boring a hole and
filling it with concrete. The methods are described in the following sections.
7.5.1 Driven Piles
The oldest method of driving the pile is to allow a hammer to fall freely on the head of the
pile. This method of lifting the hammer or pile driver and dropping it on pile to drive it is
still very popular. A simple A-frame with winches and motor to lift the hammer is usually
used. Pile frames mounted on standard tracked crane bases offer more mobility on land
sites (Figure 7.4). Attached to the boom are the leaders. The leaders are two parallel steel
channels extending for the full height of the frame and guide the pile and the hammer as
the pile is driven into the ground. The leaders are braced against the crane with a stay
which can be adjusted to permit driving of batter piles. A steam generator or air
compressor is required for steam hammers.
The driving rig should be able to guide the pile accurately. It must be sufficiently rugged
and rigid to keep the pile and hammer in alignment and plumb inspite of wind and
movement of pile and hammer.
Most pile hammers require the use of helmets or pile caps to distribute the force of the
blow more evenly over the pile head. A cushion consisting of a bed of resilient material
such as wood, fibre or micarta is interposed between the pile head and pile cap, as the top
portion of pile cap.

A MMER LEAD

LEADS

I I
PILE

I
LJ
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(a) Crane Rig (b) Sectional Plan of Leads
-
Figure 7.4: Pile Driver Crwler Rig

The following types of pile hammers are generally used in the fields.
i) Drop Hammers
These are solid masses of forged steel weighing 10 kN to 50 kN fitted with lugs for
sliding in the guide. The height of drop varies from 1.5 m to 2.5 m; but it is difficult
to control the drop. This is a slow process and used for small jobs.
ii) Single Acting Hammers
These comprise a massive weight in the form of a cylinder. Steam or compressed
air admitted to the cylinder raises it up the piston rod. At the top of the stroke steam
is cut off and the hammer falls on the top of the pile helmet. The height of drop and
frequency of each individual stroke can be controlled by the operator. The height of
the drop is about 60-90 cm and the operation rate about (60strokes per minute. The
weight of the hammer is usually equal to the weight of the pile. However, heavier
hammers with smaller drops are more effective than lighter hammers with larger
drops.
iii) Double Acting Steam Hammer
These are used to impart a rapid succession of blows to the pile. Steam or air
pressure lifts the ram and accelerates it downward. The rate of driving ranges from
100-250 blows per minute and the weight of hammer from 10 to 25 kN. The blows
follow in rapid succession, keeping the pile in continuous motion. Thus, the effect
of impact and damage to pile head is reduced.
iv) Diesel Hammers
These hammers are self contained, economical and simple; but they are not
effective in all types of soils. In this type the moveable ram is raised-initially by
outside means. When released, falls on an impact block or anvil which itself rests
on the pile. The falling ram compresses the air and this raises the temperature. The
impact vapourises a pool of diesel oil. The instantaneous expansion of gases gives
an additional kick to the pile and raises the ram for the next downstroke. The energy
imparted is difficult to evaluate and varies with the resistance offered to the pile.
They are ineffective in soft soils when the impact of the blow is not sufficient to
vapourize the fuel.
v) Vibratory Hammers
These consist of a unit with eccentric weights mounted on shafts rotated in different
directions. Electric motors rotate the shaft at about 700-2000 vibrations per minute.
Foundation Engineering -11 A resonant condition is created and pile penetrates into me grvlulu WIUI a l l l r u l
driving force. The hammers will not be effective in cohesive soils and when
boulders are encountered in sandy soils. They are effective in cohesionless soils.
7.5.2 Bored Piles
Spiral auger or bucket auger rotary drilling machines are now effectively used for
installing large diameter bored piles in a wide range of soils. Bentonite slurry in
conjunction with bucket auger have eliminated the problem of caving of holes during
drilling in soft clays and sands and the use of casing is thus avoided. Machines are now
available to drill holes upto a length of 70 m and diameter of 4.0 m.
In ground where mechanical augering is not possible, percussion boring rigs can be used.
Percussion boring rigs have been used in water bearing sands and gravels, bouldery clays
and soft clays.
The under reams for the bored piles are achieved by a bailing bucket rotated by the drill
rods. The arms of the underreamer may be hinged either at the top or at the bottom. The
top hiriged underream creates a more stable conical underream while the bottom hinged
arm gives a less stable hemispherical bulb.
SAQ 4
i) Why are diesel hammers not suitable in soft soil?
ii) Why is bentonite slurry used to install bored piles?

7.6 CARRYING CAPACITY OF PILES USING SOIL

PROPERTIES
We have already seen that the carrying capacity of piles Q, consists of two components-
,
frictional resistance along the shaft of the pile Q , and the end bearing resistance, Q,,.
Qt = Q, + Qb . . . (7.1)
This can be written as
Qt = Q p f + A , 4, . . . (7.2)
where % = area of pile shaft
f = average shear or frictional resistance along the shaft,
A, = area of pile, and
q, = end bearing resistance.
If you refer to Figure 7.1, you can see
Q, = 7 ~ ~d f + ( ~ : q ~ % ) ~ b
where, d = diameter of the pile, and
L = length of the pile.
For a square pile
Q, = cNc + y D, Nq + 0.4 ByNy
where, N,, N,, Ny = appropriate bearing capacity factors
c = undrained cohesive strength
y = appropriate effective unit weight
In cohesive soil the shaft capacity of a friction pile will often amount to 90% of its
capacity. In non-cohesive soil or where the pile is underreamed, the overall capacity will
be more evenly divided between shaft and base.
7.6.1 Driven Piles Pile Foundations
Cohesive Soils
Friction piles driven through a clay stratum develop adhesion with surrounding clay. The
adhesion is not necessarily equal to the cohesion of the soil since driving a pile into the
cohesive soil alters the physical characteristics of the soil. The adhesion frequently
increases with' time and it is usual to expect greater resistance after the pile has developed
a 'set' within several days to a week after driving. The adhesion ca is expressed as a
function of clay's cohesion as seen in Table 7.1.
ca = a c, . . . (7.5)
Note that the magnitude of adhesion factor decreases with increasing strength. The
cohesive strength can be estimated from unconfined compression tests.
The end bearing resistance for clays can be written as
% = cuN~Ab . . . (7.6)
The value of Nc is normally taken as 9. Hence the ultimate carrying capacity of driven pile
in clay is
Q, = a c , 1 c d ~ + c , ~ , 7 ~ d 2 / 4 . . . (7.7)
A factor of safety of 2-3 is used to calculate the design capacity
Table 7.1: Adhesion Factor for Clay

SI. No. Material of pile Consistency Cohesion Adhesion Factor

of clay k ~ ~ m ~ a
1) Wood and concrete Soft 0-35 0.90-1 .OO

2) do Medium 35-70 0.60-0.90

3) do Stiff 70-140 0.15-0.60

For further detals on adhes~onfactor refer IS : 291 1.

Example 7.2
A round pile 30 cm diameter is driven to a depth of 21 m in a deep deposit of clay
having an unconfined strength of 90 kN per sq.m. as shown in Figure 7.5 What is
the design carrying capacity?
Solution
Unconfined strength q, = 90 W1sq.m.
cU = qu/2= 45 kN1sq.m Tt? 21 rn q= 9 0 kpa

Adhesion factor (from Table 7.1) = 0.81

Shaft Resistance Q, = 0.81 x 45 x 0.5 x 21 = 722 kN
Bearing Resistance 45 x 9 x 7~ I4 x 0 1 3 =
~ 29 kN
Ultimate carrying capacity = 722 + 29 = 751 kN
Design carrying capacity = 75113 = 250 kN
Note that the tip resistance is relatively small compared to shaft resistance. It is generally
neglected.
11 Figure 7 5

Cohesionless Soils
The s k h friction resistance per unit area on the pile shaft is given by the general
expression.

where, k = earth pressure coefficient,

p, = average effective overburden pressure, and
6 = angle of wall friction.
Table 7.2 gives the values of 6 and k for various materials.
 Foundation Engineering Table 7.2 : Values of &inandValue for Various Conditions

Pile Material in deg. Value of K 4 High RD

Low RD
Steel 20 0.5 1 .o

2.0

1 - p-
Wood- -- p
1
- -
213 -
1 -
1.5 4.0

Equation 7.8 implies that unit skin friction increases with increasing depth. However, it
has been observed that unit skin friction does not increase beyond a critical length LC.The
critical length varies from 15 d for the relative density of the sand less than 30 percent to
20 d for relative density greater than 70 percent.
The end bearing resistance of a square pile Q, driven in sand can be written as
Qb = pdNq + 0.4 By Ny . . . (7.9)
h e second term can be generally neglected as it is relatively small.
The bearing capacity factor N, can be obtained from the values given by Berzantsav
(Figure 7.6). From the Tables and Equation 7.9, it is seen that the end bearing capacity
increases with increasing length and increasing density. But observations indicate that at a
depth of 10-30 diameters, the maximum base resistance is reached and it is about 11000
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kIV/m2.Generally, if the pile is driven to refusal in dense sand or gravel, compressive
strength of concrete governs the carrying capacity and not the bearing capacity of soil.
I
The ultimate carrying capacity of a pile driven in sand can be written as

A factor of safety of 2.0 to 2.5 is used to estimate the design load.

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Figure 7.6: Bearing Capacity Factors Berezantsev

You have to bear in mind that in sand there are uncertainties regarding the values of K and
6. Hence load tests are recommended to confirm the calculated values.
Example 7.3
A 40 cm diameter precast concrete pile is driven to a depth of 15 m in a deep
deposit of sand. The ground water table is at a depth of 4 m below ground level.
The angle of shearing resistance of sand is 34". The dry unit weight of sand is
17 kN/m3 and the submerged unit weight 11 kN/m3. Estimate the design carrying
capacity.
Solution
Assume critical length as 20 d = 20 x 0.4 = 8 m
The vertical stress distribution is as shown in Figure7.7.
 Pile Foundations '

Figure 7.7

(p,) 4 m = 17 x 4 = 68 kN1sq.m
( & ) 8 m = 6 8 + l l x 4 = 112kN/m2
Let us assume k = 1.5
= 314 x 34 = 25.5"
x 0.4 x 4 + 1.5
'
The frictional resistance = 1.5 x (68/2) x tan 2 5 . 5 ~
x 0 . 4 4~ + 1.5 x 122 x tan 25.5 x 0.4 x 7
x ((68+112)/2)tan 25.5.~~
= 122+324+705 = 1151kN.
Bearing capacity factor Nq = 60 (from Figure 7.5)
End bearing resistance = 122 x 60 x 7114 x 0.43 = 920 kN
Ultimate carrying capacity = 115 1 + 920 = 2071 kN
Allowable capacity = 207112.5 = 829 kN
Note that the shaft resistance and end bearing resistance are of similar magnitudes.

7.6.2 Bored Piles

Cohesionless Soils
The method of installation of piles plays an important part in selecting soil parameters.
The sand may be losened by the installing operation. If bentonite slurry is used along with
spiral auger, the frictional resistance of sand can be taken to be the same as that of dry
sand. However, the coefficient of earth pressure K is normally taken as 1.O.
You may refer to the text books on the subject for additional information on Bored Piles in
cohesionless soils.
Cohesive Soils
Bored piles are idealy suited for stiff cohesive soils and substrata containing gravel and
boulders. The adhesion factor varies from 0.3 to 1.0 as per IS 291 1. So shaft resistance
'Q,' is

The end bearing resistance is given by

Q=cN,A, 8

where, N, = 9 when DIB = > 2.5

Normally a factor of safety of 3 is required.
Foundation Engineering -11 Example 7.4
A straight shaft bored pile 1.0 m diameter is installed in a deep deposit of clay as
shown in Figure 7.8. Its length is 12 m. The unconfined compressive strength is 120
kN per sq.m. Calculate the design capacity.

TJ?:
Solution

Design capacity = 144213 = 4.31 kN

qU=120 k p a Underreamed Bored Piles
Underreamed bored piles are now commonly used in stiff clays since equipments are
available to construct bulbs. The diameter of the underream normally varies from 2 to 3
times that of the shaft.
In calculating shaft resistance the portion of the underream is excluded. Also, twice the
height of shaft diameter above the bell is neglected since it will not contribute to skin
Figure 7.8 friction due to downward movement. Sometime top 1.0 m of the shaft is also excluded as
it may lose contact with the soil due to shrinkage.
Thebearing capacity factor Nc for calculating bearing resistance is taken as

However N, should not be greater than 9.

Example 7.5
An underreamed bored pile with a shaft diameter of 1.0 m and bell diameter of 2.5
m is installed in a deep deposit of clay as shown in Fogire 7.10. The length of pile is
12 m. The unconfined compressive strength of clay is !20 kN per sq.m. Calculate
the design capacity.

CLAY
0 kpa

r% 0.5 m
H
2.5 m

Figure 7.9

Solution
Assume an angle of 60' for the underream.
The length of underream = 0.5 m
Effective length = 12 - 0.5 - 2 x 1 - 1
= 8.5 m
Frictional resistance = 0.45 x 60 x 1 x 8.5
= 721 kN
Nc = 6.0 (1 + 0.2 (1212.5)) = 11.76
Take N, = 9
 End bearlng resistance = 60 x 9 x 7c x 774
= 3819 kN
Q, = 3819 + 721 = 4540 kN
Allowable load = 454013 = 1514 kN

SAQ 5
I) Calculate the proportion of shaft frictional resistance Q, and bearing
resistance Qb to the total resistance Qf in Examples 7.2 to 7.5.
ii) Which type of pile will have the lowest deformation for a particular load ?
Indicate method of installation and pile type.

7.7 DYNAMIC PILE DRIVING FORMULAE

Pile driving formulae have been used for decades to calculate carrying capacity of piles.
They attempt to obtain a relation between its carrying capacity and its driving resistance.
Driving resistance is expressed as cm of penetration per.harnmer blow. This may vary
from 30 rnm/lO blows for easy driving to 15 rnm1lO blows.
The basic assumption in pile driving formulae is that the kinetic energy delivered by the
pile hammer is transferred to the pile and the soil. Useful work is accomplished by forcing
the pile into the soil against its dynamic resistance.
The basic equation can be written as
WnH = Qu S + Losses . . . (7.14)
where, Wh = weight of hammer,
H = height of fall of hammer,
n = efficiency of hammer,
Q, = ultimate capacity of the pile, and
.r = penetration or set of the pile per blow.
Energy losses include those due to elastic compression of the pile, soil, pile cap and
cushion. Also, energy is lost in the impact. There are a number of dynamic pile driving
formulae in use. Each of them follow different approaches to calculate energy losses.
Hence, thc values given by the formulae differ wldely.
You can write Equation (7.14) as
w , , =~ eUs+eu . . . (7.15)
where, c is the recoverable compression of pile, pile cushlon and soil.
Hiley's formulae is commonly used to calculate carrying capacity of pile. The recoverable
compression is written as
c = c, + c2 + c3 . ..(7.16)

c, = elastic shortening of

c, = elastic shortening of cushion=

C, = 0.5 percent of pile diameter.

where, t , = thickness of cushion,
A = area of cross-section, and
E = n~otlulus ol' claslicity.
The efficiency is given by
'(k (Wn+ e2 wpJ(Wn+ W,)) . . . (7.17)
where, Wp = weight of pile, and
e = coefficient of restitution.
Table 7.3 gives the values of parameters for pile driving formulae. IS code gives a slightly
different version of Hileys formulae. A factor of safety of 3 to 4 is advocated when
Hiley's formulae is used.
Table 7.3: Values for Parameter for Pile Driving Formulae
Type of Hammer Power Etliciency k
Drop hammer (triggerd type) 1.0
Steam or compressed air hammer 0.9
Drop hammer (winch operated) 0.8
Diesel Hammer 0.7 - 0.8
I I I I

Cushion Type Coefficient of Restitution Young's Modulus

e E, N I ~ ~
Micarta Plastic 0.8 3 1 03%
1

Green hearr oak 0.5 3x102%

Other Timber

Engineering News formulae is widely used in the field.

It is written as
Q, = Wh H / ( s + c) . . . (7.18)
where, s = average set for last 5 blows for drop hammer and for last 20 blows of steam
hammer, and
c = 2.5 cm for drop hammer.
= 0.25 cm for steam hammer
A factor of safety of 6 is used for Engineering News formulae.
Uncertainties in the values of k and various components of c can lead to wide variations in
the deduced pile resistance. Also, the characteristics of the cushion and the hammer may
vary significantly after a few hours driving. So piles having the same set at the beginning
of the pile driving operations and at the end may have widely differing capacities.
Example 7.6
The following field data were taken when a pile was at its specified depth. A single
acting steam hammer was used. The weight of hammer was 25 kN and the height of
fall was 90 cm. The set was 0.6 cm per blow for the last 20 blows. What is the safe
load as per Engineering News Formula?
Solution

Qs
-- -
= F.S.
r)
Q, = (25 X 9040.6 + 0.25) = 2647 kN

- = 441 LN

7.8 PENETRATION RESISTANCE TESTS

Static Cone Penetration tests and Standard Penetration tests are now extensively used to
determine unit skin friction resistance and end bearing capacity. In cohesionless soils they
are given reliable values.
The ultimate shaft resistancef for displacement piles is given by
 where q, = average cone resistance over the entire shaft in kg/sq.cm .
For steel H piles
1 .f = (Qc4
If standard penetration test results are available.
,f = 2N for displacement piles
.f = N for steel H piles
,/ in kN per sq.m
The ultimate end bearing resistance q, can be taken as equal to q,, the static cone
resistance itself. Van der weel recommends the average cone resistance to be taken over a
depth of 3D above and D below the tip. Nordlund suggests an average of values of 3D
above and 2D below the tip (Figure 7.10).

Figure 7.10 :End Bearing Values from SPT Tests

Relationship between unit cohesion c, and static cone penetration resistance can be stated
as
Q,/18 < c < Q l 1 5 for Q, < 2000 kN1sq.m . . . (7.22)
Q,/22 < c < Q l 2 6 for Q, > 2500 kN1sq.m

7.9 PILE LOAD TESTS

Plle load tests are invariably conducted on all major projects to check the values of
carrying capacity used in the design. Load test on a pile gives valuable mformation
regarding pile hehaviour and its approximate carrying capacity. It can be conducted on a
working pile or test pile installed for the purpose. The failure load on a pile is clearly
defined if the pile abruptly fails. However, if the displacement goes on increasing with
deformation, empirical rules have to be followed to determine the &sign load based on
b coda1 provisions.
The pile load test is usually made by driving three piles in a row. The centre to centre
spacing will vary from 1.8 m to 3.6 m. The two outer piles serve as anchor piles. A strong
beam or a frame 1s fixed to the anchor pile (Figure 7.1 1). The centre pile is the test pile. It
is jacked into the ground by a hydraulic jack placed between the top of the test pile and the
beam. The final load which is normally 1.5 to 2.0 times the design load is reached in about
5 to 8 equal increments. The load incremcrll~u~rr ,itions are recorded and
p l l c pen@[[
plotted. Measurement of settlement i s by dtal gauges. Each increment of load is
maintained till the rate of settlemcnn rc 0.25 mm per hour. The final load is maintained for
24 hours. Care should be taken 1s gce that measurements are made with reference to a
fixed mark outside the zone dial could be affected by pile movements. The procedure
given by relevant IS code 29 1 1 followed.
Jacking can also be done against a box or platform supported by suitable means and filled
with earth, rubble or concrete.
 KENTLE DGE

NAULIC JACK
DIAL
G AUGE

I
L..-
3+-PILE ,,
-CLAMPS ON PILE
O AUGE LJ
Figure 7.11 :Pile Load Test

Two types of load penetration curves are shown in Figure 7.12. The failure load can be
immediately determined in curve A. However you have to resort to code provisions to
determine the design load carrying capacity in curve B.
LOAD, kN

Figure 7.12 :Results of Pile Load Tests

The allowable load on the single' pile may be obtained as one of the following as per IS
code.
i) 50% of the ultimate load at which the total settlement is equal to one tenth
the diameter of the pile.
ii) Two thirds of the load which causes a total settlement of 12 11lm.
iii) Two thirds of the load which causes a net seitlement of 6 rnm (total
settlement minus elastic settlement).

7.10 PILE GROUPS

We have already stated that structures are not founded on a single pile. It is not strictly
true. Since bored piles are of large diameter, single piles are used to support a column.
Generally, piles are driven in groups which are then capped so as to transmit the load ot
the structure to the pile group and the supporting soil. Our task is to relate the cluster's
capacity to the capacity of an individual pile within it. The bearing capacity of a pile group
is not necessarily the capacity of individual pile multiplied by the number of plles in thc
group.
When more than three piles are required to carry the load, they are arranged in a
symmetrical pattern about the area of load application. Pile spacing can be smaller for end Pile Foundations
bearing piles than for friction piles. The nlinimum placing is usually specified in codes and
varies from 2d to 6d. For friction piles the recommended spacing is 3d while for point
bearing piles, it is 2.5d. Pile driving is generally done proceeding outward from the centre
except in soft and weak soils. In such soils pile driving proceeds from the periphery of the
lbundation to the centre to prevent lateral flow of soil during driving.

7.10.1 Group Capacity

You can view a group'of piles as providing reinforcement to a particular body of soil.
Failure of the group may occur either by failure of the individual piles or as the failure of
the overall block of soil. You have also to take into account the effect of.driving other
piles in close proximity to a particular pile. In sand this has the beneficial effect of
increasing the density of sand. However, in sensitive clays the disturbance may reduce the
strength. Hence individual pile capacities may be greater or lower in a group than when
acting individually.
Block failures may also occur. Soil between the piles may move with the piles resulting in
failure planes which follow the periphery of the group. In general, block failures will be
associated with close spacing of the piles.
In the past the difference between the capacity of group of piles and the sum of individual
pile capacities has been characterised by the Group Eff~ciency.This concept has led to a
certain amount of confusion. The block capacity of a group should not be confused with
the sum of individual pile capacities with the use of an efficiency factor. Independent
calculations should be made to determine both theblock capacity and individual pile
capacity to ensure that there is an adequate faclor of safety against both modes of failure.
Cohesionless Soils
Generally the carrying capacity of the block will invariably greater than the sum of the
carrying capacities of individual piles. Hence, the group carrying capacity can be
conservatively taken as the lower of the two values,
Q~ = ne, . . . (7.23)
where, n = number of piles in the group.
The capacity of individual pile Q, can be calculated from Equation 7.6.
Cohesive Soils
The group capacity Q, is equal to (Figure 7.13)

S I N G L E P I L E FAILURE
GROUP F A I L U R E

F'igure 7.13 :Failure of Pile Groups

The sum of
i) End bearing capacity of the assembled pile tips of the group acting as a
square or rectangular footing.
ii) . Cohesional support of the group perimeter throughout the pile length with
the adjacent soil.
~ ~ ~ n d a tEngineering
ion -11 where, Ag = B x L, calculated to the outside edge of pile
Qb = C" Nc
where, c = undrained cohesive strength
N,= 5.0 ( 1 4 . 2 BL) ( 1 4 . 2 1/B)
A, = (2B+2L) 1
Please note that adhesion factor a is not applied as the area of disturbance
along the perimeter is small.
Example 7.7
A six-pile cluster with 40 cm diameter piles with centre to centre spacing of 105 cm
as shown in Figure 7.14 is driven into a deep deposit of clay. ?he unconfined
compressive strength is 90 kN per sq.m. The length of pile is 21m. Calculate the
carrying capacity.

lo!jT W%
0
-
0
250crn
0
,
F5
r /!
1-45 m

2.50 rn -/
4 b

Figure 7.14

Solutlon
Group capacity = Bearing Resistance + Frictional Resistance
N, = 5.0 ( 1 4 . 2 BL) ( 1 4 . 2 I/B)
= 5.0 ( 1 4 . 2 11451250) (1M.2 21001145) = 5 x 1.12 x 1.2
= 6.0 (1.126) = 6.70
End bearing capacity = 2.50 x 1.45 x 45 x 6.70 = 1093.0 kN
Frictional Resistance = 2 (2.50 + 1.45) x 21 x 45 = 7466 kN
Ultimate carrying capacity = 1093 + 7466 = 8559 kN
Design Capacity = 855913 = 2853 kN
In the Example 7.2, we have already calculated the individual capacity as 250 kN.
Hence design group capacity = 6 x 250 = 1500 kN
You have to select the lower value of the two. Hence the value of 1500kN is
adopted

7.11 UPLIFT RESISTANCE

You already know, piles are required to resist uplift forces. Tall chimneys, transmission
towers and jetty structures are subjected to considerable bending moment. Resistance to
 uplift is due to the friction between the piles and the surrounding soil. Generally, the Pile Foundations
frictional resistance to uplift loads is taken as equal to its resistance against compressive
loads. However, it is always advisable to conduct a field test to determine the uplift
capacity. Sufficient tensile reinforcement is to be provided to resist the uplift forces.
Underreaming increases the uplift resistance and is now extensively used.
The weight of-the pile and the weight of the soil enclosed within the group also resist
uplift and these have to be taken into account in calculating uplift.
Example 7.8
Calculate the uplift resistance of the group of piles given in Example 7.7.
Solution
Frictionalqesistance of the group = 7466 kN
Weight of soil enclosed in the group
= 2 5 0 x 1 . 4 5 ~ 2 1x 1 8 = 1370kN
Ultimate uplift resistance of group = 8836 kN
r
Allowable uplift resistance = (883613) = 2945 kN
Frictional resistance as individual piles (weight of piles ignored)
= (6 x 72213) = 1444 kN
1 Adopt 1444 kN.

7.12 NEGATIVE SKIN FRICTION

This is an important aspect of behaviour of piles. Normally friction between pile and soil '
helps in carrying the axial load. However, in certain situations, the friction causes a load
transfer to the pile and increases the load acting on it. This phenomenon is called negative
skin friction and the force acting on the pile is known as down-drag force. This condition
can develop where a soil layer surrounding the pile settles more than the pile. When a soft
soil stratum located above the pile tip is subjected to a compressive loading, the soil may
settle more than the pile. The weight of the consolidating layer is transferred to the pile by
friction, thus imposing extra load on the pile (Figure 7.15). Negative skin friction can also
be caused by lowering of ground water table which induces consolidation of the soft soil.

POSITIVE SKIN
FIRM SOIL FRICTION

RESISTANCE
Figure 7.15: Negative Skin Friction
A protective coating of biturnan or chemical may be provided to reduce the skin friction.
Sometimes a casing is provided. However, the bottom 15-20% of length should not be
coated to provide sufficient end bearing.
For a single pile the maximum skin friction that can act is equal to the frictional resistance
of the pile embedded in the settling soil including the fill portion. For a group of piles, the
down drag force can be taken as the frictional force on the block plus the weight of soil
causing settlement enclosed in the block.
Foundation Engineering -11 The present practice is to design the group of piles in settling soil with a low factor of
safety so that the group settles with the consolidating soil.

7.13 LATERAL CAPACITY

Vertical piles resist horizontal loads or moments by deflecting until the necessary reaction
in surrounding soil is mobilised. The behaviour of foundation under such loading
conditions depends essentially on the relative stiffness of pile and the soil.
The horizontal load capacity of vertical piles may be limited in three different ways; the
ultimate capacity of soil may be exceeded resulting in very large movements of pile and
failure of foundations. The bending moments may generate excess bending stresses in the
pile material resulting in structural failure of piles or the deflections of the pile heads may
be too large to be compatible with the superstructure. All the three modes of failure must
be considered in design.
The methods presently available for pile foundations subjected to horizontal loads must be
regarded as highly empirical. The input soil data are associated with high degree of
uncertainty. Therefore these methods must be used with caution and with due
consideration of their limitations. There is much room for improvement in these methods
and at present, the best method is still that based on a well planned and executed in-situ
lateral load test. For details refer to IS 291 1. An example how to evaluate lateral capacity
piles is given below.
Lateral Load Carrying Capacity
This design is based on the soil investigation report furnished by the client as under:
The top soil being sandy in nature, installation of Piles by driving technique, subsequent
construction activities and the dynamic compaction proposed to be carried out on the fill
will improve the state of compaction. Hence the strata for design purpose is taken as
medium dense and submerged.
Refer National Building Code (NBC) Group-2 Section VI-2 pp - 36
Table 8 ki= 0.525 kg/cm2
i) Driven Piles: Concrete grade M25

Refer NBC GP 2 Section VI 2. pp-36

L
Refer Figure 10 for fixed head pile = 2.15
T
L,= 2.15 x 175.53 = 377.4 cm
Refer IS: 291 1 Part IV
Permissible deflection = 5 mrn Ref: pp 37
For a fixed head pile

Q ( Li + LrQ
Y =
El

Q ( 0 + 377.4 )3
:. 0.5 =
2.85 x 10' x 3.07 x 10' x 12
Solving the above, we get Q = 9.766 t
 Though 5 mrn is permissible deflection under 1.5 times the allowable load, Pile Fouudatioos
Additional factor of safety available for a permissible load of 5 t.

:. safe

:. Q = 8.2449 t say 8.24t

Permissible Load = 3 t
824
Additional Factor of safety available = - = 2.75
3
>> 1.5 as required and said earlier. Hence safe,
ii) Precast Piles: Concrete grade M35
350 mm

E = 5700 a = 5700 = 3.37 x 1 6

Lf = 2.15 x 151.66 = 326.06 say 326.1 crn

7 29 = 1.46
Permissible Load being 5 t, Additional Factor of Safety available = -
5
say 1.5
Hence safe.
270 mm
Concrete grade M25

x5
Foundation Engineering -11

4 801
Permissible load being 3 t, Additional Factor of Safety available = -= 1.6 > 1.5 as
3
said and required. Hence safe.

In this unit we have described the different types of pile foundations, methods of
installation and methods to compute carrying capacity of individual piles and pile groups.
Here are the main points.
i) Pile foundations are used when the top layer of soil profile is weak or when
the column loads are large.
ii) Piles are available in different materials. A number of methods are used to
install them. The material of the pile, method of installation and soil profile
all influence the behaviour of pile.
iii) Carrying capacity can be calculated by using suitable soil parameters. Care
should be exercised in selecting the soil parameters to be used. Pile load tests
are carried out on test piles to check the design values adopted.
iv) Dynamic pile driving formulae and penetration resistance values can be used
in some cases to determine carrying capacity.
v) The carrying capacity of group of piles need not necessarily be equal to the
number of piles multiplied by the individual capacity of the piles in the
group. The group capacity has to be calculated for block failure and
individual pile failure.

7.15 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
Pile foundation is not the correct choice as it transfers the load to weak soil. FooL~lig
foundation is the appropriate choice.
SAQ 2
i) See Section 7.4.4
ii) Yes. The carrying capacity of underreamed bored piles is due to its tip
resistance. Hence settlement will be greater.
SAQ 3
a) (1) (dl; (ii) (c); (iii) (a); (iv) (b)
b) (i) False: (ii) True; (iii) True.
SAQ 4
i) Impact of the blow in soft soil is not sufficient to vapourize the fuel.
ii) To prevent caving of holes during drilling.
SAQ 5
i) 7.2 - Friction 96.1 Bearing - 3.9
7.3 - Friction - 55.6 Bearing - 44.4
7.4 - Friction - 70.6 Bearing - 29.4
7.5 - Friction - 15.9 Bearing - 84.1

86-