Status Reports On BME in Europe

BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING
EDUCATION IN EUROPE
STATUS REPORTS
BIOMEDEA
July 2005
Copyright 2005 BIOMEDEA
BIOMEDEA Project Coordinator:

Prof. Dr. Joachim H. Nagel
Institute of Biomedical Engineering
University of Stuttgart
Seidenstrasse 36
70174 Stuttgart
Germany
http://www.bmt.uni.stuttgart.de/biomedea
PREFACE
A forum convened during the 1st European MBE Conference, Vienna, 1999 to discuss the needs of the European
MBES community. Shortly after that the International Federation for Medical and Biological Engineering (IFMBE)
appointed an ad-hoc committee to prepare recommendations on how to promote MBES in Europe. The committee
completed its work by convening a meeting of 30 representatives of European MBE societies in Vienna, August 2627, 2001. These societies later unanimously endorsed the decision of the meeting to create a European Alliance for
Medical and Biological Engineering and Science (EAMBES). A ProTem Group was appointed to write the statutes
of EAMBES and to prepare its launching. The inauguration meeting of EAMBES then took place in Frankfurt,
Germany, on June 13-14, 2003. EAMBES was created on two principles: that EAMBES will not compete with
existing societies, and that EAMBES adds value in the European scene, i.e. that working together will ultimately
benefit us all, especially in an area as wide as Medical and Biological Engineering and Science.
Right from the beginning, higher education was one of the focal areas for the work of the IFMBE ad-hoc committee
for European Activities. In order to initiate widespread European cooperation on this issue, the committee decided to
prepare a 'white paper' on BME education, training and accreditation in Europe as a discussion paper for the
European Member Societies of the IFMBE and later on EAMBES to prepare for the European Higher Education
Area. I agreed to coordinate this task and soon realized that there was very little knowledge about the actual status of
Biomedical Engineering in general and especially BME education and the accreditation of BME programmes
throughout Europe. So I started to gather reports on the status of BME education in Europe. Authors from 28
countries supplied information on the situation in their countries by the spring of 2002. I am very grateful to these
authors, since their reports were an important help in developing the European activities in the area of BME
education, including the BIOMEDEA Project.
Though still a valuable source of information, much of the information in these reports is outdated by now due to the
rapid developments which were caused by the Bologna Process. Thus, I am currently soliciting updates as well as
new reports from those countries that were not yet participating in these European activities in 2001/2002. I hope
that by the time we will write the final report of the BIOMEDEA Project we will have a comprehensive, up-to-date
survey on BME education ready to be included in the Project documents.
Having been asked by numerous colleagues to make the status reports available to all participants of the
BIOMEDEA workshops, I am including this book into the BIOMDEA documents, though some of the contributions
are only drafts and no final versions.
Joachim Nagel
July 2005
List of contents
Biomedical Engineering Education in Europe - Comments on the IFMBE/EAMBES White Paper.
Joe C. Barbenel....................................................................................................................................................... 1
Biomedical Engineering in Austria
H. Gilly, H.-B. Schmiedmayer, B. Tilg.................................................................................................................... 5
Biomedical Engineering in Belgium anno 2002
Pascal Verdonck ................................................................................................................................................... 15
Biomedical Engineering in Bulgaria
V. Todorov and I. Daskalov .................................................................................................................................. 20
Biomedical Engineering in Croatia
Ratko Magjarevi, Vedran Bilas ........................................................................................................................... 25
Biomedical Engineering Education in the Czech Republic
Ji Holk, Lenka Lhotsk, Jaromr Cmral ......................................................................................................... 37
Status Report of BME Education in Denmark
Johannes J. Struijk ................................................................................................................................................ 49
Biomedical Engineering in Estonia
Hiie Hinrikus and Kalju Meigas ........................................................................................................................... 54
Biomedical Engineering Education in Finland
Jari Viik et al......................................................................................................................................................... 62
Biomedical Engineering in France: A Brief Historical Survey
Ives Boire .............................................................................................................................................................. 78
Biomedical Engineering in Germany
Thomas Becks........................................................................................................................................................ 87
Remarks on Curricula in Biomedical Engineering and Clinical Engineering
Olaf Dssel............................................................................................................................................................ 94
Biomedical Engineering in Greece
Nicolas Pallikarakis............................................................................................................................................ 102
Biomedical and Clinical Engineering in Hungary
kos Jobbgy ...................................................................................................................................................... 107
Biomedical Engineering in the Republic of Ireland
Meabh Smith et al. .............................................................................................................................................. 111
Biomedical Engineering in Israel
Dan Adam ........................................................................................................................................................... 137
Biomedical Engineering Education in Italy
Marcello Bracale ................................................................................................................................................ 141
Status Reports on Biomedical Engineering: Latvia
Yuri Dekhtyar...................................................................................................................................................... 162
Status Reports on Biomedical Engineering in Norway....................................................................................... 164
Biomedical Engineering in Poland at the Beginning of XXI Century
Ewaryst Tkacz ..................................................................................................................................................... 165
Biomedical Engineering Education in Romania
Radu V. CIUPA ................................................................................................................................................... 170
Biomedical Engineering in the Slovak Republic
Milan Tyler, Peter Kneppo, Duan imk, Jozef ivk, Klra pov .......................................................... 179
Biomedical Engineering in Slovenia
D. Miklavcic........................................................................................................................................................ 189
Biomedical Engineering Education in Spain
Laura M. Roa and Enrique J. Gmez.................................................................................................................. 192
Biomedical Engineering in Sweden

Olof Lindahl ........................................................................................................................................................ 203
Biomedical Engineering in Switzerland
Dieter Meier and Ralph Mller........................................................................................................................... 211
Biomedical Engineering in the Netherlands
Dick W Slaaf ....................................................................................................................................................... 214
Biomedical Engineering in Ukraine
Yu. Liakh ............................................................................................................................................................. 221
Biomedical Engineering in the United Kingdom
J C Barbenel ....................................................................................................................................................... 223
Report from the Yugoslav Society for Biomedical Engineering and Medical Physics (YUBEMP)
Svetlana Andri and Dejan B. Popovi............................................................................................................... 235
BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts
Biomedical Engineering Education in Europe - Comments on the

IFMBE/EAMBES White Paper.
J.C.Barbenel
University of Strathclyde
Glasgow G1 1XW
U.K.
The White paper has been organised and edited by Prof. J Nagel and contains unique
information on education, training and accreditation in the important and growing
area of Biomedical Engineering. The information has been obtained about the
situation and practice in 28 European countries. This section is an overview that
attempts to compare and contrast the different national models. It does not attempt to
provide a detailed analysis of all the information, and is limited to the professional
level, omitting much of the information on technicians contained in a few national
reports.
In reading this section and the reports on individual countries, it is necessary to bear
in mind two important constraints. The field of Biomedical Engineering (BME) is
changing and growing rapidly, which means that some of the information was out of
date almost as soon as it was written. The sections on different countries also show
the very great national variability in both educational practice and nomenclature that
makes comparison difficult. It is to be hoped that the implementation of the ideas and
aims of the Bologna Declaration will lead to more consistency and simplicity in the
future.
The Bologna Declaration envisages two main educational cycles, undergraduate and
graduate. The first cycle will last a minimum of three years and leads to the award of
a degree that is, in the words of the Declaration, relevant to the European labour
market as an appropriate level of qualification. The successful completion of the first
cycle degree is required for access to the second cycle degree that should lead to the
master and/or doctorate degree. The implementation of the Declaration has led to the
situation where the minimum three-years of the first cycle is becoming the standard
duration.
EDUCATION.
Availability of BME education.
With two exceptions BME education is available in all the countries covered by the
White Paper.
In Iceland there is no university programme for Biomedical engineers or other
medical-technology or physics study. The almost certainly reflects the small size of
the professional community and higher educational sector in Iceland.
In Switzerland there is currently no degree courses in Biomedical Engineering at the
university level, but there is an intention to implement new Bachelors and Masters
level degrees. In the remaining countries there are Biomedical Engineering courses
that are based on two models, one in which BME is a component of a mixed degree
and the second in which the degrees are nominally in BME.
Mixed degrees.
There are many undergraduate degree courses in conventional engineering subjects
particularly Electrical, Mechanical and Chemical which contain BME options or
electives. The Biomedical content appears not to be a route to practice as a
professional Biomedical Engineer, but has an educational aim i.e. to provide examples
of the application of the conventional engineering that forms the majority of the
degree content in an unusual, but interesting and demanding context.
Biomedical applications appear to be particularly popular in Electrical Engineering,
with an emphasis on Biomedical electronics, instrumentation, and signal and image
analysis.
The situation with post graduate degrees is less clear, but in Switzerland there are
M.Sc. degrees in electrical and mechanical engineering that are awarded with a major
in biomedical engineering.
Biomedical Engineering degrees.
First cycle courses that lead to a BME degree are either stand alone courses or the first
stage of a two-cycle degree. Both types are generally of 3-years duration.
The stand alone courses usually lead to technical/technician level qualification. As
with the mixed undergraduate courses, there is a strong emphasis on electronics and
instrumentation, but there is also an Industrial Bioengineering qualification in Italy.
The situation in Ireland is rather different, where the course duration may be 4- years,
leading to a professional level rather than a technician level degree, although some
graduates are employed in technical level posts.
The structure of second cycle BME degrees is particularly variable and even in one
country there are often major differences. There are, however, three common models:
The second cycles follows the first cycle as an integrated course leading to a single
degree. The second cycle component last either one or two years, commonly
producing a five-year degree, although four years is more usual in England, where the
resulting qualification is generally an undergraduates Masters degree.
A wholly BME postgraduate Masters degree, with completion of a first cycle degree
as an essential entry requirement. The nature of the first cycle degree is, once again,
very variable. I many cases the first cycle degree must be in engineering or a physical
science, but there are also degree courses that will accept those with life science,
medical or paramedical degrees. The degrees are of one- or two-year duration and
generally contain both instructional and research components, although the balance of
components appears to extend from virtually all instruction to virtually all research.
There is a lack of common degree names, although Master of Science is widespread.
Third cycle BME degrees. The Bologna Declaration envisioned only two educational
cycles, the second cycle being a Masers or Doctoral degree. In practice students can,
and often do, progress from a Masters degree to a separate Doctoral degree, usually
PhD, which represents a third rather than a second cycle degree. Entry conditions
often, but not always, require the candidate to have a second cycle degree. The PhD in
Europe has traditionally been rather like a research apprenticeship, being almost
entirely research based. There is a growing tendency for the degree to contain
instructional material, often with credit for prior material eg in a preceding Masters
degree. The usually minimum duration of study is three years.
Accreditation of degrees and programmes.
Biomedical Engineering degrees are accredited or approved by a variety of
mechanisms. By far the most common agency is a government ministry or
department, usually of Health, Science or Technology. In Israel the approving agency
is the Higher Education council, a government supported public body. There is no
comment on degree accreditation in more than half of the national returns, but in
many of these countries the universities are autonomous and degree courses do not
need external authorisation, being a matter for the university itself.
Accreditation of programme content is less common than degree accreditation.
Government agencies are the most common source of accreditation, although in the
Netherlands and the UK professional societies are a source of accreditation. The UK
method is particularly complex because the Engineering Institutions accredit the
conventional engineering content of some mixed degrees with Biomedical
Engineering content. The UK national BME society accredits some postgraduate MSc
degrees with an instructional content matching a notional syllabus defined by the
society.
TRAINING.
There appears to be little provision for the training of those entering health-care in a
hospital setting. There are, however, training schemes reported for Denmark and the
UK.
Provision and accreditation of training.
There is a three-year integrated postgraduate educational and training programme in
Denmark. The course is organised and delivered by Odense University Hospital,
apparently under the auspices of the Danish Health Council, and leads to certification
as a Clinical Engineer. There is a similar two-year programme for Clinical
Technicians.
In the UK the trainees are employed in the National Health Service at an appropriate
training grade. The training scheme normally lasts for 6 years, being divided into 3
training periods. Basic training, that combines both training and education, is the
normally the entry to the profession and is for 2 years, reduced to at least 15 months
for trainees with an MSc accredited by the national society (see above). Successful
completion of the Basic Training Scheme leads to the award of a Diploma of the
national society and an MSc. Basic training is followed by a 4 year Programme of
Advanced Training and Responsibility.
Training takes place in centres that have been accredited by the national society,
which also has a syllabus of the competencies to be developed by the trainee.
REGISTRATION.
Registration is possible in very few European countries. There is a voluntary register
organised and administered by the national BME society in Ireland, Norway and
Sweden, although the criteria for membership are not specified in the reports in the
White Paper.
In the UK voluntary registration organised by the national BME society (IPEM) is
being replaced with compulsory registration. The Department of Health will require
that all those who interact with patients, either directly or indirectly, be registered
with the Health Professions Council as Clinical Scientists. Applicants for registration
must show that the applicant has achieved the competences required after 4 years
participation in the IPEM training scheme, although these may be obtained by
alternative, non-IPEM routes. Continuing Professional Development will be a
requirement for continuing registration.
OVERVIEW.
The White Paper shows that there is widespread recognition of the need for
Biomedical Engineering education, training and accreditation/certification. There are
many schemes being developed or awaiting implementation, but there is little
uniformity. The continuing national differences are a serious problem that can hinder
and limit trans-nation education, training, employment and co-operation.
Biomedical Engineering in Austria

H Gilly, Austrian Society of Biomedical Engineering and Dept of Anaesthesia, Univ. Vienna
H.-B. Schmiedmayer, Institute of Mechanics, Vienna University of Technology
B. Tilg, Austrian Society of Biomedical Engineering, University for Health Informatics and
Technology Tyrol
Biomedical Engineering (BME) in Austria
Biomedical Engineering (BME) as a scientific and professional discipline is increasingly
known and spreading steadily in Austria. Experience to date shows that the career options for
graduates are broad; this may be attributed primarily to the fact that the pre-requisite for a
career in the field is the completion of a solid university-level education (doctoral studies, see
below). Further training may be gained voluntarily (postgraduate courses) or through on-thejob experience.
The National Society, the Austrian Society for Biomedical Engineering (sterreichische
Gesellschaft fr Biomedizinische Technik; GBMT), represents the BME community in
Austria. It also officially represents the Austrian biomedical engineering community in the
International Federation for Medical and Biological Engineering (IFMBE). GBMT is,
besides others, also a member of the Austrian Computer Society (OCG) and, with its Working
Group for Medical Informatics, a member of the International Medical Informatics
Association (IMIA) and of the European Federation for Medical Informatics .
The Society was already founded in 1975, bringing together those working in the then
developing area of Biomedical Engineering. Since the beginning GBMT has been involved
particularly in
Organising scientific conferences, seminars and workshops in biomedical engineering
and clinical engineering, and, via its sections, in biomechanics, sports medicine,
medical informatics, etc.
Postgraduate professional education and training of clinical engineers
Co-operation with the respective Federal Ministries responsible for education, science,
and technology
GBMT has been established as and has remained a scientific organisation without major
activities in professional matters. However, in the late 70s and early 80s, it also successfully
promoted professional activities by establishing career opportunities, particularly in hospitals.
During the last decade the Society was actively involved in collecting and evaluating data
relevant for the future development of this scientific discipline in Austria. On behalf of the
Federal Ministry for Transport, Innovation and Technology (the former Federal Ministry for
Science and Research) two studies, Biomedical Technology Austria 2000 and
"Forschungs- und Technologiekonzept 1992 - Biomedizinische Technik" (Research and
Technology Concept 1992 Biomedical Engineering), have been compiled and published by
the Society. Both studies address and examine the potential for innovation and development
in biomedical technology (BMT) in Austria. In the more recent booklet, BMT was examined
as a branch of business and as an interdisciplinary science in a medico-social context (see
appendix for further details).
Membership
The society currently has about 220 members - regular members, student members, sponsors
and honorary members. Regular membership is open to academics or those with higher
education and/or professionals involved in BME as well as to any person with a declared
interest in BME or closely related fields. At present the membership distribution is: 160
engineers/physicists/basic scientists, 45 physicians, 5 students, 4 sponsors.
In accord with its statutes, the Society is not involved in running programmes for education,
training or accreditation. Professional development is offered on a noncontinuous basis
(seminars, lectures, etc).
In addition to GBMT there are other societies and organisations that associate people active
in related fields, specific branches or subareas of BME: GMP (Austrian Society for Medical
Physics), VKT (sterreichischer Verband der Krankenhaustechniker) with a homogeneous
membership of professionals working in hospitals (clinical engineers), Austrian Scientific
Society for Telemedicine, Health Technology Assessment Unit of the Institute of Technology
Assessment (Austrian Academy of Sciences).
Employment
The large majority of the members is employed in public universities, other public and private
research organisations, community health trusts, industry, teaching units, public
administration, private hospitals and test houses. No statistics or details regarding the main
specialities identified by engineers or physicists are presently available.
Education in BME in Austria
At present there are ongoing efforts to adapt the university degree courses to comply with the
future three-level harmonised educational system in Europe (bachelor master doctor
(PhD)).
Undergraduate Level: The founding and establishment of Fachhochschulen (universities of
applied sciences, in some respects similar to the previous polytechnic institutes in Britain) and
the accompanying establishment of an accreditation model for the Fachhochschule sector was
a significant change here in Austria with its long tradition of state regulation and control of
higher education. The Fachhochschule policy broke with this long tradition, creating an
independent expert body (Fachhochschulrat; closely resembling the British Council for
National Academics Awards (CNAA)) with decision-making power (for details see: Hans
Pechar, Thomas Pfeiffer: The Accreditation of Fachhochschul Programmes in Austria. Paper
presented at the international conference Accreditation of Higher Education: Comparative
Policies in Europe, Vienna, 27th April 2001).
Nowadays, Fachhochschulen are strenghthening their efforts to offer specialised education in
BME-related fields. These undergraduate degrees are either the Bachelors degree or the
extended undergraduate Masters degree which requires one more year of study than the
Bachelors degree. The structure of these courses should be entirely consistent with the
structure proposed in the Bologna Declaration at least since the new federal law
(Bundesgesetz, mit dem das Bundesgesetz ber Fachhochschul-Studiengnge
(Fachhochschul-StudiengesetzFHStG) gendert wird) has come into effect (May 2002); for
details visit: http://www.bmbwk.gv.at/doprint.asp?OID=6154&front=1)
At present two specialised courses addressing Software Engineering for Health Care (FH
Hagenberg) and Medical Information Technology with subspecialisation in telemedicine
and hospital technology (FH Krnten, Klagenfurt) have been approved. At least two other
courses aiming at biomedical engineering will be established by September 2003.
Higher Education Biomedical Engineering Programmes in Austria (June 2002)

Education at the doctoral level is offered as follows:
1. Biomedical Engineering at Graz University of Technology (TUG)
Biomedical Engineering (BME) at TUG can be attended as an eligible course (branch of
study) within the diploma programme in electrical engineering (Dipl.-Ing.)
General structure of the diploma programme in electrical engineering: 3 segments (2 + 4 + 4
semesters), 186 semester hours (SStd) = 279 ECTS + diploma thesis = 300 ECTS
1st segment:
Fundamentals (40 SStd = 60 ECTS)

Basics in mathematics, physics, electrical engineering, etc.
2nd segment: Biomedical Engineering (26 SStd = 39 ECTS)

Basics in biochemistry, anatomy, physiology, biophysics, biosensors,
Biomedical engineering, clinical engineering, etc.
(46 SStd (69 ECTS) and 8 SStd (12 ECTS) are still fundamentals and electrical
engineering)
3rd segment: Biomedical Engineering (34 SStd = 51 ECTS; specialisation in one of three
disciplines)
Courses eligible from prescribed catalogues:
Medical Technology (20 SStd = 30 ECTS)
Clinical Engineering (20 SStd = 30 ECTS)
Medical Informatics (20 SStd = 30 ECTS)
Eligible lectures, practical training, lab courses, projects from
biomedical engineering course catalogues
(14 SStd = 21 ECTS)
Eligible lectures, practical training, lab courses, projects from all course
catalogues
(32 SStd = 48 ECTS)
21 ECTS are assigned to the diploma thesis
(60 SStd + diploma thesis) = (90 ECTS + 21 ECTS) = 111 ECTS in Biomedical
Engineering (37 %)
Classification (Discussion paper, Addendum 2, Table 1.1, Page 23, 06.06.01):
Programme Type 3, Interdisciplinary Biomedical Engineering Programme
2. Biomedical Engineering at Vienna University of Technology (TUW)

The Faculty of Mechanical Engineering offers specialisation in Biomedical Engineering.
The general study is structured into 3 segments (2 + 4 + 4 semesters = 300 ECTS). In the 3rd
segment the students can specialise in Biomedical Engineering.
1st segment:
Fundamentals (60 ECTS)

Basics in mathematics, physics, mechanical engineering, etc.
2nd segment: Mechanical Engineering + Advanced Fundamentals (120 ECTS)

3rd segment:
The students can choose among 8 specialisations (Energy Engineering;

Transportation Engineering and Logistics; Vehicle Engineering; Production
Engineering; Design and Materials; Mechatronics; Biomedical Engineering;
Modelling and Simulation).
When they choose Biomedical Engineering:
Basics in Biomedical Engineering (15 ECTS)
Specialisation in Biomedical Engineering (min. 30 ECTS)
Diploma thesis (30 ECTS)
From the remaining 45 ECTS, 19 ECTS can be chosen freely from all University courses, the
others (26 ECTS) have to be chosen from the 8 specialisations including Biomedical
Engineering.
The Faculty of Science and Informatics offers a Bachelors/Masters Programme in Medical
Informatics.
ECTS
Bachelor:
Basics: Mathematics, Statistics, Informatics
39,0
Medical Basics: Anatomy, Biochemistry,
31,5
Medical Informatics
25,5
Programming and Software Engineering
25,5
Social Sciences
12,0
Specialisation
22,5
Bachelor Lab & Seminar
17,5
Electives
6,5
Total
180,0
Master:
Clinical
Medicine
and
Information
Engineering
Biosignals and Imaging
Computer Simulation and Biometry
Information Management in Health Care
Systems
Seminar
Masters Thesis
Electives
Total
min. 8,0
min. 8,0
min. 8,0
min. 8,0
3,5
30,0
3,0
120,0

Additionally the Vienna University of Technology (TUW) has a list of lectures, labs, seminars
and exercises on Biomedical Engineering (http://info.tuwien.ac.at/ud/stpl/biomed.html).
These courses are open to all students of all faculties at the TUW.
10
3. Biomedical Engineering at University of Vienna /General Hospital of Vienna

At present there is no regular course of study / curriculum comparable to the programme
offered at the TU in Graz, Institute of Electrical and Biomedical Engineering.
However, like at other universities, a studium irregulare would allow coverage of the entire
biomedical engineering curriculum as offered by other Austrian Universities such as the TUG
(Technical University of Graz) or TUW (Technical University of Vienna) with respect to
lectures, seminars etc.
In fact, university lecturers based within the Institutes of the General Hospital teach at TUW
(and other institutions) and, in joint projects with TUW and UV (University of Vienna), also
provide the infrastructure for diploma papers, theses, etc. of students who pursue their regular
engineering or science studies at the universities mentioned.
In addition, the future curriculum in medicine will allow students to complete their studies
with the academic degree Dr. scient. med.. It is to be expected (and it is hoped) that medical
students will also choose Biomedical Engineering for their thesis and thereby gather
additional skills.
The Danube University in Krems, Department for Ecological and Medical Sciences
(Abteilung fr Umwelt- und Medizinische Wissenschaften), offers a comprehensive selection
of postgraduate courses.
http://www.donau-uni.ac.at/organisation/mba_lehrgaenge.html
The scientific degree to be awarded is a Master of Business Administration (MBA) in the
postgraduate educational course Entrepreneurship MBA, Applied Biomedicine.
4. Biomedical Engineering at the University of Graz

The University of Graz (Faculty of Medicine) offers lectures, labs, seminars and exercises in
Biomedical Engineering.
In addition, the future curriculum in medicine (starting in the fall of 2002) will allow
graduates (from medicine or science/engineering) to complete their studies with the academic
degree Dr. scient. med. It is to be expected (and it is hoped) that medical graduates will also
choose Biomedical Engineering for their thesis and thereby gather additional skills.
5. Biomedical Engineering at the University of Innsbruck

The University offers lectures, labs, seminars and exercises in Biomedical Engineering.
6. Biomedical Engineering at the University for Health Informatics and Technology

Tyrol
In 2000 TILAK (Tiroler Landeskrankenanstalten) initiated the founding of a new institution
of higher education for health informatics, the Private Universitt fr Medizinische Informatik
11
und Technik Tirol / Private University for Health Informatics and Technology Tyrol (UMIT).
The Austrian Government accredited UMIT as a private university in October 2001.
The University is aiming for a top international position in Medical Informatics in both
research and education. Its headquarters are in Innsbruck. The University started in the
academic year 2001/2002 with two educational programmes. They lead to a Bachelor of
Science (B.Sc.; 3 years) and a Master of Science (M.Sc.; 1.52 years longer) degree in
Medical Informatics. In the doctoral (PhD) programme for Medical Informatics students work
in research projects. From the very beginning international integration of the programmes is
planned (e.g., within the International Partnership for Health Informatics Education Network).
The Bachelors and Masters programmes follow the recommendations of the International
Medical Informatics Association (IMIA).
Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Medical Informatics (ECTS Points):
Medicine and Health Care
24
Medical Informatics
48
Informatics
84
Quantitative Methods
TOTAL
24
180
Master of Science (M.Sc.) in Medical Informatics (ECTS Points):

Previous study
Previous study
of Med.
of Informatics
Informatics
Previous study
of Medicine
Medicine and Health Care
06-12
24-30
06-12
Medical Informatics
36-42
48-54
48-54
Informatics
06-12
06-12
18-24
Quantitative Methods
06-12
06-12
12-18
* TOTAL -
60
90
*) Masters thesis not included
90
In addition, a Ph.D. programme in Medical Informatics is offered.

For further information please visit http://www.umit.at
Accreditation (of BME) in Austria

In line with Austrian legislation, the accreditation of educational programmes at the university
level is performed by state authorities (Austrian Federal Ministry for Education, Science and
Culture), but not by professional or scientific organisations (like GBMT). However, these
organisations may make recommendations and proposals.
12
Appendix
Summary of the recently published study Biomedical Technology Austria 2000
Authors: G. Windischbauer, H. Gilly, P. Lugner, H. Pessenhofer
Eigentmer, Herausgeber, Verleger: BMVIT, Abteilung V B-9, Rosengasse 4, 1010 Wien;
(Mai 2000).
While research success in BMT in Austria has been quite notable, and while the country has a
good reputation internationally in this regard, Austrians have been less successful in taking
their ideas to the finished product stage. Thus, the economic exploitation of Austrian research
results has been unsatisfactory. At the same time, inherent possibilities exist for improving the
quality and efficiency of medical care and creating knowledge-based added value.
With about 150 firms 1 specialising in BMT, the Austrian production of medical-technical
equipment does not add up to a significant market when compared to other countries.
However, the development potential of BMT as an industry is great, both domestically and
internationally. Comparing Austrias economy with others of similar size (Belgium, Denmark,
Finland, Sweden) leads to the conclusion that the economic base of the industry could be
increased 2-fold in the long term.
Transforming a research idea into a marketable product is far more complex in the field of
BMT, which is highly innovative, than in most other technical industries, since different areas
of knowledge (medicine, technology, biology, etc.) need to collaborate within a national
system of innovation. Success may thus be expected only in the medium or long term.
Austrian scientific BMT competency requires fertile ground for its development. A
peculiarity of this country is that business enterprise contributes a relatively small share to
total research and development (R&D); that government provides a relatively large share of
R&D expenditures; and that the links between research, development and production in the
countrys system of innovation are weak.
The international markets for medical products are highly consolidated. Global firms offer a
broad and consistent range of products for just about every medical discipline. This
development may be understood as a reaction to the tightening of cost restrictions by health
care providers. At the same time (as in biotechnology) small firms, often from within the orbit
of the universities, function as the R&D pacemakers in BMT. Market consolidation forces
these small and medium-sized companies to adopt niche strategies and to form strategic
alliances, resulting in further pressure on the BMT markets to innovate. Nevertheless
European BMT producers, in contrast to all other manufacturing industries, have been able to
increase employment and also achieve very high growth in added value.
For BMT the most important social development is doubtless the anticipated increase in the
numbers of the older population and of those needing care. In this context, some scenarios
predict that by the year 2010 there will be 250,000 individuals in Austria requiring care. BMT
in this country has a major contribution to make to maintaining and improving the quality of
life for this sector of the population.
The most important international trends in BMT are the growing role of biology in medical
technologies, the advancements being made in research and development of artificial senses
and organs, and the visualisation and miniaturisation of medical procedures and instruments.
Information and telecommunications technologies (ITC) support the development of these
1
BMT producers narrowly defined: Manufacture BMT products or pursue R&D in BMT not included are purely marketing
firms and service providers without Austrian R&D activities
13
trends. In a parallel development, the significance of computing and robotics in medicine is

also increasing.
Fields of Innovation and Development in BMT in Austria

In accordance with international research trends, expert opinion and surveys in connection
with this study, the following fields of innovation and development (ID fields) for BMT in
Austria can be identified:
Biomaterials, Cell & Tissue Engineering, Organ Culture Systems: These are, world-wide,
the fields of the future and those that most involve biology. In Austria there is a variety of
BMT activities in these areas. These activities and their cross-connections should be
purposefully bundled and more strongly linked up in international research collaborations.
Medical Implants, Biosensors and Devices: This ID subject matter is considered to be a
future-oriented field of activity in which Austria has basic competency. In future
developments, combinations of molecular biology, electronics, materials science, and ITC
will be of great importance. This area should be included in future research advancement
strategies.
Basics in Biomedical Engineering and Biophysics: This ID field stands out by virtue of
the enormous scientific activity going on in it. Ongoing evaluation is needed to determine
to what extent supported projects can be tranformed into usable products and
technologies. Since basic research is fundamental to product ideas, this subject must be
given special consideration in future support strategies.
Instrumentation and Devices for Signal Acquisition, Diagnostics and Therapeutics: This
field already has a good base of knowledge for transforming ideas into products.
Successful niche products may be expected particularly in connection with medical
implants, biosensors and devices.
Imaging Techniques: Experts see the functional imaging of organs down to the molecular
level as an area of the future. Together with telemedicine and robotics, imaging has great
development potential.
Monitoring, Surveillance, Assisted Living and Biomechanics, Mobility & Rehabilitation
Engineering: Concluding from expert evaluation as well as from the important trends and
demographic developments, these topics will be especially important for a balanced socioeconomic scenario in the future. Therefore, the further development of these fields should
be pushed, particularly with the help of ITC and miniaturisation. The market prospects for
most of these products are considered to be particularly good.
Informatics, Mathematical & Computational Methods, Robotics & Communication and
(especially) Telemedicine: These subjects are epecially important for the time- and costefficient care of patients and persons with special needs. Because of their savings
potential, special efforts should be made to foster these areas. This is true also for the
development of methods and software, especially for imaging, telemedicine and robotics
in combination with miniaturisation and minimally invasive techniques.
Austrian Options in BMT

Austria needs a broad-based national innovation system in order to exploit the ID potential of
the Austrian economy. Most small and medium-sized Austrian businesses that are active in
BMT have neither the organisational nor the financial means at their disposal to carry out
R&D. As a result, cluster building in BMT seems a difficult task in the short run. Rather, we
would recommend expanding the base of firms in BMT by initiating projects that foster
14
clustering in the ID fields, to promote their links to BMT research institutions and to open
high-tech niche markets. This would allow for the conditions necessary for competitive BMT
clusters to be created in the intermediate to long run.
The problems surrounding the creation of added value or of the economic use of research
results in Austria are especially clear in the field of BMT. At present, the entrepreneurial base
of BMT firms is too narrow for the field to provide, in the medium term, effective partners for
research establishments to develop BMT products and to market them globally. Efforts should
be made towards international licensing agreements, third-party co-operation, and bringing
research units into the country with international partners, as well as the establishment of
domestic BMT companies. In this context, public research institutions should be assured an
appropriate share of the profit from a project, and attractive models of research partnership
should be made available to private firms. A unitary, transparent model for return on
investment should be developed. A primary goal continues to be the creation and
improvement of conditions for establishing companies coming out of academia and the world
of research. On the other hand, it must be the task of the universities to provide the necessary
structures in research and teaching.
In view of the complexity of the larger system that encompasses education, science, research
and technology, specific roads will need to be taken in BMT. Greater significance will have to
be ascribed to the organisation of projects that are value-added (market?) oriented, given the
intense international competition in knowledge. Most important is the best possible
transformation of new ideas in BMT into market- and care-relevant products and health care
services based on Austrian BMT competencies.
Given the background of certain BMT competencies and socio-economic demands, the
following should be implemented: a strategy of support for short-term BMT projects, project
sketches and programmes to stimulate ideas (impulse programmes), together with a
comprehensive package of programme support in the ID fields. Programme support must aim
at improving the transition of the innovative idea to its realisation, at fostering activities in
socio-politically relevant ID fields, and must be oriented to the demands of the market. Such
programme support should serve to encourage common BMT solutions from international
project teams and to set up networks of patients and users, of researchers and developers, in
order to initiate and steadily move forward the transfer of knowledge and technology between
research institutions and BMT companies.
A balance between basic and applied research must be aimed for, in order to make full use of
the entire innovation potential. Beyond that, the setting of a thematic focus will require a
stable framework within the politics of research support.
15
Biomedical Engineering in Belgium anno 2002

Relationship between the Belgian Society for Medical and Biological Engineering and
Computing (BSMBEC) and the National Committee on Bio-Medical Engineering
(NCBME)
The Belgian Society for Medical and Biological Engineering and Computing (BSMBEC) has
been founded in 1987. The aim of the society is to organise scientific meetings for people
active in the field of biomedical and clinical engineering. It is a non-profit organisation whose
seat is located at the "University Foundation" in Brussels. The BSMBEC is acknowledged as
the national affiliation of the International Federation for Medical and Biological Engineering
(IFMBE), the world federation of biomedical engineers.
Until recently the BSMBEC was a single organisation without formal interaction with other
local societies. However, many new initiatives have been started. We would like to mention
specifically the foundation of the National Committee on Bio-Medical Engineering (NCBME)
in 2000 by the joint meeting of the "Klasse van de Natuurwetenschappen" of the Royal
Flemish Academy of Belgium and the "Classe des Sciences" of the Royal Academy of
Belgium. This has become possible through the recognition of the field of biomedical
engineering by the ICSU, the International Council for Science, who has accepted the IFMBE
as one of its members.
As a consequence, it was desired that the rich potential of biomedical and clinical engineers in
Belgium should be grouped. To this extent, the BSMBEC has taken a position between the
existing organisations and became the glue between local initiatives and the national and
transnational levels.
Membership of BSMBEC entitles to:
Automatic membership of IFBME, International Federation of Medical and Biological
Engineering and Computing,
Automatic membership of ESEM, European Society for Engineering and Medicine,
Centralised receipt of all information regarding the activities of affiliated organisations
(IFMBE, ESEM, NCBME, Genootschap Biomedische Technieken en Gezondheidszorg Technologisch Instituut KVIV, Biomed Flanders), including their newsletters,
Admittance to all activities at reduced fees.
There are 61 active members. The first task to be undertaken by the joint venture of the
BSMBEC and the National Committee on Biomedical Engineering (NCBME) is to contact all
colleagues active in the multidisciplinary field of biomedical engineering, that lies at the
crosspoint of medical, applied and fundamental sciences. It wants to introduce and promote its
existence and members through existing scientific organisations, networks and institutions in
Belgium. The main yearly event is a National Day on Biomedical Engineering organised at
the Royal Academies of Sciences and Arts of Belgium in Brussels.
16
Summary Activities Report 2001

During the year 2001, the BSMBEC and the National Committee Biomedical Engineering
organised the following activities:
Meeting at the Royal Academy on March 8th 2001
Three day course on "Computational Biomechanics" (course directors: J. Vander Sloten,
P. Verdonck) organised together with the National Committee on Theoretical and Applied
Mechanics
th
Meeting at the Royal Academy on June 5 2001
th
Meeting at the Royal Academy on September 20 2001
Organisation of two symposia on robotic surgery "Betere chirurgie dankzij robotica en
navigatiesystemen" (9 November, KULeuven, J. Vander Sloten) and tissue engineering
"Tissue engineering: state of the art" (December 4th, Universiteit Gent, P. Verdonck) in
collaboration with TI-Kviv Genootschap Biomedische Techniek en Gezondheidszorg (I.
Lemahieu)
th
National Day on Biomedical Engineering at the Royal Academy on October 19 2001
with 110 participants
Programme
09h30-10h00
Registration and poster preparation
10h00-10h10
Introduction Chairman Prof. dr. ir. P. VERDONCK
10h10-11h00
Prof. Dr. H. TANKE, Leiden University,
Human genomics: state of the art for the biomedical engineer
11h00-11h30
Break
11h30-12h00
Prof. Dr. C. VERAART , Universit Catholique de Louvain
The optic nerve visual prosthesis
12h00-12h30
Prof. Dr. M. PAIVA, Universit Libre de Bruxelles
Biomedical engineering in microgravity
12h30-14h00
Lunch and business meeting
14h00-14h30
Prof. dr. ir. J. CORNELIS, Vrije Universiteit Brussel
Biomedical research
14h30-16h00
Poster sessions
Parallel and guided poster session
Topics:
biomaterials (14 posters)
biomechanics (18 posters)
medical information technology (21 posters)

16h00-17h00
Closing discussion - conclusion - refreshments
.
A database was updated on interested contact persons and members

A website concerning Biomedical Engineering, the National Committee and BSMBEC
was established: http://biomengineering.org/
Contacts with Unamec (society of distributors of medical and paramedical equipment) and
the Belgian societies of clinical technicians were started
International relations were kept with IUPESM and IFMBE on the world-level
Contacts with ESEM were upheld on the European level
Contacts with the EAMBES Protem group were initiated
17
BME Postgraduate Education

In the Flemish region of Belgium three postgraduate programmes are available.
Ghent University, RUG
(GGS*) Master of Science in Biomedical and Clinical Engineering Technology
2
year study (120 ECTS credits)
3 options
(1) General biomedical techniques
(2) Artificial Organs (recognised by INFA, the International Faculty of Artificial organs,
Bologna)
(3) Radiation Physics (Recognition as expert in radiation physics)
http://www.ibitech.rug.ac.be/education.html
Catholic University Leuven, KULeuven

(GAS**) Biomedische en Klinische Ingenieurstechnieken en Medische Fysica
1 year study (60 ECTS credits)
Two options :
(1) Medische stralingsfysica
(2) Biomedische en klinische ingenieurstechnieken
(GGS*) Medische stralingsfysica,
(Recognition as expert in radiation physics)
http://www.cwisdb.cc.kuleuven.ac.be/programmaboek/h37.htm
GGS* Bioinformatics
All
information
is
available
www.esat.kuleuven.ac.be/sista/GGS
from
the
Free University Brussel, VUB

(GGS*) Biomedical and Clinical Engineering
3
year study (120 ECTS credits)
2 options
(1) Medical Physics (recognition as expert in radiation physics)
(2) Biomedical and Clinical Engineering Technology
http://educo.vub.ac.be:591/omaconsult/FMPro
following
website:
18
The integration of the three mentioned postgraduate programmes into one single international
MSc BME programme is under negotiation.
*GGS: "gediplomeerde in de gespecialiseerde studieen", at least 2/3 of the courses in this
postgraduate programme are new courses, non-existing in other master courses
**GAS: "gediplomeerde in de geavanceerde studieen", 2/3 of the courses in this postgraduate
programme are existing courses in other master programmes.
BME Master Education

Besides the well established and recognised postgraduate programmes, since 2001 the three
universities offer also BME at master level as an option in existing programmes of master of
science in engineering
Ghent University, RUG
The students in MSc in engineering with a major option (civil engineering, chemical- and
materials engineering, physical engineering, computer sciences) can select a minor option in
biomedical technology of 30 ECTS credits and 15 ECTS credits master thesis.
Catholic University Leuven, KULeuven
The students in MSc in engineering with a major option ( mechanical and electrical
engineering) can select a minor option in biomedical technology of 60 ECTS credits, master
thesis included.
Free University Brussel, VUB
The students in MSc in engineering with a major option (electrical engineering) can choose a
minor option in biomedical technology of 60 ECTS credits by studying one full time year at
the University of Patras.
University of Patras; Contact : Prof. N. Pallikarakis
Laboratory of Medical Physics; School of Medicine
University of Patras; Patras-Greece
Thematic Network Socrates
http://etro.vub.ac.be/tempere
In the French speaking part of Belgium BME is part of the biomedical science education.
Universit Catholique de Louvain (UCL)
School of Biomedical Sciences (SBIM)
This School offers the Degree of Bachelor of Science in Bio-medicine.
This degree includes two generic preliminary study years ( Candidatures en Sciences
biomdicales ) devoted to the study of basic sciences and biomedical sciences. The last two
years of this BS programme ( Licence en Sciences Biomdicales ) are then divided into five
different specialties (Clinical Biomedical Sciences, Experimental Biomedical Sciences,
19
Clinical and Biomedical Engineering, Nutrition, and Toxicology) leading to the degree of
Bachelor of Science in Bio-medicine, orientation Clinical and Biomedical Engineering
( Licenci en Sciences biomdicales, orientation gnie clinique et biomdical ).
School of Engineering (FSA) - Biomedical Engineering modulus
The School of Engineering allows its students to follow a 90-hour Modulus in Biomedical
Engineering
Inter-School Sciences Institute (INIS)
This School offers the degree of Master of Science in Applied Natural Sciences ( Diplme
dtudes complmentaires en Sciences naturelles appliques ). This one-to-two-year
programme is open to students with a BS in Biology, Engineering, or Agronomy, as well as to
MDs, and includes three different specialties, among them Biomedical Engineering.
Universit Libre de Bruxelles, ULB

Master
in
Biomedical
Sciences
(Licence
en
Sciences
http://www.ulb.ac.be/prog/medecine/biomed/g3.html with two options:
Biomdicales),
1. "Spcialisation INGENIERIE: ORGANES ARTIFICIELS ET IMPLANTS,

BIOMECANIQUE"
Programme: http://www.ulb.ac.be/prog/medecine/biomed/g3_5_1.html and
http://www.ulb.ac.be/prog/medecine/biomed/g3_5_2.html
2. "Spcialisation INGENIERIE: MODELISATION, IMAGERIE"
Programme: http://www.ulb.ac.be/prog/medecine/biomed/g3_6_1.html and
http://www.ulb.ac.be/prog/medecine/biomed/g3_6_2.html
After the Master, the students can begin a D.E.A. (DIPLOME D'ETUDES APPROFONDIES)
PhD in Biomedical Sciences (one year), which is mandatory for a PhD in Biomedical
Sciences.
BME Education PhD Degree

The PhD in Engineering on a BME topic can be obtained at all major Belgian universities and
generally requires a research period of 4 years. A master degree in engineering is a
prerequisite.
BME Accreditation
According to the Belgian political situation the accreditation is performed by the federal (e.g.
Recognition as expert in radiation physics(2 October 1997)) and regional governments and
not by professional independent organisations. All study programmes are subject to
international review by means of so-called visitation commissions.
In the framework of the bachelor master reorganisation international accreditation bodies will
be established in the near future.
20
Biomedical Engineering in Bulgaria

V. Todorov and I. Daskalov
1. The Bulgarian Society of Biomedical Physics and Engineering

The National Society of Biomedical Physics and Engineering was founded in 1971. It is
a collective member of the Union of the Medical Societies in Bulgaria. Since 1962, the medical physicists were members of the National Society of Radiology and the biomedical engineers had a Section of Medical Electronics in the Bulgarian Physiological Society. These two
groups merged to form the new Society. It is a fact of pride to us that this is one of the oldest
biomedical scientific societies in the world.
Among the founders of our Society we would like to mention the medical physicists
Prof. V. Vransky, R. Popitz, V. Penchev, M. Ganchev and the medical engineers D. Karadimov, I. Stamboliev, Prof. I. Daskalov.
The members of the Society, initially a total of 100 but lately only about 60, participate
in the two sections, Biomedical Physics and Biomedical Engineering respectively, the majority of them being physicists.
The Society activities are various and with different intensities throughout the years.
They include organisation of National Conferences, the distribution of information on scientific conferences and symposia abroad, reviews of new books, approbation of dissertations or
publications, celebration of anniversaries of important scientific events, participation in education and especially in the organisation of postgraduate training of medical physicists and
engineers in our country and abroad, consultation of the Ministry of Health and other government agencies on major problems of medical physics and engineering such as acquisition
of special instrumentation, organisation and distribution of clinical physics and engineering
services, etc.
The Society holds its regular scientific conferences every four years. Many Bulgarian
and foreign biomedical physicists and engineers participated actively by presenting papers
and by joining discussions. Scientists from USA, France, Germany, England, India and from
all Central and Eastern European countries took part in the six conferences held since 1972.
The 5th Conference (1988) included a WHO Symposium on Medical Technology Assessment, dealing with major medical, bioengineering and medical physics problems of the
evaluation of needs of modern procedures and instrumentation.
The Annual Colloquium Physics in the protection of man and its environment, organised jointly by our Society and the Sofia Branch of the Union of Bulgarian Physicists, gained
wide acceptance and popularity taking place already 19 years in succession. Each year specific ecological subjects are considered, attracting most of the specialists. The main working
approach is the discussion, and about 15-20 reports and scientific communications are presented. The colloquium proceedings are published and distributed free of charge to the participants and many institutions and libraries. In the last few years the Ministry of Ecology is a
co-organiser. The traditional time and place of this event is June, in Giulechitza, in the heart
of the Rila mountains, at the Scientific Station of the University of Sofia "St. Kliment Ohridski".
The National Society of Biomedical Physics and Engineering is a collective member of
the European Organisation of Medical Physics (EOMP) and the International Federation of
Medical and Biological Engineering (IFMBE). Good contacts are maintained with these two
1
21
organisations, as well as with the International Organisation of Medical Physics (IOMP).

They help us with information and support for participation in international schools and conferences. IOMP donated many medical physics books and journal issues to our Society. They
are officially included in the library of the University Hospital Queen Joanna and are available to all Bulgarian specialists. The society is maintaining good contacts with sister organisations in Germany, Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary, Greece, Turkey and others. Due to Dr.
D. White, our Society collaborates actively with the Clinical Science Foundation London
since 1992. It subsidised three seminars on radiation physics with invited lecturers from
abroad and financially supported members of our Society to participate in the 8th Congress of
the Bulgarian Radiological Society in Varna, October 1995, dedicated to the centenary of the
discovery of X rays. Prof. V. C. Roberts and Dr. S. Tabakov (a former member of our Society) initiated a Tempus project, financed by the European Commission, for the organisation
of an international postgraduate course on Medical Radiation Physics in the Medical and
Technical Universities in Plovdiv.
The political changes in Central and Eastern Europe, including our country too, reflected on the status and activities of our Society. Young specialists among our members emigrated to developed countries. Severe financial difficulties prevent our members from participating in congresses, conferences and symposia in the country and abroad, impede the organisation of postgraduate courses and of specialist meetings. The extremely bad conditions of
health care in our country do not attract young physicists and engineers to this profession.
However, an improvement of the international relations and an increase in contacts can be
noted, mainly due to actions and financial help of international organisations.
2. Biomedical Physics
Medical Radiation Physics was the first branch of Medical Physics in Bulgaria. Its beginnings could be marked by the work of Prof. A. Sakhatchiev (Sen.) in 1920, on the measurement of X rays. This problem is still a major theme of modern Medical Physics in the
world. Medical physicists are introducing and establishing the powerful physical methods and
models for study and control of physiological processes in radiology, radiation therapy and
nuclear medicine. They are also involved in the objective assessment of the influence of various physical factors, including ionising radiation. In the practical diagnostic and therapeutic
activities, medical physicists share the responsibility with medical doctors.
The first medical physicist working in the field of dosimetry of ionising radiation in
Bulgaria was Prof. V. Vransky. He is also the first lecturer in dosimetry in the radiology and
radiotherapy postgraduate courses for medical doctors and the author of the first manual in
this field (Basics of Radiological Dosimetry, 1953). In the introduction to his book, the author
clearly stated its purpose: to help doctors substitute empirical with scientific attitude in their
work.
Prof. Vransky worked in a period when an intensive development of radiology, radiotherapy and nuclear medicine was initiated. The first laboratories of clinical dosimetry and
radiation protection were established in the former Institute of Postgraduate Medicine, presently the University Hospital Queen Joanna, and in the National Centre of Oncology. The
Ministry of Health founded its Quality Control Laboratory for radiology and radiotherapy,
empowered to supervise all hospitals. The unit of the University Hospital was established as a
National Secondary Standard Laboratory of ionising radiation dosimetry in 1975. Since 1977,
it was included in the network of secondary dosimetry laboratories under IAEA and WHO.
2
22
The laboratory participated in international comparison studies and is responsible for the
regular supervision of the 60Co telegamma therapy units in the country. The Clinical Dosimetry Laboratory of the National Centre of Oncology took part in international comparison
studies on dosimetry of high energy electrons and photons and of X-rays, organised by IAEA
and WHO. One of the first accelerators in Eastern Europe (Betatron, 42 MeV) is operating in
the Centre since 1969.
Radiology physics is still the best developed branch of medical physics in Bulgaria.
About 25 medical physicists are working in the national and regional centres of radiotherapy
and nuclear medicine. The laboratories of radiation protection established by different administrations in 1960, as well as the respective departments of the Regional Environment Protection Inspectorates employ about 100 specialists, most of them physicists. They are under
the methodical supervision of the National Centre of Radiobiology and Radiation Protection,
employing itself numerous medical physicists.
The second largest group of physicists is engaged in control and research in the field of
hygiene, connected with different harmful agents and factors. The Laboratory of Electromagnetic Non-Ionising Radiation of the National Centre of Hygiene and Medical Ecology is very
active. Its functions include research, teaching and nationwide inspection.
A group of physicists is working in the field of climatology and therapy in climatic environment. Their activity is very important in view of the various favourable climatic conditions in Bulgaria.
Postgraduate educational courses in Medical Radiation Physics and in Physics in Hygiene are regularly organised by the Medical University of Sofia. The course duration is a
minimum of 2 years, following modern curricula. Several dozen physicists, mainly working
in the fields of radiotherapy and nuclear medicine have graduated already. Many of them are
with the Departments of Medical Physics and Biophysics of the Medical Universities in Bulgaria. Short courses and individual training programmes in Medical Radiation Physics are
also given by several research centres in this field. Educational and training activities for
physicists and engineers in radiology and radiotherapy are supported by IAEA, EFOMP, EU
and other international and some national organisations with research contracts, specialisation
grants, measurement instrumentation, etc.
The involvement of physicists in other medical specialities in our country is limited in
comparison to developed nations. Medical physics is scarcely applied in physical therapy,
clinical biochemistry, medical technology, orthopaedics, dentistry, ophthalmology and other
similar fields of medicine. No medical physicists are engaged in laser applications for diagnostics and therapy, in ultrasound diagnostic imaging, in radiology including computer tomography, in nuclear magnetic resonance imaging, in diagnostics and therapy of cardiovascular
diseases.
The reasons for the unsatisfactory condition of medical physics in Bulgaria are manifold. One of the main disadvantages is the university education of student physicists and the
teaching of medical students in physics. Applied physics is neglected in the faculties of physics in our universities. This is reflecting on the possibilities and desire of future physicists to
look for achievement in the field of medical physics. Another aspect of this condition is the
problem of adequate selection of teachers for the departments of biophysics and medical
physics of the medical universities. The authorities of medical universities often underestimate the fundamental role of physics in medicine. A result is the continuing trend for reduction of medical physics lectures and practice hours.
23
Some tendencies for overcoming the decline of medical physics in Bulgaria are starting
to appear. In addition to the already acknowledged joint activities with EFOMP, IOMP, the
Clinical Science Foundation seminars and the EU supported Medical Radiation Physics postgraduate courses, a specialisation in Medical Physics and Radioecology was established in
the Pedagogical Institute in Shoumen. It is a programme incorporated in the four last semesters for the students in physics and includes a diploma thesis. About 10-12 students per year
are acquiring this speciality. Renowned professors from universities and research institutes in
Sofia are invited lecturers. Another forthcoming event is the formation of a specialisation in
Medical Physics at the Faculty of Physics of the Sofia University St. Kliment Ohridski.
3. Biomedical Engineering
The first biomedical engineer in Bulgaria was S. Karadimov, who introduced X-ray and
electrical therapy instrumentation in the country before the second world war. He was the
representative of foreign manufacturers and established a service and maintenance unit. These
activities were further developed by him and the X-ray technicians S. Stefanov and V. Stefanov. About 1956-57, several young electronic engineers were attracted by medical engineering. K. Popov and E. Milev contributed to the maintenance of complex medical instrumentation. Under the supervision of S. Karadimov, local production of electrotherapy instrumentation was started, with K. Marinchev, D. Karadimov, I. Stamboliev and I. Daskalov
forming a research and development group. Several years later, L. Jovev and K. Popov, assisted by I. Dotsinsky, headed the newly established Institute of Medical Engineering, with
the task of development and production control of medical instrumentation. A research and
clinical engineering unit, the Department of Biomedical Engineering, was created within the
former Medical Academy, today Medical University, headed by I. Daskalov.
The education of medical engineers was initiated in 1974 by I. Stamboliev. Specialisation in medical electronics was established within the Department of Electronic Engineering
of the Technical University of Sofia and attracted many students. In spite of some decline of
interest in engineering sciences, in the last several years the annual number of graduates in
medical electronics averages 45.
Teaching and research activities are combined due to the intense collaboration between
the Faculty of Electronic Engineering and Technology and the Centre of Biomedical Engineering of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences. Ph.D. and diploma theses are jointly supervised, common projects are developed, links with several industrial groups are maintained.
Educational activities in biomedical engineering were undertaken in the last years by the
Technical Universities of Varna, Plovdiv (a branch of the Technical University of Sofia) and
Gabrovo. Considerable improvement in this direction was reached due to an EU supported
Tempus project, also offering the possibility for about 10 Bulgarian students to attend an
international postgraduate bioengineering course at the University of Patras (Greece). Bulgarian professors have the opportunity to participate in teaching this course.
Science and research activities in biomedical engineering are concentrated mainly in
several institutions in Sofia. They are the Centre of Biomedical Engineering, the bioengineering groups in the Institute of Physiology and the Institute of Biophysics, the Department of
Medical Electronics in the Technical University (TU) of Sofia, the Clinical Engineering Departments in the Medical University and the Military Medical Academy. More than 350 papers on different topics of biomedical engineering have been published in international scientific journals and books by our colleagues, cited by more than 800 authors abroad.
4
24
Clinical Engineering has a long tradition in Bulgaria. About 800 engineers and technicians are in this field, some of them in separate service units, as representatives of foreign
manufacturers or as clinical engineers in the larger hospitals throughout the country. The majority of the engineers in this domain are TU of Sofia graduates in medical electronics.
The medical engineering industry used to include assembly of X-ray units in cooperation with foreign manufacturers, production of locally developed X-ray units and electrotherapy devices, standard blood pressure measurement devices, surgical instruments, etc.
Presently the main manufacturer is EMA Engineering Co. It manufactures microprocessor
electrocardiographs, ECG and respiration monitors, electrical stimulators, etc., developed by
the Centre of Biomedical Engineering. EMA products are well accepted by the internal market, but about 50% of the production is exported.
Biomedical physics and engineering in Bulgaria are well established as traditional disciplines, and although there is a decline of activities, such as local production, hospital services, acquisition of modern equipment and instrumentation, which is due to the economical
problems of the country, their potential is being preserved. The optimism for a better future is
based on the considerable scientific and technological potential and experience of our members and on the belief in the forthcoming prosperity of our country.
The Bulgarian Society of Biomedical Physics and Engineering:
President:
Ass. Prof. Michel Israel, Ph.D.

National Center of Hygiene, Medical Ecology and Nutrition
Physical Factors Dept.
Acad. Ivan Geshov st. No. 15
Sofia 1431
Bulgaria
E-mail: m.israel@nchmen.government.bg
Vice-President: Ass. Prof. Athanas Slavtchev, Ph.D.

National Center for Radiobiology and Radiation Protection
St. Kl. Ohridski Blvd., 132
Sofia 1756
Bulgaria
E-mail: ncrrp@medicalnet-bg.org
25
Biomedical Engineering in Croatia

Ratko Magjarevi, Vedran Bilas
Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computing, University of Zagreb
Croatian Medical and Biological Engineering Society
Ratko.Magjarevic@fer.hr
1. Introduction
In Croatia, research in the field of biomedical engineering started in the late
fifties of the last century. The background for biomedical engineering were
engineering and medical faculties and, later, the medical equipment industry. In the
early seventies, lectures in biomedical engineering were introduced into
undergraduate programmes (first at the University of Zagreb) and later into
undergraduate and postgraduate studies at several universities in Croatia. The
Croatian Medical and Biological Engineering Society (CROMBES) took the leading
role in the continuing education of engineering staff working in health care facilities.
Due to a (generally) small labour market, an unsatisfactory position of engineering
staff within the health care system, and particularly the disturbance brought into the
civil system by the aggression on Croatia in the last decade of the 20th century, no
integrated biomedical engineering programme was established until the academic year
2001/02. Recognising the need for a harmonisation of the education programmes
within Europe, CROMBES initiated the establishment of postgraduate studies in the
field of biomedical engineering in 2001. At the same time, steps were taken towards
the recognition of the position of biomedical and clinical engineers working in health
care facilities.
2. The National Society
The Croatian Medical and Biological Engineering Society (CROMBES) was
founded in 1992, continuing the tradition of the Croatian Section of the former
Yugoslav BME Society (founded in 1984). CROMBES is an interdisciplinary
scientific organisation, bringing together those who work in the field of biomedical
engineering and medical physics. This is rather unusual for most European countries,
but is not an exception (for example, Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine
in UK). Since 1993, the Society is a full member of the International Federation for
Medical and Biological Engineering (IFMBE) and the European Federation for
Medical Physics (EFOMP).
The society is involved in organising national and international scientific
events in biomedical engineering, medical physics and medical informatics (the latter
in co-operation with the Croatian Society for Medical Informatics) and collaborates
very closely with the State Office for Standardisation and Metrology, particularly with
the Technical Committee TC-62, on the harmonisation of Croatian Standards relevant
for medical equipment with European and International Standards.
Since 1995 CROMBES publishes a professional journal (Obavijesti HDMBT,
in Croatian). Since 2000, the Slovenian and Croatian BME Societies produce a
common journal (Novice / Obavijesti) with contributions in Croatian, Slovenian and

English.
In 2000, CROMBES had 110 members, predominantly engineers, working at
universities or in clinical facilities. Due to the interdisciplinary and scientific
orientation of the Society, a number of physicians and dentists are members as well.
The Society has three divisions:
- Clinical Engineering Division
- Medical Physics Division
- Biomechanics Division.
The divisions take care of professional matters concerning clinical and biomedical
engineers as well as medical physicists and organise continuous education for those
professions. One of the latest achievements (in spring 2001) was the establishment of
a Working Group for Clinical Engineering and Medical Physics within the structure
of the Ministry of Health. The aim of this working group is to give professional
support and advice to the Ministry in matters of
- health care technology assessment and management
- continuous education of medical and engineering staff in clinical facilities
- (technical aspects of) the implementation of EU Medical Device Directives.
In addition to CROMBES, there are other scientific and professional societies in
Croatia that associate individuals interested in different aspects of technology
application in medicine and the health care system:
- Croatian Society for Medical Informatics
- Health Association - Committee for Engineering and Technology in Health
Care
- Croatian Medical Association - Society for Telemedicine.
3. Education, Training and Accreditation
3.1 Education
Programmes in biomedical engineering leading to a university degree are
offered by three Croatian universities. The Faculty of Electrical Engineering and
Computing at the University of Zagreb as well as the Faculty of Electrical
Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Naval Architecture at the University of
Split present courses at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels, the Faculty of
Electrical Engineering at the University of Osijek at undergraduate level only.
However, these do not result in a biomedical engineering degree, but a diploma
(graduate - dipl. ing.; postgraduate - mr. sc. or dr. sc.) in Electrical Engineering. The
completion of the undergraduate programmes takes 9 semesters.
The list of subject courses at the Faculty of Electrical Engineering and
Computing, University of Zagreb, is presented as an example in Appendix 1. After 4
semesters, undergraduate students make the choice of a programme (out of six
different programmes). Subject courses in biomedical engineering are taught within
the programme of Industrial Electronics. After graduation, students may enter
postgraduate studies: the magister of science (mr. sc.) programme, considered an
equivalent to M. Sc. and lasting a minimum of two up to four years. The doctorate (dr.
sc.) programme, an equivalent to Ph. D. studies, lasting up to four years, may be
entered without gaining the magister diploma only if the student has published a part
of his/her research in an international journal before entering the doctoral programme.
26
At the Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computing, University of Zagreb,

the ECTS is fully implemented at both undergraduate and postgraduate studies. The
flow chart presenting the different possibilities of obtaining a postgraduate diploma is
presented in Fig. 1.
3.1.1 The Proposed Structure of Postgraduate Programmes
Working on plans and programmes for the recognition and education of
clinical engineers in Croatia for several years, the Croatian Medical and Biological
Engineering Society has developed a model (programme) which we consider optimal
for the current transitional state of society as well as the health care reform, including
its economical aspects. One major consideration of this programme was the small
labour market. Proposed is a postgraduate programme over at least four semesters,
containing some common courses for biomedical/clinical engineers and medical
physicists, with a lot of practical work in the clinical environment and strongly
leaning on international collaboration and mobility. For the time being, the diploma
would specify the word "specialist" in biomedical/clinical engineering or in medical
physics in order to comply with the present regulations in the health care system.
One of the specific points of this programme are common basic courses for
engineers and physicists, something that is unusual in the existing programmes.
The other question arising from the present situation in Croatia is whether to
name the programme a clinical engineering or a biomedical engineering programme.
At the present time, the name "clinical engineer" is more often used in health care
facilities.
During the development of this postgraduate programme, the preliminary
assumptions were:
- the prerequisite for entering the programme should be a Dipl. Eng. or, in the
future, a B.Sc. diploma in engineering (electrical, electronic, mechanical or
technology) or physics
- the students qualification has to include the knowledge considered as
"minimum requirements" for entering the studies (mandatory topics),
measurable according to the ECTS
- subjects of the postgraduate studies would consist of subjects mandatory for
both profiles (CE and MP), subjects mandatory for one profile only and
optional subjects
- such a structure should enable the students to achieve specific
competencies/specialisation
- subjects intended for both profiles would mostly consist of interdisciplinary
topics necessary for both profiles, i.e. selected topics of anatomy,
electrophysiology, biotechnology etc.
- some of the students may be directed to attend and pass the exam (one or more
courses) from the undergraduate engineering or physics programmes in order
to win the missing credits
- to facilitate the development of a professional profile for each student, not
limiting him or her to a programme offered locally, mobility within European
universities should be stressed as one of the most important points of the
programme
- in addition, students should be encouraged to continue their education on a
higher level, to win the "expert" title in their profession (this two steps ranking
27
already exists within the European Federation of Organisations for Medical

Physics).
We think that such a model could find approval not only in Croatia, but in
other transitional countries that do not have established undergraduate BME, CE and
MP programmes and would be accepted by the international/national bodies for
quality control and accreditation of academic programmes. The programme should be
flexible and easily adaptable to the needs of the health care system and society in
general.
3.2 Training
Presently, the Ministry of Health is preparing a new law regarding the
organisation and systematisation of the health care system. The Croatian BME
Society has proposed that all those engineers (biomedical or clinical) and medical
physicists who work in a hospital environment, with patients and/or life supporting
medical equipment, and therefore carry a significant responsibility for patients' health,
should obtain the professional status of "medical worker". Continuous training (after
graduation) in accordance with the (existing) requirements for continuous education
for medical professions and clinical practice should be introduced for those
engineering professions. During the training, the trainees should be employed within
the health care system to ensure their clinical practice. After finishing the training the
trainees should pass the state exam (for their profession) to get a licence.
Since these regulations are still being developed, an acceptable solution should
be found for those engineers already working in health care facilities who have
undergone several additional training courses.
According to the policy of the Croatian BME Society, the responsibility for
organising the training should be in the hands of the Society and under control of the
Ministry of Health and the University.
3.3 Accreditation of Education and Training
The degrees or related qualifications offered by universities are authorised by
the Ministry of Science and Technology. Faculties seeking permission for a graduate
or postgraduate programme have to demonstrate the quality of the programme and the
adequate infrastructure for its implementation to the National Board for Higher
Education, a body of the Ministry of Science and Technology that takes care of higher
education quality assurance.
In addition, degrees and programmes for professions practising in health care
have to be accredited by the Ministry of Health.
Universities are self-governing institutions with full responsibility for the
quality of their programmes. They also decide on the content, duration and title of
degree programmes, which leads to notable variations.
Croatia has signed the Bologna Declaration and the Croatian universities have
started the process of harmonising their programmes according to the requirements
and recommendations of the Declaration. Major changes in the structure of
programmes are expected in the coming years.
4. Additional Information
28
At present, a scientific postgraduate programme in Medical Physics is

functioning at the Faculty of Nature Sciences, University of Zagreb. Most of the
medical physicists practising in health care facilities have graduated from that
programme and were awarded a Master's degree (M.Sc.), which in Croatia is
abbreviated mr.sc.. The list of courses at postgraduate studies in Medical Physics is
presented in Appendix 2.
Postgraduate education in Medical Informatics, oriented towards health
information systems, was introduced in 1984 at the School of Public Health "Andrija
tampar", a part of the Medical School, University of Zagreb. Physicians and others,
working in health or educational institutions, are the attendees. Students who
graduated obtained a Master's degree (mr. sc. in Medical Informatics). The list of
courses at postgraduate studies, module Medical Informatics is also presented in
Appendix 2.
Courses with a curriculum predominately and partially in Biomedical
Engineering, from the Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and
Naval Architecture at the University of Split and from the Faculty of Electrical
Engineering at the University of Osijek are also listed in Appendix 2.
Students of the Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, may enter a
number of courses in biomechanics and/or measurement theory and applications
related to the movement of the human body and sports. Since these courses are
eligible to students from other programmes (due to the inter-university exchange
policy), they are listed in Appendix 2 as well.
29
30
Appendix 1.
Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computing
University of Zagreb
Studies in Electrical Engineering
Table 1. Fundamental Courses
Semester
ECTS
Linear algebra
Mathematical analysis I
Physics I
Fundamentals of electrical engineering I
Computer applications
Mathematical analysis II
Physics II
Fundamentals of electrical engineering II
Programming
Graphics and documentation for engineers
Mathematical analysis III
Electrical measurements
3+4
10
Electronics I
Fundamentals of power engineering
Algorithms and data structure
Electronics II
Digital electronics
Network and transmission line theory
Stochastic mathematics
Semester
ECTS
Electronic measurement and components
Signals and systems
Digital computers
Physics of materials
Elective courses *
Humanistic elective **
Electronic instrumentation
Stochastic processes in systems
Fundamentals of microelectronics
Program: Industrial Electronics

Table 2. Program Core Courses
31
Filters and filter amplifiers
Automatic control
Transmission and telemetry systems
Microelectronic circuits
Biomedical electronics
Digital signal processing
Embedded system design
Computerised measurement and control systems
Design and manufacturing of electronic devices
Elective courses *
Economics
Semester
ECTS
Numerical network analysis and design
Automata, formal languages, and compiler design I
Radiofrequency electronics
Telecommunication networks
Theory of electromagnetic fields
Operational research
Mathematical modelling by Wolfram mathematics
Fundamentals of power electronics
Computer graphics
Advanced electronic circuits
Design of digital VLSI/ULSI circuits
Transducers in measurement systems
Industrial measurement systems
Chaos theory for engineers
Digital image processing
Design of intelligent measurement systems
Numerical methods
Discrete mathematics
Open computing
Ultrasound and hydroacoustics
Real-time systems
* see Table 3.
** two humanistic elective courses are compulsory
Table 3. Elective Courses
32
Analogue integrated circuit design
Expert systems techniques
Selected topics of biomedical engineering
Software design for measurement and control systems
Process identification
Radio positioning and navigation
Biomonitoring systems
Design and developement of interactive simulation

systems
ULSI
Integrated circuit design
Photonic communication technology***
GaAs and heterostructure semiconductor devices ***
Multisensor systems and locomotion***
Automatised instrumentation***
Digital speech processing***
Neural networks ***
Multimedia data transfer and computer networks ***
Intelligent control systems ***
Biomedical informatics ***
Circuits for analogue signal processing ***
Software engineering - selected topics ***
*** courses common for undergraduate and postgraduate program

Table 4. Graduate courses (Mr. sc.) ****
ECTS
Biomechanical and neurophysiological mechanisms
Noise and vibration measurements
Measurement and analysis of random processes
Computer modelling and simulation
Selected topics on digital image processing
Optical sensors and components
Mulstisensor biomonitoring systems
Biomedical effects of electromagnetic fields
Digital image analysis
Electrical filters - selected chapters
Electroacoustical transducers
Medical instrumentation for 2-D imaging
Instrumentation and electronic methods in radiation detection
33
Instrumentation in environmental control
Microwave instrumentation and measuring methods
Computers applications in medicine
Virtual reality
**** only courses with curriculum predominately and/or partially
in biomedical engineering are listed
For more information, visit www.fer.hr
(Information in English available on the General outlines and the booklet on
Postgraduate Studies downloadable.)
Appendix 2.
Faculty of Science
Postgraduate courses in Medical Physics
Physics in nuclear medicine
Physics in radiology
Physics and application of ultrasound in medicine
Dosimetry and radiation protection
Methods of tomographic reconstruction
Biomedical electronics and instrumentation
Selected topics in physiology and pathophysiology
Selected topics in anatomy for radiologists
Seminar (labs) in medical physics
Electives:
Mathematical modelling and numerical methods
Magnetic tomography
School of Public Health "Andrija tampar", School of Medicine
Postgraduate courses in Medical Informatics
(Module "Biomedicine")
Methods in medical informatics
Statistical analysis of medical data
Epidemiological methods in research
Simulation modelling in medicine
Statistical analysis of free texts
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Naval
Architecture
University of Split
Undergraduate studies, Programme Electrical Engineering
Electives:
Biocybernetics
Telemedicine
Bioelectric systems and equipment
Postgraduate studies, Programme Electrical Engineering
Signals and systems in biomedical engineering
Effects of electromagnetic fields on the human body
34
Biomedical instrumentation
Faculty of Electrical Engineering
University of Osijek
Undergraduate studies, Programme Electronics and Automatics
Faculty of Kinesiology
Undergraduate studies
Biomechanics I
Electives:
Biomechanics II
Rehabilitation biomechanics
Postgraduate studies
Diagnostics of training in sports medicine
Biomechanical methods
Motoric learning
Kinesiological measurement systems
Modelling and diagnostics of neuromuscular systems
Analysis methodology of stochastical processes in the human motoric
system
35
Fig. 1. Presentation of the postgraduate curriculum at the Faculty of Electrical

Engineering and Computing, University of Zagreb. ECTS is fully implemented.
36
37
Biomedical Engineering Education in the Czech Republic

Ji Holk
Brno University of Technology
holcik@dbme.fee.vutbr.cz
Lenka Lhotsk
Czech Technical University in Prague
Jaromr Cmral
Czech Society for Biomedical Engineering and Medical Informatics
1. Introduction
Teaching activities in former Czechoslovakia started in 1967 when a new Department
of Medical Electronics was established at the Electrotechnical Faculty of the Technical University of Brno. This department was to educate new experts both for applied research and
development in CHIRANA, the former Czechoslovak company producing medical equipment
and for technical services and clinical practice in hospitals and other institutions of health care
in Czechoslovakia. Since then similar educational programmes have been established at other
Czechoslovak technical universities, in particular at the Slovak Technical University in Bratislava (1971) and the Czech Technical University in Prague (1976). Nowadays different levels
of undergraduate educational programmes in BME and related fields can be found at four
Czech universities (Brno University of Technology, Czech Technical University in Prague,
Technical University in Ostrava and Charles University in Prague) and one higher school
(Pardubice).
Besides these undergraduate study programmes the Czech Society for Biomedical Engineering and Medical Informatics is preparing postgraduate professional training
programmes for clinical engineers working in health care.
The Czech Society for Biomedical Engineering and Medical Informatics (CSBME&MI)
was founded in 1978 as a member of the Czech Medical Association of J.E.Purkyn. The Society is a scientific organisation without activities in professional matters of biomedical or
clinical engineers (there is no professional organisation of biomedical engineers in the Czech
Republic yet).
Since the beginning the Society has been involved in:
- organising scientific conferences, seminars and workshops in biomedical engineering and
medical informatics (both national and international events);
- postgraduate professional education and training of clinical engineers (in co-operation with
Czech universities);
- co-operation in preparation of legal regulations dealing with health care in the Czech Republic and its technical support;
- publishing activity the Society is a publisher of a scientific journal Lka a technika
(Physician and Technology). The journal is published in Czech and Slovak languages.
Nowadays the activities of the Society are organised in three sections:
- section of clinical engineering (biomedical signal acquisition, recording, processing and
analysis; biomedical image processing and analysis; diagnostic and therapeutic medical
1
38
equipment; laboratory devices; ultrasound applications in medicine; interaction of electromagnetic field with living tissue and organisms);
- section of medical informatics (statistical methods in medicine, medical data analysis and
medical decision making, multimedia applications, modelling and simulation in biology
and medicine, telemedicine);
- section of biophysics.
In 2001 CSBME&MI has about 50 active members. Most of them work at universities
and the other members are clinical engineers and physicians working at hospitals, clinics and
other health care departments. Not all Czech clinical engineers are members of CSBME&MI
and their exact number is not known (we only estimate that there are tens of clinical engineers
working at Czech hospitals).
The Society officially represents the Czech biomedical engineering community in the
International Federation for Medical and Biological Engineering (IFMBE) and it is also a
member of other international societies as the International Medical Informatics Association
(IMIA) and the European Federation for Medical Informatics (EFMI).
Besides CSBME&MI there are also other societies in the Czech Republic that associate
people who are interested in specific branches of biomedical engineering:
- Czech Society for Health Care Informatics and Scientific Information (this society is also a
member of the Czech Medical Association of J. E. Purkyn);
- Czech Society for Medical Devices (its main interests are in preparing norms and recommendations for medical equipment and its assessing and authorisation);
- Working group for Biomedical Informatics and Statistics and WG for Medical and Biological Cybernetics of the Czech Society for Cybernetics and Informatics (medical
statistics and decision making and cybernetic aspects of living system performance);
- Czech Society for Biomechanics.
3. BME Education, Training and Accreditation in the Czech Republic
3.1. Education
University degree programmes in medical or biomedical engineering at both the undergraduate and the postgraduate level are provided in the Czech Republic. Because there is not
a good and long tradition of the Bachelor degree at Czech universities and graduates with
Bachelor degrees are still not requested by companies and other employers, the BME study
programmes at technical universities are usually prepared as educational programme for a
Master degree that has its Bachelor part, but that does not represent complete BME education.
Now the described state is rather changing because the study programmes at Czech universities are being matched to requirements and recommendations that follow from the Bologna Declaration.
3.1.1. Bachelor Degree
The only exception of the above mentioned character of education is a study programme
at the 1st Faculty of Medicine at the Charles University in Prague where a Bachelor programme for Health Care Technology has been accredited. However, the graduates of this
educational programme are not technicians but people with basic medical background and the
supplementary fundamentals of applying medical equipment.
39
3.1.2. Master Degree

Master degree BME education has been organised at several Czech universities for
many years. However, only two of them represent the most important BME education centres
in the Czech Republic - the Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at the
Brno University of Technology (FEECS BUofT) with its Department of Biomedical Engineering and the Faculty of Electrical Engineering at the Czech Technical University in Prague
(FEE CTU). In addition to these two faculties some other forms of the BME Master degree
programmes can be found at the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering at the Czech Technical
University in Prague (FME CTU), the Faculty of Nuclear Sciences and Engineering at the
Czech Technical University in Prague (FNSE CTU), the Faculty of Electrical Engineering
and Computer Science at the Technical University in Ostrava (FEECS TUO) or at the Faculty
of Physical Education and Sport at the Charles University in Prague (FPES CU).
At present, Biomedical Engineering is formed as an interdisciplinary study programme
with fixed curriculum at FEE CTU and with flexible curriculum at FEECS BUofT but both
the BME programmes are being converted into a two year fixed curriculum programme structure which follows the new Act on Universities in the Czech Republic and corresponds
more closely to that defined in the Bologna Declaration (see Appendix).
3.1.3. PhD Degree
The PhD is a research degree, generally of 3 years duration. Direct entry to doctoral
study is the normal route in the Czech Republic where having a Master's degree is a prerequisite. At present PhD study contains an instructional, pre-research component.
There are three universities with a specialised BME branch for PhD study it is PhD
study in Biomedical Engineering and Biocybernetics at the FEECS BuofT, Biomechanics
at the FME CTU in Prague and Biomedical Engineering Bionics at the FPES CU in Prague. At all other Czech universities the PhD research is usually done in a frame of less specialised branches as Artificial Intelligence and Biocybernetics, Measurement Technology,
Applied Mechanics, etc.
3.2. Training
At present the new Act on Training in Health Care is being prepared in the Czech Republic. In this legislative proposal the training in clinical engineering and in medical informatics are included. A similar kind of training is prepared both for biomedical engineers and
for medical doctors.
Postgraduate training in clinical engineering should be passed only by those biomedical
engineers who are in close contact with patients and can influence their health status. The
study programme will be three years long and the theoretical knowledge from the undergraduate is assumed to be a prerequisite of the study. The courses are specialised not only to
theoretical background but mainly to obtain practical skills in hospitals. The training is
planned for the following five areas:
- biosignal analysis;
- diagnostic medical devices;
- therapeutic medical devices;
- laboratory medical devices;
- medical imaging devices.
40
The postgraduate training in medical informatics is planned only for two years. Specialists
in medical informatics who work in hospitals in contact with patients are supposed to be
trained in this programme.
According to Czech legislation, the accreditation is performed by state authorities (usually accreditation boards of corresponding ministries) and not by professional organisations.
These organisations may supply their recommendations, views and proposals.
3.3.1 Accreditation of Degrees
All degrees and study programmes must be accredited by the Ministry of Education,
Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic. Otherwise the university is not allowed to award the
degrees.
For practice in health care, the degrees and study programmes are accredited by the
Ministry of Health Care of the Czech Republic.
MSc degrees are accredited by evaluating the degree content in the light of the syllabus.
The academic staff, their expertise, the infrastructure available within the University and interaction with Health Care deliverers are also considered.
There are basically two qualification levels for engineers working in Health Care.
Level 1: MSc in Biomedical Engineering accredited by the Ministry of Health Care.
Level 2: After specialised training and satisfaction of conditions defined by the corresponding decree of the Ministry of Health Care.
Note:
Only two Master Degree programmes at the FEECS BUofT and at the FEE CTU and
one BSc study programme at the 1st Medical Faculty at the Charles University in Prague have
been accredited by the Ministry of Health Care, Level 1.
3.4 The Right to Practice
All those who interact with patients, either directly or indirectly, must satisfy the conditions defined by the decrees of the Ministry of Health Care, i.e. they have either Level 1 or
Level 2 (see par. 3.3.1).
Quotation from the official letter of the Minister of Health Care concerning the accreditation: "Graduates (MSc) of the study branch Biomedical Engineering can perform activities
connected with supply of Health Care and can get specialised qualification in basic and extension branches of specialised education and in branches for functional specialisation."
41
Appendix
BRNO UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
MSc Courses
Present state
At the FEECS-BUofT the study of BME is included into three branches of study. The
curriculum of the BME study programme is similar in the branch of Electronics and Communication and of Cybernetics, Control and Measurement, but it is rather different in the Computer Science branch (see table below). The biomedical courses are studied together with core
courses of the particular branch and in each of these branches are divided into three groups:
A - technical courses
Term / group
Course
Electronics
&
Communication
Digital Signal Processing and
5/A
Analysis
5/A
Bionics
5/A
Environmental Diagnostic
6/A
Digital Image Processing and
7/A
Analysis
7/A
Medical Therapeutic Devices
8/A
Non TV Imaging Systems
8/A
Medical Diagnostic Devices
9/A
Medical Imaging Systems
9/A
Medical Laboratory Devices
9/A
Modelling of Biomedical Systems
10/A
Medical Informatics
Biological Signal Analysis
10/A
Design and Service of Medical
10/A
Electronic Systems
5/B
Expert Systems in Medical Diag6/B
nostics
7/B
Biophysics
8/B
Biology of Man
6/C
Clinical Physiology
8/C
Health Care
9/C
Environmental Engineering
10/C
Marketing in Health Care
Adaptive Signal Processing
Advanced Algorithms
for Signal Processing
5
Cybernetics
Control
Measurement
5/A
7/A
7/C
6/A
9/A
7/A
8/A
8/A
9/A
9/A
9/A
10/A
Computer
Science &
Technology
5/A
7/C
-/C
6/A
-/C
-/C
-/C
-/C
-/C
9/A
7/A
-/C
10/A
10/A
5/B
6/B
7/B
8/B
6/C
8/C
9/C
10/C
-/C
8/A
5/B
6/B
7/B
8/B
-/C
8/C
9/C
10/C
42
B - medical courses
C - recommended courses
The distribution of the courses in the groups A and B is not the same for all the
branches (see the table). It is necessary to pass at least 3 medical and at least 6 (5 in the Computer Science branch) technical courses for obtaining a certificate on BME study. Moreover,
it is necessary to pass the BME final state examination.
Planned curriculum
The flexible study programme described above has been modified so that it could correspond to the requirements of the new Czech Act on Universities and the Bologna Declaration. The new curriculum represents a particular specialised fixed study programme Biomedical and Environmental engineering for a two year MSc degree.
Courses:
Mathematical Statistics and Optimisation Methods
Modelling and Simulation
Signal and Image Processing and Analysis
Bionics
Biology of Man
Biophysics
Diagnostics of Biosystems and Ecosystems
Imaging Systems in Medicine and Ecology
Modelling Biological Systems
Introduction to Ecology
Special Medical and Ecological Technology
Tomographic Imaging Systems
Computerised Medical Diagnostics
Biosignal Processing and Analysis
Clinical Physiology
Biosensors and Biomaterials
Design and Performance of Complex Systems
Management and Marketing in Health Care
Medical and Ecological Information Systems
Health Care
First students are expected to start in the programme according to the proposed study plan
from school year 2004/05.
BRNO UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Problems of biomechanics can be studied at FME BUofT only in a MSc programme
Applied Mechanics in three specialised courses:
Biomechanics I - fundamental problems of biomechanics, structure of living tissue from
a viewpoint of solving biomechanical problems;
Biomechanics II - problems of musculoskeletal biomechanics;
6
43
Biomechanics III - problems of cardiovascular biomechanics.
44
CZECH TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY IN PRAGUE

Faculty of Electrical Engineering
MSc Courses
In the frame of BME, there are courses taught by medical doctors and courses taught by
electrical engineers. Doctors provide students with an introduction to anatomy, physiology,
pathophysiology as well as diagnostic and therapeutic methods in medicine. In electrical engineering courses we can identify three groups of courses according to the topics they follow,
namely the selected courses in the Cybernetics, Automation and Measurement branch, selected courses in the Radioelectronics branch, and courses specially prepared for students of
BME. The aim is that the students get a sufficient system view of the basic electronic equipment and its design (let us say medical hardware) and the information processing in the
broader sense of this term - systems for data processing, evaluation of measured data and
their use for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes.
At the end of their studies the students should have an idea about the complex chain
starting from a patient over measurements, analysis to diagnosis and subsequent therapy
based on the latest technological development in electronics and information technology, thus
using all diagnostic, measuring and evaluating systems that may be used in medicine.
Individual BME courses
Anatomy and Physiology
Pathophysiology
Clinical Diagnostics and Therapy
Biological Signals
Cognitive Processes
Imaging Systems in Medicine 1, 2
Medical Technology 1, 2
Medical Applications of Microwaves
Design, Construction and Reliability of Medical Equipment
Introduction to Laser Physics
Medical Informatics
Biocybernetic Systems
Biological Data Processing
Bionics
System Integration
At present, new curricula in MSc BME are being prepared following the introduction
of a new University Law in the Czech Republic and corresponding more closely to the study
structure defined in Bologna Declaration (BSc of 3 years duration, MSc of 2 years duration,
PhD of 3 years duration).
Proposed courses:
Core courses:
Pathophysiology
Signal Theory
8
45
Biological Signals
Cognitive Processes
Imaging Systems in Medicine
Medical Technology
Introduction to Laser Physics
Decision Support Systems
Electromagnetic Field in Biological Systems
Biomedical Sensors
Statistical Methods in Medicine
Biometry and Statistics
Chemical-Engineering Thermodynamics and Electrochemistry
Biophysics Physical Methods in Therapy
AI Methods in Medicine
Biological Data Processing
Image and Signal Processing
Electronic Systems and Their Programming
Simulation and Modelling
Soft computing
Latin
Medical Ethics
Health Care Organisation and Legislation
Reliability and Quality Management
Design and Project Management, Technical Communication
Optional courses
Medical Applications of Microwaves
Design, Construction and Reliability of Medical Equipment
Biomaterials
Robotics
Computer Vision and Virtual Reality

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
MSc Courses Biomedical and Rehabilitation Engineering
Study is focused on education in biomechanics of man, construction of medical devices,
organ replacements, rehabilitation aids and equipment for social paediatrics.
Courses:
Biomechanics of Man
Fundamentals of Device Construction
Fundamentals of Technical Optics
Fundamentals of Law
9
46
Biophysics
Wave Optics
Protection against Radiation
Biomaterials and Biotolerance
Fundamentals of Medical Analytical and Measuring Methods
Optoelectronic Devices
Dynamics of Devices of Precise Mechanics
Holography
Modern Methods of Data Processing
Simulation of Biological Systems
Fundamentals of Micromechanics
Pathophysiology

Faculty of Nuclear Sciences and Engineering
MSc courses Nuclear Engineering (specialisations: Dosimetry and Application of Ionizing Radiation, Radiation Physics in Medicine)
Dosimetry and Application of Ionizing Radiation
Courses:
Mathematical Statistics
Numerical Mathematics
Quantum Mechanics
Physics of Solid State
Fundamentals of Nuclear Electronics
Nuclear and Radiation Physics
Fundamentals of Dosimetry
Ionizing Radiation Detectors
Social Psychology
Physics and Technology of Non-ionizing Radiation
Nuclear Technology Devices
Integrating Dosimetric Methods
Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation
Ionizing Radiation Measurement and Evaluation Methods
Introduction to Applications of Ionizing Radiation
Dosimetry and Radioactivity of the Environment
Analytic Measurement Methods
Applications of Ionizing Radiation in Medicine
Metrology of Ionizing Radiation
Spectrometry in Dosimetry
Microdosimetry
Clinical Dosimetry
10
47
Radiation Physics in Medicine

Courses:
Mathematical Statistics
Numerical Mathematics
Quantum Mechanics
Physics of Solid State
Fundamentals of Nuclear Electronics
Nuclear and Radiation Physics
Fundamentals of Dosimetry
Ionizing Radiation Detectors
Biochemistry of Man
Biochemistry and Pharmacology
Social Psychology
Physics and Technology of Non-ionizing Radiation
Nuclear Technology Devices
Integrating Dosimetric Methods
Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation
Ionizing Radiation Measurement and Evaluation Methods
Introduction to Applications of Ionizing Radiation
Radiation Hygiene
Fundamentals of Radiotherapy
Dosimetry and Radioactivity of the Environment
Analytic Measurement Methods
Metrology of Ionizing Radiation
Spectrometry in Dosimetry
Microdosimetry
Clinical Dosimetry
Fundamentals of Nuclear Medicine
TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY IN OSTRAVA
Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
BME specialisation can be studied in the MSc programme of Measurement and Control Technology. There are eight specialised BME courses in the study programme - five
core courses and three optional courses:
Core courses:
Introduction to Medicine I, II
Medical Electronic Devices I (diagnostic)
Medical Electronic Devices II (therapeutic)
Medical Electronic Devices III (imaging)
Optional courses:
Diagnostics in Medicine
Biocybernetics
Biosignal Processing
11
48
CHARLES UNIVERSITY IN PRAGUE

Faculty of Physical Education and Sport
There are BSc and MSc study programmes in Rehabilitation Engineering at the Faculty
of Physical Education and Sport CU that are organised by the Department of Anatomy and
Biomechanics. The exact structure of both programmes is not known now but the list of
courses read at the department is as follows:
Introduction to Biomechanics
Biomechanics of Physical Exercises
Biomechanics of Man
Biomechanics of Sports
Repetitorium of Physics
Introduction to Biocybernetics
Measurements in Rehabilitation Engineering
Rehabilitation Technology
CHARLES UNIVERSITY IN PRAGUE

1st Medical Faculty
Bachelor degree in branches:
Nursing
Ergotherapy
Health Care Technology
12
49
Status Report of BME Education in Denmark

Prepared by Johannes J. Struijk
The Danish Society For Biomedical Engineering

Mission
The aim of the Danish Society for Biomedical Engineering is to promote the scientific and technical
development of Biomedical Engineering.
To reach this goal the society should make an effort:
1. to create contact between groups of different education and occupation interested in biomedical
engineering,
2. to promote mutual education between these groups by arranging meetings, seminars and studygroups,
3. to collaborate with the Scandinavian and international societies in biomedical engineering,
4. to provide information on biomedical engineering.
History
The Danish Society for Biomedical Engineering is the successor of the Danish Biomedical
Engineering Committee (DBMEC), which was established in 1966, and which was connected to the
Danish Academy of Sciences.
Since 1940 there has been a tradition in most countries that physicists worked in hospitals in the
radiotherapy departments and chemical engineers in the clinical chemistry departments. Around
1960 a few engineers came into Biomedical Engineering. In 1969, about 12 engineers with a
technical education worked at the University Hospital in Copenhagen, only two at Aarhus
University but about 20 at the Copenhagen County hospital. Most of the engineers were attached to
a single department, but a new idea of collecting the engineers in biomedical departments was on its
way.
The aim of DBMEC was to promote co-operation between the medical, biological and engineering
disciplines. The education committee encouraged Biomedical Engineering education on the
academic as well as the non-academic level. The main result was that The Technical Highschool of
Denmark (DTH), later the Technical University of Denmark (DTU) and Aalborg University Center
(AUC), later Aalborg University (AAU), increased their activities in the field of BME. When the
education committee began its activity there already existed two formal courses in medical
electronics: a half year course at the Technical University for Master students in their last year of
the study and a course for Bachelor students at the Technical Engineering School in Copenhagen.
The universities had previously held a rather large course in physiology for engineers working in
hospitals and medical institutes, a half-year course in mathematics, physics and physical chemistry
as well as shorter courses in statistics, programming, biochemistry and chromatography for
physicians. In addition some scientific medical societies had arranged 1-2 days courses in specific
subjects. In addition to the education committee there was an industrial committee and a Patient
Safety Committee
50
The support from the research councils to DBMEC was discontinued after May 1972 and in January
1973 the head of the Danish Academy of Sciences, Bjerre Lavesen, took the initiative for planning
a biomedical society. He asked Professor Georg Bruun to arrange a meeting in his office at the
Electronics Institute at DTU. Lone Dybkjr and Annelise Rosenfalck were asked to participate and
this group agreed on the importance of establishing a biomedical society. They were also eager to
continue the biomedical activities of the two engineering societies in Denmark (the society for
M.Sc. engineers and for B.Sc. engineers).
The first general assembly of the Danish Society for Biomedical Engineering was held on 27th
November 1973. It was prepared by a group from universities, industry and engineering societies.
They had a common goal, and found it important that the society should be a forum for
collaboration between these groups and that the first president should come from medicine.
The new Danish Society hosted the IV Nordic meeting in 1977. This meeting was held at the
Technical University of Denmark with Professor Georg Bruun as president (250 participants).
About 6 Danes participated in the 2nd IFMBE international meeting in Paris: four came from the
Institute of Neurophysiology in Copenhagen. The Danish Society joined IFMBE in 1976. However,
there were about 10 individual Danish members of the Federation since 1959.
The main activity of the Society has been to arrange 5-6 scientific and industrial meetings each
year. Meetings have generally been well attended (40-100 participants). Some of the most
successful meetings were arranged by industry.
At present the Society has more than 200 individual members and 22 industrial members.
Reference: Rosenfalck A. The history of the Danish Society for Biomedical Engineering. In: The
Danish Society for Biomedical Engineering, ed. Aspects of biomedical engineering in Denmark.
Copenhagen, 1998: 7-18.
Biomedical Engineering Education in Denmark

Biomedical Engineering and related educational programmes are present at various levels in
Denmark:
Different categories are:
Clinical Technician
Clinical Engineer
Diploma Engineer (Bachelor)
M.Sc.
Ph.D.
The education for Clinical Technician and Clinical Engineer is under the auspices of the Danish
Health Council (Sundhedsstyrelsen), which pin-pointed the following broad medical-technology
functions in health care institutions: medical technology assessment, purchasing, administration,
consulting, clinical functions, technical assignments, quality control and standards, education and
instruction, research and development, and some medical physics assignments (radiodiagnostics).
51
According to the Council there is a need for clinical technology education at two different levels:
the Clinical Technician and the Clinical Engineer, in the same way as there are physicians and
nurses.
The education for Clinical Technician (Klinisk Medikotekniker) is under development at Odense
University Hospital and is a post-technical education with a duration of 2 years, based on a
theoretical part and in connection with a hospital affiliation, a practical part. The programme
awards a certification as Clinical Technician.
The programme for Clinical Engineer (Klinisk Ingenioer), Odense University Hospital, leads to
certification as Clinical Engineer. It is a postgraduate programme with a 3 years duration, partly
theoretical and partly practical in connection with a hospital affiliation. The Clinical Engineer will
be able to carry out biomedical engineering tasks in compliance with relevant laws and standards
and to be responsible for such tasks in relation to medical technology in the hospital sector.
A Biomedical Engineering Bachelor is a rare commodity in Denmark, and the official education is
part of the M.Sc. programme at Aalborg University, where the Bachelor carries out the first 6
semesters of the five years M.Sc. programme in Biomedical Engineering, to finish the education
with a separate 7th semester programme focused on industrial activity.
Three universities in Denmark offer BME programmes at the Master level: The Technical
University of Denmark (DTU), the University of Aarhus (AU) and Aalborg University (AAU).
Only at AAU a full program of five years duration exists, which will be treated separately below.
Master level education at the Technical University of Denmark (DTU)
The Biomedical Engineering Group is part of the section for Electronics and Signal Processing
within the department rstedDTU. BME Education is a specialisation from the 5th to the 10th
semester after an introduction to either the disciplines Electrical Engineering, Electronics
Engineering, Applied Physics, or Informatics.
The students have a great freedom in the choice of further specialisation in BME, with examples
such as signal- and image processing; Analysis, modelling, and measurement of
electrophysiological signals; Audiology and acoustics communication; Analogue instrumentation;
Computer based medical instrumentation; Optics; Non-linear dynamic systems; and Clinical
measurement methods and instrumentation, but they are to some extent free to create their own
combination of courses, as long as certain coherence criteria are fulfilled.
Final projects are naturally based on the research activities of the BME group and include areas
such as Fast Ultrasound Imaging, Arteriosclerosis Detection with Ultrasound, Flow estimation and
Bioelectromagnetism.
Master level education at Aarhus University (AU)
Biomedical Engineering (Medicinsk Teknik) at AU is a 2 years masters education after a bachelor
in another technical discipline (electronics, information and communication technology, or
mechanical engineering), physics or medicine and sports science. The programme is thus open for
students with a wide variety of backgrounds. The students with those different backgrounds follow
52
different curricula within the BME programme. For students with a (Bachelor or equivalent)
background in engineering, physics or chemistry, the focus of the curriculum is on anatomy,
physiology, pathology, and clinical practice, supplemented by elective courses of topics such as
magnetic resonance, signal analysis, system programming, data technology, electronics, distributed
realtime systems, image analysis, multimedia, and transmission systems. For students with a
background in medicine and sports, the focus is on mathematics, programming, and signal analysis.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging is an important special line in the programme.
Master level education at Aalborg University (AAU)
At Aalborg University several programmes are running in BME or related disciplines.
At the department of Electronic Systems there is a 2 years international (English taught) programme
Biomedical Engineering as a specialisation after a 3 years electronics engineering (or equivalent)
education. The focus of the programme is on Biomedical Instrumentation and Signal Processing,
and the courses are grouped as follows:
Anatomy and Physiology - The focus is to give the student a sufficient knowledge of the
biological/physiological systems and to learn the basics of medical language and procedures;
Medical Technology - To give the student sufficient comprehension of existing medical engineering
technology, used in hospital practice and in research. Also to give the student sufficient background
to be able to identify and to solve biomedical engineering problems; and
General Engineering - To strengthen the students classical engineering skills in an area relevant for
biomedical engineers (electrical engineering).
At the same department of Electronic Systems there is a 1.5 years programme Medical Informatics
as a specialisation after a 3.5 years electronics engineering or computer science (or equivalent)
education. The focus is on: systems for data acquisition, processing, distribution and presentation of
data; development of medical decision support systems; medical image analysis systems; and health
care organisation with relevance to medical information systems and organisational consequences.
Master of Information Technology (MI) with specialisation in Medical Informatics at Aalborg
University.
This is a master programme for people working in the health care sector and with at least a
Bachelor degree in a discipline relevant to the health care sector, with the additional requirement of
at least four years experience. The programme requires half-time study during three years (one and
a half years full-time equivalent).
The objective is to give the student relevant qualifications with respect to planning, development
and use of information technology systems. The programme gives multidisciplinary, theoretical and
methodological knowledge about informatics, medical technology, computer science, health care
organisation, communication and cognition. It is based on distant learning with additional seminars.
Five years Master in Biomedical Engineering Curriculum at Aalborg University.
In the year 2000 a 5-years curriculum was started to provide Biomedical Engineering from the
freshman-year to the final project. During the first 2 years anatomy and physiology go hand in hand
with mathematics, physics, electronics engineering and medical technology. The fifth semester is
53
entirely hospital based with outstationing the students in the clinical departments of Aalborg
hospital, where courses are taken such as pathology and biochemistry and medical-technical
projects are performed. The 6th through the 8th semesters are then based on the elective lines in
Biomedical Instrumentation, Medical Informatics, or Biomechanics. The final year is devoted to the
final Masters project, which is a further specialisation within the elected line. The projects are
naturally based on the research at the department of Health Science and Technology and include the
areas of Medical Informatics, Decision Support Systems, Image Analysis, Neural Prostheses,
Sensory Systems, Motor Control and Biomechanics, and Brain Research.
Ph.D. Education
The International Doctoral School in Biomedical Science and Engineering at Aalborg University
offers a three-year Ph.D. education in biomedical science and engineering. The official language of
the School is English. The curriculum is based on basic science and engineering problems related to
the human sensory-motor system. To achieve this, combined knowledge from a large number of
complementary disciplines is needed, such as life sciences, engineering, physics, mathematics,
computer science, and paramedical disciplines.
A three-year Ph.D. study at the International Doctoral School consists of three elements: Research
project, courses and dissemination. Part of the research should be performed in collaboration with
another laboratory or industry in Denmark or abroad.
The research is focused on the human sensory-motor system and comprises theoretical and
experimental aspects, e.g. involving electrophysiology, biomechanics and psychophysics. Where
appropriate, animal studies can be an integrated part of the studies.
Ph.D. research projects are offered within four core areas:
Motor Control and Biomechanics; Sensory Systems and Pain Research; Rehabilitation
Technologies; Other Biomedical Research Areas.
The course programme covers half a year of the total study period. The student must follow 12
modules equal to 900 working hours. The courses comprise three joint modules related to science
and scientific procedures, three modules within the biomedical science and engineering programme,
and six modules related specifically to the Ph.D. student's research project.
The joint courses are related to areas such as planning and design of experiments, scientific
communication, and philosophy of science.
The programme courses in biomedical science and engineering are related to general aspects of the
motor and sensory systems, sensory-motor interactions, physiological models, rehabilitation
technologies and recording/analysis of physiological signals.
The Ph.D. dissertation will normally be based on a combination of experimental and theoretical
work. The dissertation should consist of three to five papers published in recognised international
journals or published in a monograph at a similar level.
54
Biomedical Engineering in Estonia

Hiie Hinrikus and Kalju Meigas
Biomedical Engineering Centre, Tallinn Technical University
5 Ehitajate Road, 19086 Tallinn, Estonia
1. Introduction
Biomedical Engineering (BME) in Estonia started about 10 years ago. It was not suitable to
differentiate between the BME and Medical Physics specialities in education and specialisation in a
small country where the possibilities of employment within the narrow field of experience are quite
limited. Therefore the activity began within the frame of joint specialisation of Biomedical Engineering
and Medical Physics.
The background of Biomedical Engineering in Estonia is related to the circumstances which prevailed
in this area for years. There is a long tradition of health care in Estonia, but education in BME was
absent practically until the last decade. Some groups in universities and academic institutions have been
involved in research activity in this field. The requirements for medical engineers and physicists in the
Estonian health care system were not established. There were 120 hospitals and 40 policlinics in
Estonia and only about 30 engineers, who had very different educational backgrounds, were working in
this area. During the last ten years of independence, about 50 new small companies emerged, which are
mostly representatives of foreign medical technology corporations. Some of them are working in the
area of medical equipment service and very few of them are working as producers of medical
technology. The number of qualified staff is small. The system for technical control and quality
assurance is not effective yet.
The main steps and events related to development of BME in Estonia:
1993 - first BME-MP subjects as a specialisation for Computer and System Engineering students
started at Tallinn Technical University;
1994 Biomedical Engineering Centre of Tallinn Technical University was established;
1994 Estonian Society for Biomedical Engineering and Medical Physics (ESBMEMP) was founded;
1994 affiliation of the ESBMEMP to the IFMBE;
1995 affiliation of the ESBMEMP to the IOMP;
1996 affiliation of the ESBMEMP to the EFOMP;
1996 Estonian programme on Biomedical Engineering started;
1996 Satellite Symposia of the 10th Nordic-Baltic Conference on Biomedical Engineering was
organised in Tallinn;
1997 a new study field of Electronics and Biomedical Engineering was opened at Tallinn Technical
University;
1999 the 11th Nordic-Baltic Conference on Biomedical Engineering was organised in Tallinn;
2001 a new curriculum of Master and Doctoral degree study on Biomedical Engineering and Medical
Physics approved by Tallinn Technical University;
2001 development of the strategic plan for Medical Technology approved by Ministry of Social
Affairs.
The process of reformation of the Estonian Health Care System is going on now but up to this time this
discipline did not get wide recognition. The reasons are the absence of a national medical technology
industry (except some small enterprises) as well as the traditions of employment of engineering staff in
hospitals.
55
The Estonian Society for Biomedical Engineering and Medical Physics was founded in 1994 as an
independent non-profit organisation. The Estonian Society is affiliated to IFMBE, IOMP and EFOMP.
Since the beginning the Estonian Society for BME and MP has the purpose:
- To promote research and development activity in the field of biomedical engineering and
medical physics;
- To provide medical share with technical specialists, get them the best possible education,
based on modern theory and methods;
- To establish the system of quality assurance and technical control of medical equipment and
services in Estonia.
The Society has been involved in
- Organising conferences and seminars on biomedical engineering (national and international
level) and actual problems of medical technology in our country (national level);
- Accreditation of educational programmes and professional accreditation of engineers;
- Preparation of national legal regulations related to health care and health protection and
their technical support,
As a result of a bilateral agreement between the Estonian Ministry of Social Affairs and the Estonian
Society for Biomedical Engineering and Medical Physics, a Strategic Plan for the Development of
Medical Technology until the year 2015 was developed. This plan is a part of the Estonian Hospital
Master Plan 2015. The main idea of this document is to enhance the quality of medical service using
up-to-date medical technology and quality assurance. An important part of this paper is the number and
educational quality of technical staff in related areas, not only in hospitals but also in different
institutional bodies inside health care, calculation of requirement of technical staff based on
recommendations of different international institutions, cost of medical technology, number of hospital
beds, development plans of different physician specialities and opinions of leading physicians.
In 2001 the Society had 55 members.
3. Biomedical Engineering Education
Education on BME was absent during the Soviet period in Estonia when education was completely
undertaken by the Soviet Unions centralised specialisation's planning. The nearest institute for BMEMP specialisation was in Leningrad. The first structures to support BME education and study
programmes were organised during the last decade in two main public Universities Tallinn
Technical University and University of Tartu.
The Biomedical Engineering Centre (BMEC) has been established in Tallinn Technical University
(TTU) upon decision by the Academic Senate of TTU on March 15th, 1994. The Centre for Biomedical
Engineering is a structural unit within Tallinn Technical University, incorporating departments and
other research and medical institutions or units within these institutions, engaged in biomedical
engineering and medical physics research and teaching. The BMEC shall promote research,
development and teaching in biomedical engineering and medical physics. The BMEC comprises the
Chair of Radiophysics, Chair of Biomedical Engineering and associated structural units.
The BMEC shall:
- Co-ordinate, organise and carry out academic, research and development activities;
- Organise and carry out continuing education;
- Fulfil orders and contract work;
- Organise procurement and efficient implementation of the laboratory and research
equipment;
- Disseminate information in the areas of interest and organise workshops and conferences.
The training centre of medical physics and biomedical engineering of the University of Tartu (UT)
has been established in 1996 to promote academic and continuing education in medical physics and
biomedical engineering. The main objectives of the centre are:
56
to provide clinical technologists (engineers, technicians) as well as medical practitioners

with hands-on training in the usage, service and quality assurance of modern medical
equipment;
to provide students and researchers from UT and other universities with the facilities and
laboratories for studies and research in medical physics and biomedical engineering.
The study programmes on BME on the Bachelor and Master degree level started during last decade.
Biomedical engineering education at TTU started in the 1992-1993 academic year. The special subjects
were available for students with different backgrounds: electrical, mechanic, computing, system
engineering. A new study direction Electronics and Biomedical Engineering including bachelor,
master and doctoral degree curriculum, started in the faculty of Systems Engineering in 1997. The
Biomedical Engineering Centre carries out subjects related to Biomedical Engineering as well as to
Medical Physics.
BME education at UT is possible within the applied physics direction in the Faculty of Physics and
Chemistry. At first the students get a basic education as physicists and from the beginning of the sixth
semester they may select special courses. After receiving their Bachelors degree the students may
continue to a Masters degree and Doctors degree programme.
Bachelors degree programme:
Human Physiology, The Basics of Anatomy and Biomechanics, Functional Morphology, Biomedical
Signals and Methods, Introduction to Visualisation of Bio-Objects and Processes, Radiation in
Medicine.
Masters degree programme:
Microprocessors, Basis of Signal Processing, Image Processing, Biomechanical Diagnostics of Skeletal
Muscles, Processing of Measurements, Methods and Instrumentation of Medical Diagnostics, Medical
Biomechanics, Methods of Measurements, Mathematical Methods in Biomedicine, Systems for
Measurement and Control, Identification and Modelling of Systems, Orthopaedic Materials and
Devices, Basis of Metrology.
The BME-MP education in the Baltic States was under reconstruction in the frame of the Joint
European Project Tempus S-Jep-12402-97 Baltic Biomedical Engineering and Physics Master
Courses 1998-2000, partners from EU countries Linkoping University, Prof. Ake Oberg and King's
College London, Prof. Colin Roberts and Dr. Slavik Tabakov. Objectives of the project were
development and introduction of the new Joint Baltic Biomedical Engineering and Physics Master
courses on a base of reviewing, restructuring, adaptation and modularising the existing eligible courses
delivered by the Universities of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Alongside this, Credit Transfer and
Quality Assurance Systems harmonised with the European standards were developed and introduced in
the BMEP education field of the Baltic States. The main outcome will be the Joint Baltic Biomedical
Engineering and Physics Master Courses Curriculum recognised among Partner Baltic Universities.
The new scheme of higher education matching the requirements and recommendations that follow
from the Bologna Declaration is prepared now and will start in Estonia from the academic year 200203. The new specialisation in Biomedical Engineering and Medical Physics as well as a Master degree
and a Doctoral degree curriculum were developed at TTU in 2001 (Appendix 1). This curriculum
follows the recommendations of the Bologna Declaration and Tempus S-Jep-12402-97 project. The
first admission is planned in 2002.
Bachelor degree (3 year study, 120 CP) includes mostly general, basic and core study and BME
specialisation at TTU is not planned on this level;
Master degree (2 year study, 80 CP) includes special subjects. BME specialisation at this level is
planned at TTU;
PhD degree programme (4 years study, 160 CP) is aimed to prepare researchers, University staff and
high-level specialists.. BME specialisation at this level also planned at TTU.
57
Parallel to the academic university study (5A, Diploma Engineer) the high-school level education (5B
Applied Engineer, academic level education in more practical direction) on BME is planned to prepare
specialists for hospitals on the level of technicians.
4. Professional Accreditation: Chartered Engineer and Euro-Engineer
The first Act of Law in Estonia recognising the need for biomedical engineers as experts in medicine is
a regulation no 56 of the Ministry of Social Affairs from November 13th, 1998. In this regulation the
requirements are stated for technical experts who must participate in all radiological procedures.
Estonian Association of Engineers (EAE) comprises all the major engineering institutions in Estonia
and represents Estonian engineers in the matters of importance to the engineering profession as a
whole. Declared number of engineers in EAE is 1336 4. Today we have 18 engineers from the Estonian
Society for Biomedical Engineering and Medical Physics who are members of EAE. EAE is a member
of FEANI (European Federation of National Engineering Associations) since 1996.
At the beginning of the 1960s, FEANI was convinced that the engineering profession in Europe could
not be strengthened without mutual recognition of the professional qualification provided by the
numerous and diversified national systems of education and training. In 1970 the European Register of
Higher Technical Profession was established and after extensive revision in 1987 a new FEANI
Register was introduced. The structure of the Register is based on the two elements:
- Education. Any engineer listed in the Register will have a thorough knowledge of the
principles of engineering;
- Professional engineering experience. The duration of professional engineering experience
shall be at least four years and include the solution of problems requiring the application of
engineering science, management or guiding of technical staff or the financial, economical,
statutory or legal aspects of engineering tasks or industrial or environmental problems.
In Estonia it means that each applicant for professional accreditation as Chartered Engineer on BME is
required to hold a certificate of secondary education and his total period of formation must be at least
7-8 years (normally more because this is not a calendar but credit year) from that point. During this
period at least 3-4 years must have been devoted to studies in a university (Bachelor degree)
acknowledged by FEANI, 2 years to gaining professional experience and the 2 intermediate years
either to complementary university courses (Master degree), or to engineering training monitored by
the approved engineering institutions, or to preliminary engineering professional experience.
The Estonian National Monitoring Committee of FEANI Register has 25 members: 15 from different
member societies, 3 from enterprises, 3 from universities and other educational institutions, 2 from
Ministries of Education and Economics, President of EAE and representative of FEANI Register. The
committee is elected for 4 years and confirmed in the general assembly of EAE. Main commitment of
this committee is to organise ascribing of professions of Chartered Engineer and Euro-Engineer, also to
organise accreditation of different teaching courses and training activities for engineers.
The Estonian National Monitoring Committee of FEANI Register has commissions of experts in each
EAE member society. The Society for Biomedical Engineering and Medical Physics has a commission
(4 members and 3 replacing members) of BME experts who submit candidates for the professions of
Estonian Chartered Engineer and Euro-Engineer and organize professional training. In Estonia today,
we have 8 Chartered Biomedical Engineers and 2 Euro-Engineers corresponding to FEANI
requirements who are accredited at European level.
In May 2001 an Estonian Committee for Engineering Profession was created. This Committee has 35
members: 25 members from Estonian the National Monitoring Committee of FEANI Register
including members from professional societies (2 members from our society). The other 10 members
are added from different institutions. Statute of the committee will be ready in the next future. The
58
Estonian Committee for Engineering Profession is based on professional societies. Main working
institution is a commission of experts in each EAE member society. Main commitments of this
committee:
- Ascribing of engineering professions in all levels (Applied Engineer, Diploma Engineer,
Chartered Engineer);
- Development of a system for Continuing Professional Development (CPD);
- Co-operation between Universities and Industry.
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Appendix 1
Education on Biomedical Engineering and Medical Physics
at Tallinn Technical University
1. Present state
Study field: Electronics and Biomedical Engineering
The general, basic and most of core study is common for the study area Information Technology.
BME education is interdisciplinary and its development includes co-operation between different
institutions in Tallinn:
- TTU as the base for engineering subjects;
- Tallinn Hospitals as the base for medical instrumentation laboratory.
Bachelors degree programme 160 CP:
Special study 55 CP:
Microwave and Optical Engineering, Biomedical Instrumentation, Medical Imaging, Biomedical
Engineering, Electromagnetic Fields and Waves, Signal Processing, Physiological Signals Processing,
Mathematical Modelling, Fundamentals of Physiology and Nervous Activity.
Masters degree programme 80 CP:
Special study 30 CP:
Quality in Radiology, Laser Engineering, Basic Biomechanics, Medical Ultrasound, Biomedical
Engineering Workshop, Special Course in Medical Physics, Physical Bases of Imaging Diagnostics,
Telemedicine, Lasers in Medical Diagnostics, Bioelectromagnetism, Electromagnetic Radiation
Effects, Signal Processing in Medicine, Special Course in Bioelectromagnetism I, Bioelectromagnetism
Workshop I, Electrophysiology.
Doctors degree programme 160 CP:
Special Course in Biomedical Engineering, New Laser Diagnostic Methods in Medicine, Biomedical
Engineering Workshop II, Modelling of Electromagnetic Fields in Human Body, Special Course in
Bioelectromagnetism II, Bioelectromagnetism Workshop II.
2. Planned development
2.1. New study field from the year 2002:
Biomedical Engineering and Medical Physics: MSc and PhD programme
The aim of the study is to provide interdisciplinary education based mostly on information technology
and life sciences, to integrate physical and biological knowledge with the principles of engineering for
understanding the processes in the human being and for the application of technology to improving
health and quality of life. The students who have a bachelor degree in engineering and physics or life
sciences can be admitted to the Masters degree programme of Biomedical Engineering and Medical
Physics.
The study programme is aimed to deliver education at Masters and Doctoral degree level for
biomedical engineers and medical physicists within the application areas in the hospitals, industry,
academic institutions, medical-environmental institutions and others. The education should provide
sufficient competence to enter the profession:
Knowledge
- appropriate knowledge of Biology and Medicine;
- appropriate scientific knowledge of Engineering/Physics;
- knowledge of application of Engineering/Physics to Medicine and Biology;
- knowledge of the ethical and regulatory framework;
60
Skills
Attitudes
-
information technology skills;

oral/written communication skills;
research and development skills;
organisational skills;
ability to work as part of a multidisciplinary team;
professional attitude in a multidisciplinary environment;
research principles and ethics;
understanding of biomedical ethics.
2.2. Master's degree curriculum

1
General study
Foreign language for science
2
Fundamental study
Digital signal and image processing
Electromagnetic fields and waves
3
Core study
Obligatory
Mathematical modelling
Microwave and optical engineering
Anatomy and physiology
Optional
Circuits, systems and signals
Main course of programming
System programming in C
OS and network administrating
Molecular and cell biology
Gene technology
Biophysics
4
Special study
Obligatory
Physiological signal processing
Physical principles of medical imaging
Biological effects of radiation
Optional
Neuroscience and information processing
Physiological regulation and adaptation
Bioelectromagnetism
Quality in radiology
Masters on Seminar
Project
2.0 CP
2.0
7.0
3.5
3.5
17.0 CP
3.0
3.5
3.0
4.0
4.5
3.5
3.5
6.0
2.5
1.5
27.0 CP
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
2.5
2.0
4.5
4.0
3.0
5.0
5
Free study
4,0 CP
6
Practical training
3.0 CP
7
Master's theses
20.0 CP
------------------------------------------------Total
80.0 CP
2.3. Doctoral degree curriculum
1 General and fundamental study
13.0 CP
Obligatory
Teaching methods and practical work on specialty
8.0
Optional
Philosophy of Science
2.5
Psychology of personnel management and leadership
2.5
Didactics for Tertiary Education
2.5
Organisation of research and education
2.5
Ethical and Legal Aspects of Gene Technology
2.0
Project management
3.0
2 Special study
25.0 CP
Obligatory
Seminar of the field of bio- and gene technology
2.0
Doctoral seminar of Biomedical Engineering
4.0
Doctoral seminar of Medical Physics
4.0
Optional
Methods of laser diagnostics in medicine
6.0
Special course on bioelectromagnetism
6.0
Signal processing in biomedical engineering
6.0
Seminar of biomechanics
5.0
Special course of molecular medicine
2.0
Special course of biophysics
2.0
Special course of neurobiology
2.0
3 Practice
2.0 CP
4 PhD theses
120.0 CP
------------------------------------------------Total
160.0 CP
61
62
Biomedical Engineering Education in Finland

Jari Viik
Finnish Society for Medical Physics and Medical Engineering
P.O. Box 110
33721 Tampere, Finland
jari.viik@tut.fi
Jari Hyttinen
Timo Jms
Tampere University of Technology
University of Oulu
Juha Nousiainen
Jari Kaipio
Tampere University of Technology
University of Kuopio
Jukka Nenonen
Pekka Hnninen
Helsinki University of Technology
University of Turku
Maunu Pitknen
Association of Hospital Physicist
The updated version of this report is available on Internet, www.ee.tut.fi/~lfty/
From a broad perspective, Biomedical Engineering (BME) embraces the utilization of all technical
disciplines in Medicine. In Finland, research and education have, however, primarily concentrated
on the application of expertise in Electronics, Computer Science and Physics. The industry is
primarily located in the proximity of university hospitals and universities. Industrial growth as well
as the increase in personnel in the field of BME have been rapid and substantial.
In Finland, BME education with broader curricula in BME was launched by Tampere University of
Technology (TUT) at the beginning of the 1970's. There is no accreditation for BME degrees and
study programs, with the exception of hospital physicists (see chapter Hospital Physicists
Education). Along with the growth in the field, the need for education in BME has also increased in
recent years. Consequently, curricula including BME have been set up at many universities. In
addition to TUT, education is at present provided by Helsinki University of Technology and the
Universities of Kuopio, Oulu and Turku. Furthermore, several courses on BME are lectured at other
Finnish universities. Table 1. presents the number of teachers and Master of Science (M.Sc.)
degrees per year (situation at 2001) in the field of BME at each university.
The M.Sc. degree requires studies of 160 credits and M.Sc. in Technology requires 180 credits.
Both degrees include a 20-credit thesis. The Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) degree requires studies of
120 credits. It is possible to receive a B.Sc. degree in universities. In the curriculum for the M.Sc. in
Technology, it is possible to apply for the certificate of B.Sc. degree when the student has
completed at least 120 credits. One Finnish credit represents approximately 40 hours e.g. weeks
workload for an individual student. Thus one Finnish credit corresponds to 1.5 European Credit
Transfer System (ECTS) credits.
Table 1. The number of teachers related to BME and the annual number of M.Sc. degrees
(year 2001) in the field of BME at Finnish universities, which provides BME education.
Assistant
M.Sc.
University
Professors professors Assistants degrees
Tampere University of Technology 6
2
1
22
Helsinki University of Technology 4
1
1
15
University of Oulu
3
3
3
20
University of Kuopio
6
3
2
15
University of Turku
2
1
3
BME, Biomedical Engineering; M.Sc., Master of Science.
Survey of Persons Having Studied BME at the TUT
63
www.ee.tut.fi/rgi/bme-survey
Jari Viik and Jaakko Malmivuo have made a survey to investigate the placement in working life of
the biomedical engineers who had studied BME in the Ragnar Granit Institute (RGI) at TUT
(Biomedical Engineering as a Career Resource: Placement in working life of Masters of Science in
Engineering who have studied Biomedical Engineering at Tampere University of Technology, ISBN
952-15-0047-6). The material of the survey consisted of 267 persons who had included BME as a
major or minor subject in their M.Sc. degree program between 1976 and the spring of 1997. The
study was conducted during the summer of 1997 as a postal questionnaire study. In addition to the
questionnaire study, a survey was also conducted concerning the study history of all Masters of
Science in Engineering who had studied BME as their major or minor subject. The complete report
is available on the Internet, http://www.ee.tut.fi/rgi/bme-survey/. The main results of the survey
have also been published in the International Journal of Engineering Education 1999:15:308-320.
National Society
www.ee.tut.fi/~lfty
The Finnish Society for Medical Physics and Medical Engineering (formerly the Finnish Society for
Biological and Medical Engineering) was founded in March 1968. According to its bylaws the
purpose of the Society is "to raise and to maintain interest in medical physics, biomedical
engineering and biophysics and to promote the development of these disciplines in the field of
scientific research, education and practice". The Society has been affiliated with the International
Federation for Medical and Biological Engineering (IFMBE) in 1969 and with the International
Organization for Medical Physics (IOMP) in 1973.
The aim of the Finnish Society during its whole history has been the establishment and promotion
of the international contacts. The Finnish Society arranged the First Nordic Meeting on Medical and
Biological Engineering in Espoo in 1970. The Third Nordic Meeting was also arranged in Finland,
this time in Tampere in 1975, the 6th in Helsinki in 1985 and 10th in Tampere in 1996. The 10th
meeting was extended to cover the whole Baltic region and its name was changed to Nordic-Baltic
Conference on Biomedical Engineering. The largest and most challenging event organized by the
Finnish Society has been the XIV International Conference on Medical and Biological Engineering
and VII International Conference on Medical Physics held in Espoo in 1985.
At the time of the foundation of our Society the medical physics and engineering education was
completely missing. After the foundation, the Society arranged courses on basic education. The
activities of the Society in the continuation education of the hospital physicists and biomedical
engineers began in 1978, when the society arranged the first course on biomedical engineering.
After that, the Society has arranged more than 20 courses on several topics. They have dealt with
bioelectricity, biosystems, data processing, devices and methods in radiotherapy, digital image
processing in medicine, picture archiving and communication systems in medicine, the safety of
medical equipment as well as magnetic resonance imaging. These events have been very important
for training medical physicists, physicians and engineers.
In 1979 the society started the Progress Report symposium and contest for young scientists. This
competition was arranged annually until 1989, when it wasdiscontinued. The Finnish Society
launched a new meeting series during the 2002, Medical Physics and Medical Engineering Day.
The main purpose of these events is to present the latest Master's theses in the field of medical
physics and engineering by poster competition and to improve the education and research cooperation between different centers in Finland. In addition to the presentation of theses, the
organizing university presents its education and research in the field of BME and BME companies
have the opportunity for exhibition and recruiting. The First Medical Physics and Medical
Engineering Day was arranged at TUT. For postgraduate students the Finnish Society established a
poster exhibition and competition together with the Finnish Physical Society's Biological and
Medical Physics Division in 2002. This event took place as a part of the 'Physics Days' (annual
national symposium) arranged by the Finnish Physical Society and is planned to be arranged during
the 'Physics Days' in future.
TAMPERE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
64
www.tut.fi
Tampere University of Technology (TUT) is the second largest technical university in Finland with
about 10 000 students and 14 degree programs.
Course studies on BME started already in the early 1970s. Since then, the curriculum has been
extended and several aspects of biomedical engineering are now covered. Education in BME is
provided by the Ragnar Granit Institute (RGI), the Institute of Signal Processing, and the Institute of
Biomaterials. Until 2001, almost 200 students have graduated with BME as their major subject.
Biomedical Engineering and Medical Informatics
www.ee.tut.fi/rgi
A comprehensive study course in biomedical engineering and medical informatics is available. This
block of studies is offered within the degree program of electrical engineering and it is intended for
graduate students in electrical engineering and information technology. The program is provided by
the Ragnar Granit Institute and organized partially in co-operation with the Institute of Signal
Processing of TUT (sigwww.cs.tut.fi/).
The aim of the study program is to provide students with an excellent ability to apply their skills in
electronics and computer science in the field of medicine. Special emphasis is placed on bioelectric
and biomagnetic phenomena, modeling methods and modern physiological signal and medical
image processing. Education includes courses in medical electronics, medical physics and medical
informatics as well as practical laboratory exercises. In addition to the subjects of biomedical
engineering, the program deals with electronics and computer science. Thus the acquired
knowledge can also be applied to the wider field of electronics and information technology in trade
and industry.
The priority fields of the research education provided by the Institute, aiming at a postgraduate
degree, include Bioelectromagnetism and Multimodal Processing of Medical Images and Medical
Informatics. Due to the internationalization development, English has established itself as the
primary teaching language at the Institute, although all the compulsory courses are also given in the
Finnish language.
A
Graduate BME studies
Study Program
The most extensive way to study BME is provided by the study program in BME. This program is
part of the degree program in electrical engineering, including 36-45 credits (54-67.5 ECTS credits)
of courses in BME. It can be joined by students in electrical engineering as early as in the beginning
of their second year when part of the common program studies include some basic subjects in BME,
replacing courses in electrical engineering. After completing the common program studies students
take BME as their major subject.
BME as a Major Subject
BME as a major subject is allowed for students in electrical engineering and information technology
degree programs. The major subject in BME contains course studies of at least 30 credits (45 ECTS
credits). Between two alternatives can be chosen: medical electronics and medical informatics.
BME as a Minor Subject
BME as a minor subject is worth at least 15 credits (22.5 ECTS credits) and it is elective for
students in several degree programs.
65
Postgraduate Studies on BME
The postgraduate program in BME focuses on bioelectromagnetism study of bioelectric and

biomagnetic phenomena of living tissue, modeling and analysis of physiological signal and medical
images as well as neuroinformatics. The framework for the doctoral studies is formed by doctoral
seminars, postgraduate courses, and other scientific seminars and meetings.
In the Doctoral Program, Licentiate of Technology (Lic.Tech.) and Doctor of
Technology/Philosophy (Dr.Tech./Ph.D.) degrees can be pursued. Doctoral study is performed in
the field of bioelectromagnetism or biomedical engineering. It consists of a Major Subject in
Biomedical Engineering (worth 30 credits), supporting studies (worth 15 credits) and the doctoral
thesis
C
Course Syllabus
Students in the electrical engineering degree program include the two courses Human Anatomy and
Physiology and Introduction to the Small-Signal Instrumentation into their common program
studies,. In addition to theseclasses, basic courses in electronics, electromagnetism, and computer
science are taken.
Medical Electronics
In medical electronics the emphasis is on special issues and requirements of the design of medical
electronic instrumentation. Thus the students are well prepared to work in different functions in
medical electronics and IT industry. The alternative contains special courses in medical electronics,
instrumentation in clinical chemistry and medical physics.
Students with a major subject in medical electronics can take their minor subject in electronics,
digital signal processing, measurement technology, digital and computer technology, technical
physics and mathematics, industrial management and biomaterial science.
Medical Informatics
Medical informatics covers various aspects of application of information technology in medicine
and health care. The studies in medical informatics are supported by several special courses in
information technology provided by the Institutes of Software Engineering, Signal Processing,
Digital and Computer Technology, Telecommunication, and Mathematics. The minor subject can
be chosen from these fields.
In addition to the theoretical courses the syllabus of medical electronics and informatics includes
several practical courses, which are obligatory in the major subject. To support the two major
subject alternatives the BME syllabus provides some advanced courses in the field of
bioelectromagnetism.
Common program studies
Human Anatomy and Physiology
Introduction to the Small-Signal Instrumentation
Courses in medical electronics
Biomedical Engineering
Medical Electronics
Medical Device Regulations
Instrumentation in Clinical Chemistry
Biosensor Technology
Radiotherapy Devices
Medical Imaging Methods
CU
4
2
3
3
2
2
3
2
4
Radiation and Safety
66
Courses in medical informatics

Introduction to Medical Informatics
Processing of Physiological Signals
Processing of Medical Images
Introduction to Telemedicine
4
3
3
2
Practical courses
Biomedical Engineering Laboratory Course I
Medical Electronics Laboratory
Medical Informatics Laboratory
Biomedical Engineering Project
Biomedical Engineering Thesis Seminar
2
2
2
3
1
Advanced courses
Bioelectromagnetism
5
P
Modeling of Physiological Systems
3
P
Neuroinformatics
3
P
Doctoral Seminar on Biomedical Engineering
4-8
P
The courses marked with P are accepted for postgraduate studies. One CU corresponds to 1.5
ECTS credits.
Biomaterial Science
www.tut.fi/units/ms/biom
Institute of Biomaterials is one of the leading European research centers in materials technology of
bioabsorbable polymers, composites and surgical implants manufactured from them.
The teaching program of the institute is located under the Materials Department and teaching is
focused on medical biomaterials and tissue engineering but one course is given on compostable
biomaterials. The courses are given in the Finnish language but for some courses material is
available in English.
A
Graduate Studies
Study Program
Students have an opportunity to study Biomaterials as a major subject and as a minor subject.
Recommended minor subjects along with Biomaterials are for example fiber technology, chemistry,
safety studies, BME and medical studies.
Biomaterials as a Major Subject
The major subject in Biomaterials contains course studies of at least 30 credits (45 ECTS credits).
Biomaterials as a major subject is allowed for students in materials science degree programs.
Biomaterials as a Minor Subject
Biomaterials as a minor subject is worth at least 15 credits (22.5 ECTS credits) and it is elective for
students in several degree programs.
B
Postgraduate Studies
The postgraduate program in biomaterials can focus on either medical biomaterials, environmental
(compostable) biomaterials or other bulk applications. The framework for the doctoral studies is
formed by doctoral seminars, postgraduate courses, and other scientific seminars and meetings.
67
In the Doctoral Program, Licentiate of Technology and Doctor of Science degrees can be pursued.
Studies consist of a Major Subject in Biomaterials and supporting studies, together the equivalent of
45 credits, and a written thesis.
C
Study Courses
Intermediate courses
Introduction to Medical Biomaterials
Tissue Engineering I
Compostable Biomaterials
CU
2
2
2
Advanced courses
Applications of Medical Biomaterials
2
Tissue Engineering II
2
P
Implant Technology
3
P
Thesis Seminar in Biomaterials
1
Special Treatise on Biomaterials Science
3
ECTS credits.
Biotechnology Program at the University of Tampere
www.uta.fi/imt/
In addition to the curriculum in TUT, the University of Tampere has a new program for a Master of
Sciences degree in Biotechnology coordinated by Institute of Medical Technology (IMT). The
program started in 2001 and 15 students started in the Master of Sciences curriculum and seven
students in the diplom engineer (M.Sc. in Technology) curriculum. The program provides a novel
type of training with special emphasis on modern biomedical research and biotechnology, and it is
jointly run by IMT, TUT and the Medical School of the University of Tampere. Courses related to
BME are given by TUT's departments.
68
HELSINKI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

Biomedical Engineering and Living State Physics
www.hut.fi
www.hut.fi/Units/Biomedical
Helsinki University of Technology (HUT) is the leading technical university in Finland with 12
departments. The laboratory of Biomedical Engineering (established in 1988) operates in the
Department of Engineering Physics and Mathematics.
It promotes both basic and graduate education as well as research in the fields of biomedical
engineering and biophysics. The Laboratory also coordinates a national Graduate School
Functional Research in Medicine, http://futu.hut.fi.
In addition, some courses on BME are given by the Laboratory of Applied Electronics at the
Department of Electrical and Communications Engineering.
A
Graduate BME Studies
BME can be studied for a Master of Science in Technology degree (M.Sc. Tech.) in the Program of
Engineering Physics. BME can be chosen as a major or minor for the degree program.
The instruction of the degree programs is organized in such a manner that it is possible for a student
to acquire approximately 35 credits (52.5 ECTS credits) in one academic year and graduate in five
years.
B
Postgraduate Studies in BME
Postgraduate degrees at HUT, Licentiate and Doctor of Technology (Lic Tech. and Dr Tech.,
respectively), are intended for graduates with a Master's degree. These degrees require
examinations in at least two subjects, one of which must be the major. Postgraduate research within
the major is mandatory. Completion of the Licentiate's degree takes 2-3 years, while a Doctorate
requires an additional 1-3 years.
The Graduate School "Functional Research in Medicine" is funded by the Ministry of Education
and the Academy of Finland. Besides HUT, the Universities of Kuopio, Oulu and Turku are
participating in the Graduate School. It offers a high-level research environment, excellent facilities
for its graduate students to work at the front end of research, supports research work aiming at
doctoral dissertations, and promotes clinical and technological applications of biomedical
engineering and physics. It also arranges new courses on current topics that present the state-of-the
art knowledge in the fields of interest in the Graduate School.
C
Study Courses
General physics courses

Modern Physics I
Modern Physics II
Classical Theory of Electricity and Magnetism
Applied Physics, Laboratory Course
Courses on biomedical engineering and living state physics
Introduction to Living State Physics
Biophysics
Medical Physics I
Medical Physics II
Seminar on Biomedical Engineering
Biophysics and Biomedical Engineering, special assignment
Electrophysiology
Image Processing in Biomedical Engineering ?
CU
4
4
5
2
2
3
3
3
2
5
3
3
P
P
69
Structure and Function of the Human Brain

3
P
Signal Processing in Biomedical Engineering
3
P
Image Processing in Biomedical Engineering ?
3
P
Functional Imaging in Biomedical Engineering
2
P
Medical Imaging Methods
3
P
Functional Macromolecules
3
P
Special Courses on Biomedical Engineering
3
P
Inverse Problems in Biomedical Engineering (1998)
Molecular Biophysics and Genetics (1999)
Medical Imaging Theory and Practice (2000)
Functional Imaging and Modeling of the Heart (2001)
Research Seminar on Biomedical Engineering
2
P
Individual Studies
1-10
P
ECTS credits.
70
UNIVERSITY OF OULU
www.oulu.fi
Biomedical Engineering Program

The University of Oulu is a multidisciplinary university with six faculties, including Medicine,
Technology, Economics, and Science. The Biomedical Engineering Program was founded in 1994
to promote collaboration in education and research between the faculties.
A
Today, BME can be studied for Masters degree in three faculties, Science, Technology and
Medicine. The courses are taught in collaboration, and the BME students have studies in all three
faculties. The combination of courses depends on the program, giving different profiles to the
studies.
B
Postgraduate studies can be performed at all three faculties for the degrees of Licentiate and Doctor
of Philosophy / Technology (Lic.Phil./Lic.Tech. and Ph.D./Dr.Tech., respectively). The studies are
arranged in close collaboration between the faculties. The graduate study courses in BME are also
given at the national level.
Faculty of Science / Biophysics
physics.oulu.fi/biofysiikka
Biophysics is one of the four divisions of the Department of Physical Sciences. The curriculum in
biophysics includes approximately 80 credits (120 ECTS credits) of courses on biophysics. There
are two alternative branches of study in which the degree can be taken: Cellular and Molecular
Biophysics or Biophysics in BME.
C
Study Courses
Basic courses
Radiation Physics
Introduction to Biophysics
CU
1
3
Intermediate courses
Laboratory Exercises in Biophysics I
Laboratory Exercises in Biophysics II
Analysis of Biosystems
Techniques of Medical Devices
Project and Seminar
Introduction to Project Work
Biophysics of Membranes
Spectroscopic Methods
2
2
2
2
5
1
3
2
Advanced courses
Bioelectronics
Laboratory Exercises in Biophysics III
Research Project in Biophysics
Dynamics of Bioprocesses
Simulation of Biosystems
Processes of the Nervous System
Intracellular Registrations
2
3
6
2
2
2
2
Identification of Linear and Nonlinear Systems

Medical Physics
Patch-Clamp Techniques
Basics of Research
Virtual Measurement Environments
Special Advance Course
One CU corresponds to 1.5 ECTS credits.
71
4
2
2
3
3
2-6
Faculty of Technology / Engineering programs (BME)
www.ttk.oulu.fi
Specialization in BME in the following programs: Program in Electrical Engineering (BME/EE),

Program in Information Engineering (BME/IE), and Program in Mechanical Engineering
(BME/ME). The curriculum includes 10-30 credits (15-45 ECTS credits) of courses on BME.
C
Study courses
Common program studies in BME/EE

Basic Anatomy and Physiology
Biomedical Measurements
CU
4
3
Studies of choice in BME/EE

Product Responsibility and Safety of Medical Devices
Medical Imaging
BME Project
Medical Equipment Design
Biomedical Engineering in Clinical Medicine
Radiation Physics, Biology and Safety
Techniques of Medical Devices
1
3
5
3,5
4
2
2
2
2
Common program studies in BME/IE

Basic Anatomy and Physiology
4
4
Studies of choice in BME/IE

Telemedicine
Medical Imaging
BME Project
Medical Physics
Virtual Reality Techniques
3
3
3
5
2
2
3
2
3
Common program studies in BME/ME

Medical Equipment Design
Studies of choice in BME/ME
Medical Imaging
3,5
4
3
1
3
72
One CU corresponds with 1.5 ECTS credits.

Faculty of Medicine / Medical and Wellness Technology
www.medicine.oulu.fi/ltek/
The new program in Medical and Wellness Technology was started in 2001. The program is placed
in the Faculty of Medicine. The curriculum includes approximately 20 credits (30 ECTS credits) of
courses on medicine, 40 credits on BME and 20 on the specialization choice. There are two
alternative specialization choices of study: Medical Engineering and Biomedical Technology.
C
Study Courses
Common program studies

Introduction to Medical Engineering
Medical Physics and Imaging Methods
Bioelectronics
Radiation Physics, Biology and Safety
Basics in Biomechanics
Rehabilitation and Gerontotechnology
Techniques in Clinical Chemistry
Virtual Measurement Environments
BME Programming Study
BME Project
Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering Seminar
CU
1
4
3
2
3
3
2
2
1
1
2
3
3
5
2
Specialization in Medical Engineering

Applied Diagnostic Radiology
Telemedicine
Applied Biomechanics
Ergonomics
Medical Device Technology
Introduction to Health Economics
2
3
2
2,5
2
1
3
Specialization in Biomedical Technology

Biophysics of Membranes
Dynamics of Bioprocesses
Basics in Biomaterials
Imaging Methods in Biomedical Research
Experimental Animal Course
One CU corresponds to 1.5 ECTS credits.
2
2
3
2
2
1
1
2
73
UNIVERSITY OF KUOPIO
www.uku.fi
venda.uku.fi
The University of Kuopio has a clear profile: it is a university specializing in health-based and
environmental sciences including the technologies related to these disciplines. It has five faculties:
Business and Information Technology, Medicine, Natural and Environmental Sciences, Pharmacy
and Social Sciences. In addition there is the A.I.V. Institute for molecular sciences. Education in the
field of BME is closely linked to the university research profile, hospital physicists' education and
local health care industry. BME education is arranged at the Faculty of Natural and Environmental
Sciences.
A
Graduate Study Programs
Medical Physics
The Department of Applied Physics at the Faculty of Natural and Environmental Sciences is
responsible for the education in Medical Physics, that is one of the specialization choices in the
graduate program of physics. This education has a strong emphasis on mathematical analysis and
modeling.
Health Care Technology
The education program of Health Care Technology is part of the education supply available in
Centek a shared education and research development project of the University of Kuopio and
Pohjois-Savo Polytechnic. Education in Health Care Technology is planned for students who
already have a B.Sc. degree or proper professional education. The duration of the study program is
three years. The courses are partially same as in the education in Medical Physics and are listed
below. The wide option to choose courses is characteristic for this program, giving a different,
individual study profile to the students. As compared to medical physics education the emphasis is
more on teaching the practical and experimental skills
B
Postgraduate Studies in Medical Physics
Postgraduate studies in Medical Physics can be performed at the Faculty of Natural and
Environmental Sciences for the degrees of Licentiate and Doctor of Philosophy (Lic.Phil. and
Ph.D., respectively). The postgraduate program as part of the education of the hospital physicists
can be conducted in the university.
C
Study Courses
Basic courses
Medical Instrumentation
Dosimetry in Radiotherapy
Physics of Electronic Components
Digital Image Processing 1
Digital Image Processing 2
Advanced courses
Physics in Clinical Physiology
Medical Imaging
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Methods and Techniques in Radiotherapy
Ultrasound Techniques in Medicine
CU
2
2
3
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
74
Isotopic Techniques
2
P
Special Course in Medical Physics
1-3
Materials Science
4
Biomaterials
3
P
Physics of Medical Implants
2
P
Methods of Materials Analysis
3
Vacuum Techniques
3
Medical Signal Analysis
2
Pattern Recognition and Image Analysis
3
Time Series Analysis
3
P
Finite Element Methods
3
P
Data-Analysis
3
P
Inverse Problems 1
3
P
Inverse Problems 2
3
P
Information Management in Health Care
3
Data Protection and Security
3
Communication, Networking and Internet in Health Care
10
Information Systems in Health Care
6
Telemedicine
2
ECTS credits.
UNIVERSITY OF TURKU
75
www.utu.fi
www.lfy.utu.fi
The Department of Medical Physics was founded in 1992 as part of the Institute of Biomedicine,
Faculty of Medicine. The department gives basic education in physics, medical physics and
biomaterials for the students in medicine and health biosciences. The department is actively
promoting studies at the graduate level through several graduate schools and is offering positions
for graduate students either via direct funding from the graduate schools or via industrial funding.
The research areas of the department are new bioanalytical methods, light microscopy and
biomaterials science.
A
The department of Medical Physics does not offer graduate courses and teaching in BME. However,
students of physics at the University of Turku may join the BME program of Tampere University of
Technology after completing their basic studies in Physics according to the agreement between the
two universities.
B
Postgraduate studies at the department of Medical Physics are organized in national graduate
schools in collaboration with other groups within the field. Training is multidisciplinary and Ph.D.
degrees may be pursued in fields of biomedical physics and engineering, chemistry and
biochemistry. The graduate schools where the students may join through the department are:
Graduate School of Functional Research in Medicine (FUTU), http://futu.hut.fi/
Graduate School of Chemical Sensors and Microanalytical Systems (CHEMSEM),
http://www.chemsem.hut.fi/
National Graduate School of Informational and Structural Biology (ISB), http://www.abo.fi/isb/
Graduate courses are organized within the graduate schools and vary from year to year depending
on the requests and requirements of the students.
Hospital Physicists Education in Finland
76
www.tek.fi/sairaalafyysikot/
In the field of BME the position of hospital physicist is the only profession which has an
accreditation (certification?) in Finland. According to the Finnish law for professions in health care
the title of hospital physicist (sairaalafyysikko) is protected. It means that title can be used only if a
person has the formal (registered) qualification in hospital physics. To implement the EC-directive
97/43/Euratom (MED) into Finnish legislation a new statute by the Social and Health Ministry was
passed. In that law a formal qualification (registered hospital physicist) is required to be able to
practice in radiotherapy and nuclear medicine. The program for the education of hospital physicists
is considered an official postgraduate university education.
The Education Committee for hospital physicists co-ordinates the education in the whole country.
In the Education Committee, there should be a representative from each university, from the
Association of Hospital Physicist and a physician member. The Committee is circulating in
different universities at a period of three years. At the moment (for years 2001-2003) the Committee
has been nominated by the University of Oulu, Medical Faculty. The rules and functions of the
Education Committee have been ratified by each university.
Aims of the Education
The aims of the education of hospital physicists is to give the skills to work independently in the
following commissions in health care:
to develop diagnostic and therapeutic methods and to participate in diagnostic and treatment
procedures
to perform and supervise physical quality assurance actions
to perform commissioning of medical devices and software
to teach in medical physics
to be responsible for radiation safety
to support and apply information technology
to have the ability to carry out scientific research in medical physics and to take part in medical
research projects.
Requirements of the Education Program
It is possible to start the education program after the B.Sc. degree. The main subject may be
physics, electrical engineering or information technology; physics always has to be included into
the degree.
Content of the Education
The education consists of theoretical studies in universities and of practical training in the hospital
(some part may be in medical physics research laboratories, as well). In every training center there
is an appointed and registered supervisor (professor or head physicist) who is responsible for the
execution of the education program.
Basic structure
a postgraduate studies (at least 40 credit units) in physics or engineering (theoretical education)
a postgraduate thesis (licentiate or doctoral)
four years of practical training in five special areas of hospital physics
radiation safety examination
final examination considering the application for medical physics in the hospital environment
77
Theoretical Education
The responsible supervisor will plan the program for the studies to obtain the qualification in
medical physics with the student. According to the new statute (834/2000) the student has to pass at
least the licentiate of philosophy degree; in many cases students will pass the doctoral degree
directly. The main subject of the examination shall be physics, medical physics, technical physics,
biophysics or biomedical engineering.
Practical Training
It is possible to start practical training after the B.Sc. degree. Total training time is four years; time
from last eight years (from acceptance of the program) has been accepted for training. The training
is done in centers which have been accepted by the Education Committee. The training centes have
been classified into three categories:
four years of training time (full rights) possible in all university hospitals
two years of training time (partial rights):
in central hospitals where a qualified hospital physicist (registered) is the responsible
supervisor,
in other hospitals/institutes that have been inspected by the Education Committee, have a
qualified hospital physicist on their staff and represent four main areas of hospital physics.
one year of training time (partial rights):
in medical physics research centers with a qualified hospital physicist available as a
supervisor that have been accepted by the Education Committee.
Thus at least three years of the training time must be carried out in a hospital. The supervisor is
responsible for the student having work experience in all the main areas of hospital physics: nuclear
medicine, clinical physiology, clinical neurophysiology, radiotherapy and oncology, as well as
diagnostic radiology. Training will include at least 20 hours of administrative education in
hospitals.
Radiation Safety Examination
Some universities have a permission to organize radiation safety examinations at different levels.
The permission is granted by the Finnish Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority. The students
have to pass the examination on the level: the general use of ionizing radiation.
Final Examination
The aim of the final examination is to test the student's ability to apply the theoretical knowledge to
the clinical practice. The examinations are arranged four times per year at the same time as
examinations of specializing physicians in medical faculties. The final examination can be taken
after three years of practical training and accepted radiation safety examination. The permission to
take the examination has to be granted by the Education Committee. Because the postgraduate
degree requires at least 40 credit units (60 ECTS credits), the final examination is only testing the
ability to apply the theoretical knowledge to the hospital environment.
Qualified Hospital Physicist
If all the parts of the education scheme have been passed it is possible to apply for registration (the
status of the title protected hospital physicist) from the National Board of Medicolegal Affairs.
Maybe this sentence could be replaced by the last sentence of the original draft:
The program meets the educational requirements for national registration schemes for medical
physicists recommended by the European Federation of Organizations for Medical Physics.
78
Biomedical Engineering in France: A Brief Historical Survey

The emergence of Biomedical Engineering in France was due, like in most new and multidisciplinary
disciplines, to leading researchers belonging to other fields. Physics and Chemistry were the ones
contributing most because Engineering Sciences as well as for instance Signal Processing at that time were
in their infancy in France. These individuals along with some students were isolated in their original
laboratories and no places were established for meetings and discussion. The research in this area sufferd
from the image of being applied research, as opposed to the lettres de noblesse of Basic Sciences, and
related to industrial concerns, with the idea of private funding behind it, two features which in France were
negatively appreciated. For those who want to understand this period, it must be said that the communication
between people was operating mainly through very few journals (the first journal founded 50 years ago was
the IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering) which were disseminated very sparsely over the world
and it took months to obtain a copy of a given paper.
A real interest for medical instrumentation or medical electronics appeared in the 60s and it was only at the
beginning of the 70s that the national institutions initiated several programmes in the area. Three leading
researchers have played a major role at this level. The General Director of the INSERM (the National
Institute for Health and Medical Research), Professor C BURG, the French representative to the European
BME Working Group, Professor D LAURENT, and the head of the national programme, Y MOSCHETTO,
Director of Research. The first comparative report prepared by D LAURENT at the European level pointed
out that France was well behind other countries like Germany, The Netherlands and The United Kingdom
which already were engaged in strong national policies supporting industrial efforts and establishing
institutes fully devoted to research and training in BME. This conjunction of efforts has served in several
ways: (1) a national evaluation of the French human potential involved in BME was launched; (2) a coordination for investment was initiated; (3) the creation of BME laboratories was decided. The INSERM,
under the leadership of C BURG and Y MOSCHETTO, has played a major role in the 70s by setting up
several research units and what was called Centres of Biomedical Technology all over the country. Most
of them were successful, attracting and recruiting young engineers and researchers, carrying out joint
ventures with companies and developing new products.
In the 80s, the General Direction for Scientific and Technological Research (the structure early involved in
a modest support of the field since the 60s) with J-C BISCONTE, under the Ministry of Research, set up
regional centres, co-financed by Regions. In parallel, the National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS),
together with universities and engineering schools, founded various laboratories focussed on BME research.
Beyond the institutional supports, individual initiatives led to a better identification of the BME field. Y
MOSCHETTO created the French journal, Innovation and Technology in Biology and Medicine (ITBM
jean ROUSSEAU) and the Young Researchers Forum. A second journal, RBM, oriented toward Clinical
Engineering, was established in the same period of time. They have recently merged and today are published
by Elsevier.
These instruments, structuring the national community, have had a strong impact on the European visibility
of the French BME. J-P MORUCCI and other colleagues have strongly pushed for European initiatives like
the COST actions, the AIM and the BIOMED programmes. Friendly partnerships have been set up with the
Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBS) and a strong increase of French contributions was
observed in all the IEEE-EMBS Conferences. This situation offered the opportunity for J-L COATRIEUX
and J-P MORUCCI to organise the 1992 IEEE EMBS Conference in Paris. It was the first time this
conference took place outside the US, and its great success has opened the road for its organisation at places
all over the world.
79
Unfortunately, under the pressure of more fundamental disciplines, the INSERM decided, in the early 90s
to reduce its support for BME by closing several research units while the CNRS and the CEA (Atomic
Energy Agency) maintained their efforts at a moderate level. A new player, the INRIA (National Institute
for Computer Science and Automatic Control) came into the field by launching a few research projects.
Technology was again considered as a marginal component of research in the INSERM: the famous citation
index was the law. BME was scattered over medical disciplines and lost its identity, the consequence being
major difficulties in recruiting young researchers and in establishing new laboratories. The paradox of this
period is that the international recognition was very high, especially by the north-American community with
the election as of J-L COATRIEUX as Vice-President of IEEE-EMBS, followed later by the election of C
ROUX as President. At the same time, small and medium size enterprises, with products in very focussed
BME market segments, were growing. It was only in 1998 that a new BME initiative of the Ministry of
Research and Technology, directed by G BERGER, was initiated. It allowed J DEMONGEOT and J-L
COATRIEUX to launch the National Health Technology Network in 1999 and, in co-ordination with the
Direction of Research, incite concerted actions. The annual Calls for Projects (the 2003 Call is already open
under the responsibility of R BEUSCART and J BITTOUN) were aimed at multidisciplinary research (from
Physics, Mathematics, Computer Science, etc.) in joint ventures with companies. These last years have been
used to restructure the tissue of French BME organisations. The French BME Society (SFGBM with L
POURCELOT as first President) was launched in 1999. The Alliance for BME (AGBM), headed by F
LANGEVIN, was reactivated: it merged with the SFGBM, the federation of Companies and Technology
Transfer Centres, the French Clinical Engineering Society and many others. The leading role of the Ministry
of Research and Technology has allowed to figure out a new national label for research units (ERIT-M)
especially suited to BME and the new General Director of INSERM, C BRECHOT, decided on the creation
of a new INSERM scientific commission, STAM (Science for Technologies Applied to Medicine). The
emphasis on multidisciplinary fields in the CNRS (now directed by G BERGER) leads to a strong hope in
the future of BME in France at, but not only, the frontiers of Information Technology Society and Health.
The 6th European Programme, with its new instruments, the Networks of Excellence and the Integrated
Projects, must be a new and significant step for our field, even if the BME space is not identified as such.
NATIONAL SOCIETIES
French Society for Biomedical Engineering (Socit Franaise de Gnie Biologique et Mdical SFGBM)
Alliance for Biomedical Engineering (Alliance de Gnie Biologique et Mdical AGBM)
ORGANISATIONS IN COGNATE AREAS
AIM
Club Franais des Capteurs Biochimiques
Collge des Enseignants en Radiologie Franais
Socit Franaise pour lApplication des Ultrasons la Mdecine
Socit des Electriciens et Electronicien,
Socit Franaise de Biochromatographie
Socit Franaise de Biologie Thorique
Socit Franaise de Biomatriaux
Socit Franaise de Biomcanique
Socit Franaise de Biophysique
Socit Franaise du Handicap
Socit Franaise des LASERS Mdicaux
Socit Franaise des Physiciens dHpitaux
Socit Franaise de Radiologie
Socit Francaise de Radiotherapie Oncologique
Socit Franaise des Thermiciens
Socit dInformatique Mdicale
EDUCATION, TRAINING
80
81
Since 2002, we have a set of research teams which offer a training period for post-thesis with Edufrance cf.
http://www.edufrance.fr/fr/catalogue/n_result_av.asp
In France, the teaching of Biomedical Engineering is spread out to a large number of institutions (over 120).
There are University degree courses in medical or biomedical engineering at both the undergraduate and the
postgraduate level. A specificity of the French system is the diapatching of the teaching between universities
and engineering schools.
Most of teaching courses include a training period in a University, Public Research, Industrial or Clinical
environment ranging from 3 months to 3 years.
Bac+2
DEUST Technico-commercial en appareillage et matriel mdical
Univ. Grenoble 1
DEUST Technico-coommercial dans le domaine biomdical
Univ. Dijon
TS en Ingnierie Biomdicale Hospitalire (SPIBH)
UTC Compigne
TS des Matriel de Sant des Armes
Orlans
Bac+3
DESTU Maintenance Biomdicale
IM2B Bordeaux
DNTS en Gnie Biomdical
IUT Lorient
DNTS en Instrumentation et Maintenances Biomdicales
Lyce Jacquard Paris
DNTS en Instrumentation et Maintenances Biomdicales
ENCPB Paris
Bac+4
lngM en Ingnierie de la Sant (qualit des produits de biotransformation)
IUP Angers
IngM en Ingnierie, de la Sant
IUP Lille 2
IngM en Ingnirie de la Sant (option Technologie de la Sant)
IUP Montpellier 1
IngM en Ingnierie de la Sant (option Nutriton et Dittique)
IUP
Nancy
IngM en Ingnierie de la Sant (option Gnie Biologique et Mdical)
IUP
Nancy
IngM en Ingnierie de la Sant (option Gestion sant et recherche clinique)
IUP paris 12
IngM en Ingnierie de la Sant (opt. Technologie et Mthodologie Mdicales lUp Toulouse

MSBM en Gnie Biomdical
Univ. Paris 5
MST de Gnie Biomdical
Univ. Lyon 1
MST de Gnie physiologique
Univ. Poitiers
MST de Tlsurveillance Mdicale
Univ. Paris 5
Bac + 5
Ding en Bioinformatique et ModILqaw
INSA Lyon
82
Ding de Ecole Centrale de Paris (option Bio-ingnierie)
ECP Chatenay-Malabry
Ding en Gnie Biologique (Filire Biomatriaux et Biomcanique)
UTC Compigne
Ding en Gnie Biologique (Filire BkffnMical)
Urc Compigne
Ding en Gnie Biomdical
ESIL Marseille
Ding en Gnie physique et instrumentation (Imag. Instru. Mdicale)
ISTASE Saint Etienne
Ding en Informatique industrielle et instrumentation
ISTG Grenoble
Ding en Physique (option application biologiques et mdicales)
ENSP Strasbourg
Ding en Technologie de rinformation pour la sant
ISTG Grenoble
Ding en Tlcommunications (traitement de signal et d'images mdicaux)
ENSTB Brest
DESS Biologie et technique de commercialisation
UFR Biologie
Grenoble
DESS Dveloppement pharmaceutique et fabrication industrielle des produits de sarde et Gestion de projet
en situation de dveloppement
Univ. Bordeaux 2
DESS Dispositifs Mdicaux et Mdicaments Associs
Univ. Grenoble
DESS Gnie Biomdical
Univ. Lyon 1
DESS Gnie Biomdical
Univ. Nice
DESS Ingnierie de rlmage
Univ- Bordeaux 3
DESS Matriaux pour le vivant - Biomatriaux
Univ Bordeaux 1&2
DESS Qualit Evaluation en Sant
UTC Compigne
DESS Radmprotechori-RadepaioIogie
UFR Mdecine Grenoble
DESS Relations industrie-sant; gestion et optimisation des flux dlnterfaoe
Univ. Angers
DESS Qualit Evaluation Organisation et Performance dans les Etablissements de Sant

UTC,ENSP Rennes
DESS Technologies Biomdicales Hospitalires
UTC Compigne
DESS Technologie et Logistique en Biologie et Mdecine
USTL Lille 1
DESS Traitement de l'information Mdicale et Hospitalire
Univ. Rennes
DEA Bioingnierie - biomatriaux
Univ. Metz
DEA Biologie, ostoarticulaire, biomcanique, biomatriaux
Univ. Lyon 1
DEA Biornathmatique
Univ. Paris 6&7
DEA Biomcanique: Mcanique des Systmes Biologiques
Univ. Paris 12
DEA Epidmiologie clinique et valuation des actions de sant
Univ. Strasbourg
DEA Epidmiologie et intervention en sant publique
Univ. Bordeaux
DEA Gnie Biologique et Mdical
Univ. Parisl2&13
DEA Gnie Biologique et Mdical
Nancy
83
DEA Gnie Biologique et Mdical spcialit Biomatriaux
Univ. Paris13
DEA Gnie Biomdical
UTC/Univ. Amiens
DEA Gnie Biomdical (option interface physique, biologie et rhologie)
Univ Reims
DEA Image et Systmes
INS Lyon
DEA Imagerie Mdicale
Univ. Paris 11
DEA Informatique Mdicale
Univ. Rennes
DEA Informatique, Productique Imagerie mdicale
Univ. Clemiont-Ferrand
DEA Ingnierie Biologique
Univ. Nancy
DEA Ingnierie Mdicale et Biologique
Univ. Lyon
DEA Instrumentation et Informatique de j'Image
Univ. Besanon et Dijon
DEA Interface Physique Biologie
Univ. Paris 11
DEA Mcanique et Ingnierie (Option biomcanique)
Univ Strasbourg
DEA Mthodes d'analyse des systmes de Sant
Univ. Lyon
DEA Mthodes de Recherches sur lEnvironnement et la Sant
UFR Pharmacie Grenoble
DEA Modles et Instruments en Mdecine et Biologie
DEA Performance Motrice et Activit Sportive
UFR STAPS
DEA Physiologie et Biomcanique de ta Performance Motrice
Univ. Paris 5
DEA Robotique, Image, Vision
Univ, WF Grenoble
DEA Radiobiologie
Univ. Paris 11
DEA Rayonnements et Imagerie en Mdecine
Univ. Toulouse
DEA Sant Publique
Univ. Paris 1 Paris
DEA Signaux et Images en Biologie et Mdecine
Univ. Tours
DEA Signal, Image Parole
INPG Grenoble
DEA Systme de soins hospitaliers
Univ. Lille et Paris
Mastre Equipements Biomdicaux
UTC&ENSP Rennes
Mastre Gestion des Risques lHpital
ECP
Mastre en ingnirie biomdicale
Lille
Grenoble
Chanenay-Malabry
Bac + 7
Doctorat - Ecole doctorale Sectew Sciences et Sant
Univ. Amiens
Doctorat - Ecole Doctorale en Sciences pouir lingnieur
UTC Compigne,
Doctorat - Ecoie doctorale Ingnierie pour le vivant: sant.
Univ. Grenoble
Doctorat - Ecole doctorale Image et Modlisation des Objets Naturels
Univ. Bourgogne Besanon
Doctorat
Univ. Lyon
Doctorat
84
Univ. Nancy
DoctoratEcole doctorale, Sciences et Technologies de lInformation des Tlcommunications et des

systmes
Paris 11
Doctorat
Univ Paris
Doctorat
Univ. Rennes
Doctorat
Univ. Toulouse
Doctorat
Univ. Tours
Various levels
DIU Dispositifs Mdicaux et Produits Biologiques
Univ. Paris & Nantes
DU Evaluation et Sant
Univ. Paris 5 & 12
DU Evaluation des Technologies Mdicales
Univ. Paris 5 & 12
DU de Formation la Ranimation Mdicale et Chirurgicale
Univ. de Picardie Amiens
DU & Hmodialyse
Univ. Amiens Compigne
DU de l'Institut de Formation Suprieure Biomdicale
Univ. Paris 11 Villejuif
DIU Qualit-Accrditation-Evaluation des tablissements sanitaires et sociaux
Univ. Nancy
DU Valorisation de la recherche Applique et de lInnovation Biomdicale
Univ. Paris
Certificat de Technicien Suprieur la maintenance technique hospitalire
IISFCS Lyon
Attestation de suivi de sessions de fonnation la maintenance biomdicale
IISFCS Lyon
Attestation de suivi de sessions de FC
UTC Compigne
Attestation de suivi de sessions de FCAttestation de suivi de sessions de FC ENSP Rennes

Attestation de suivi de sessions de FC+
CHEP Paris
LNE Paris
Attestation de suivi des joumes d1tudes AGBM
AGBM Paris
Attestation de suivi des Joumes dEtudes, AAMB
AAMB Paris
Attestation de suivi des joumes d'Ebxies AFIB
AFIB Paris
Attestation de suivi des joumes dl:bjdes ANHIEB
ANIHEB Paris
ATD Compigne
Attestation de suivi de sessions de FC en mdecine nuclaire
ACOMEN Montpellier
Attestation de suivi de sessions de FC en tlchirurgie
EITS Stasbourg
Attestation de suivi de sessions de FC en chirurgie
Cic Paris
Attestation de suivi de sessions de FC en normalisation
AFNOR Paris
BIOFORCE Lyon
Attestation de suivi de stages de FC
GMED paris
85
TUV Paris
Attestation de suivi des confrence d'information de mise jour rglementaireDroit et Pharmacie Paris
CNEH paris
ALS Orlans
Agilent Technologies Les Ulis
GE Buc
Draeger Antony
Siemens paris
CIMI Blois
Annex ABBREVIATIONS USED FOR THE DESCRIPTION OF TEACHING FORMATIONS

Appr
Enseignement par l'Apprentissage
Bac
Baccalaurat
BP
Brevet professionnel
DEA
Diplme d'tudes Approfondies
DESS
Diplme d'tudes Suprieures Spcialises
DESTU
Diplme d'tudes Suprieures Technologiques Universitaires
DEU
Diplme dtudes Universitaires Gnerales
DEUST
Diplme d'tudes Universitaires Spcialiss Technologiques
DIF
Diplme d'ingnieur par la Formation Continue
Ding
Diplme d'ingnieur
DIU
Diplme Inter Universit
DU
Diplme d'Universit
DNTS
Diplme National de Technologie Spcialise
DRT
Diplme de Recherche Technologique
EAD
Enseignement distance
FC
Formation Continue
FI
Formation Initiale
FWTH
Formation Internationale la MaintenanceTechnique Hospitalire
Fond
Enseignement Fondamental
IAE
Institut de l'Administration des Entreprises
Ingm
Diplme d'ingnieur Matre
IUP
Institut Universitaire Professionnalise
IUP Is
Institut Universitaire Professionnalis en Ingnierie de la Sant
MSBM
Matrise de Sciences Biologiques et Mdicales
MST
Matrise de Science et Technique
Opt
Option
Pres
Enseignement "Prsentiel" (dans les locaux des organismes de formation)
Prof
Enseignement Professionnel
TC
Temps Complet
TP
Temps Partiel
TS
Technicien Suprieur
UFR
Unit de Formation et de Recherche
Univ
Universit
VAP
Validation des Acquis professionnels
86
87

Background situation
Health services, with an annual turnover of around 300 billion , represent one of
the largest sectors in the German national economy. More than four million
workers are directly or indirectly employed in health services. There are more
than 500 000 beds in German hospitals.
The use of medical technology is possible only with constant supervision by engineers trained in biomedical engineering. They bear responsibility in hospitals
for procuring, maintaining and setting up the equipment and in many cases assist
the doctors in using the devices on the patient. Many hospitals therefore have
their own technical departments for purchasing, supervising, and helping physicians in using the medical devices.
Medical devices are important not only for the health system, but also for Germany's industrial development. The market for medical products and systems is
a growth area at the global level: in the industrialised nations it is growing annually at a rate of five to seven percent. The world-wide turnover in 1998 amounted
to about 160 billion (roughly 71 billion in the USA, about 46 billion in Western Europe and 20 billion in developing countries).
The medical device industry

The development of highly advanced medical devices demands a complex form
of know-how. In terms of world-wide comparisons, Germany is playing an outstanding role. The German medical device industry is headed by the major corporations Siemens, Philips and Fresenius. To these can be added seventeen
further companies, each with an annual turnover in excess of thirty-five million
and more than 500 small and medium-sized companies with more than 20 employees (Figure 1).
The medical device industry, with approximately 100.000 employees in the sectors of electrical/electronic products, precision engineering and optical products,
achieves an annual turnover of 10 billion . Medical technology and electrical
medical products amount to around one third (32 %) of this turnover. And in other
related fields of medical products, diagnostics, dental products, visual optics, opF:\3 Dgbmt\8 ffentlichkeitsarbeit\Fachbeitrge\eMedTechBRD_180202.doc - Erstelldatum 18.02.02 07:24
88
Page 2/7
tical products, lasers and laboratory technology, growing proportions of biomedical technology are incorporated too, although this has not until now been reflected separately in the statistics. With an export ratio approaching 60 %, the
German industry is also well represented in the global growth markets.
MEDICAL PRODUCT MARKET in Germany
Market segment
Proportion
Medical technology
Electrical medical products
Medical products
Diagnostics
Dental products
Visual optics
Optical products, lasers, laboratory technology
Other
20 %
12 %
21 %
13 %
12 %
9%
8%
5%
Source: Bundesministerium fr Bildung und Forschung
As a rule, more than 50 percent of the turnover of a manufacturer of medical

equipment is provided by products which are less than two years old. The
manufacturers invest roughly 10 percent of their turnover in research and development. In view of this high level of commitment, this highly innovative sector
offers good opportunities for engineers. In addition, new and extended areas of
activity are presenting themselves. The application of information technology and
communications technology is subject to special requirements in proximity to patients, and it is frequently necessary for appropriately trained engineers to be
employed in order to ensure these requirements are complied with. Even biotechnology, one of today's popular buzzwords, does not function without close
synergy with areas of technology such as information technology and microsystems technology.
11,7 %
21,3 %
1,6 %
0,6 %
Number of
employees
20-49
50-99
100-499
500-999
64,7 % >1000
Fig 1: Medical product manufacturers by number of employees. Source: Statistisches Bundesamt 1996.
89
Page 3/7
Research in Germany
The research landscape of Germany is characterised by a wide variety of active
participants (research institutes and organisations which promote research) and
various supporters of health research, in addition to the companies in the medical
device industry itself. Research bodies are additionally able to take advantage of
many different promotional (funding) arrangements. Among the most important
institutions on the financial side can be counted several Federal Government
authorities:

Bundesministerium fr Bildung und Forschung, BMBF - www.bmbf.de
Bundesministerium fr Wirtschaft und Technologie, BMWi - www.bmwi.de
Bundesministerium fr Gesundheit, BMG - www.bmg.de
the individual states
Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, DFG - www.dfg.de
commerce in general
numerous charitable foundations
On the practical level, implementing research and development, there are the

Technical Universities and Universities of Applied Sciences
Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, MPG - www.mpg.de
Fraunhofer Gesellschaft, FhG - www.fhg.de
Helmholtz-Gemeinschaft deutscher Forschungseinrichtungen, HGF

www.helmholtz.de
Wissenschaftsgemeinschaft Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, WGL - www.wgl.de
Institutional Research in Germany

Institutes of the Max-Planck-Gesellschaft
Institutes of the Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft
Centres of the Helmholtz-Gemeinschaft
Institutions of the Wissenschaftsgemeinschaft
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
University/polytechnic clinics
1
Technical universities
1
Universities of Applied Sciences (Polytechnics)
14
4
11
13
36
19
19
Source: Bundesministerium fr Bildung und Forschung
In their promotion of research and development, the Federal Government and

the individual states occupy themselves principally with institutional promotion
Universities/polytechnics with courses or study facilities in Biomedical Engineering
90
Page 4/7
and support of specific projects. The DFG uses a wide range of approaches, but
concentrates in particular on the promotion of specific projects. An increasingly
important role in providing financial support for health research is also being
played by the European Union with its Framework Programmes for research.
Training in Universities
Broad-based dedicated courses in biomedical engineering at Universities
of Applied Sciences
Broad-based dedicated courses in biomedical engineering represent a selfcontained course of studies or alternatively a branch of studies with a concluding
examination (for the award of a diploma) in (bio)medical engineering, such as already exists at some polytechnics. Depending on the polytechnic chosen, the
basic course of studies lasts between two and four semesters. The course is orientated towards natural sciences and technology and is usually suitable for coupling with numerous associated areas of study. The core studies including the
thesis work in preparation for the issue of a diploma focus entirely on the topic of
biomedical engineering. Under normal circumstances, the course lasts four
years.
Studies at (Technical) Universities
Dedicated courses at a University or Technical University
The course's structure is comparable with that which applies to courses at a university of applied sciences which offers a broad-based range of courses. In comparison with courses at a university of applied sciences, the duration of the period of studies is extended and the content of the studies is technically more directed towards activities in the area of research and development. Under normal
circumstances, the course at a university lasts five years.
Special dedicated courses as part of a classical course of studies
In such cases, biomedical engineering is preferably to be regarded as a single,
specially selected application area within the classical education of an engineer
(with a main focus on electrical engineering, mechanical engineering/precision
engineering, informatics, physical technology or similar areas). Speciallyprepared teaching sessions dedicated to biomedical engineering amount to a
less significant proportion of the total studies than would be the case for a dedicated degree course in biomedical engineering. Selected special topics from the
area of biomedical engineering are included within the scope of the broaderbased studies.
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Fig. 2: Universities offering courses for biomedical engineering in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland: (Technical) Universities, Universities of Applied Sciences.
Postgraduate Studies in Biomedical Engineering

A stand-alone basic course of studies in biomedical engineering for engineers
from other disciplines, scientists from other technical areas and medical specialists, aimed at providing an additional diploma, a supplementary master qualification or a certificate, is increasingly frequently offered.
Many universities offer those who have successfully concluded their studies with
a diploma in other areas of study the opportunity to make a tangential entry into
the study of biomedical engineering. Subject to special decisions in individual
cases, and depending upon their examination regulations, the universities are
willing to recognise parts of the examinations from the previous studies.
Students may enrol for the types of courses and individual study elements described above at 19 polytechnics in Germany, as well as at a similar number of
universities. The current situation is presented in the Internet under the address
www.vde.com/dgbmt.
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Associations and Technical Societies

The realm of associations in Germany consists of specialist technical and scientific societies, organisations operating on behalf of occupational interest groups
and associations representing member companies. Organisations representing
occupational interest groups are not reflected in the following list. In view of the
large number of associations and societies, it is only possible to list the most important ones in this document.
Medical Device Industry Associations
BVMed - Bundesfachverband Medizintechnologie (www.bvmed.de)
The Bundesfachverband Medizintechnologie is a national association for the
medical products industry.

F+O - Verband der deutschen feinmechanischen und optischen Industrie

(www.feinoptik.de)
The Technical Association "Medical Technology" in the F+O is the group with
the largest turnover, and the largest number of member companies, in Germany.
ZMT - Zentralvereinigung Medizinisch-Technischer Fachhndler, Hersteller,
Dienstleister und Berater (www.zmt.de)
ZMT is a relatively new national association for the medical products industry.
The association represents distributors, manufacturers, consultants and service companies within the medical products sector.
ZVEI - Zentralverband der Elektrotechnischen Industrie (www.zvei.org)
The medical technical branch of ZVEI represents more than 125 companies.
Specialist Technical and Scientific Associations and Societies

AWMF - Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Wissenschaftlichen Medizinischen Fachgesellschaften (www.awmf-online.de)
The AWMF incorporates more than 100 specialist scientific associations from
all areas of medicine. The AWMF represents Germany in the Council for International Organisations of Medical Sciences (CIOMS).

DGMP - Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Medizinische Physik (www.dgmp.de)

The DGMP promotes science in the area of medical physics, including medical
technology.
DGBMT - Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Biomedizinische Technik im VDE
(www.vde.com/dgbmt)
The DGBMT promotes co-operation between natural scientists, engineers and
doctors in research, development, application and education.
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FBMT - Fachvereinigung Biomedizinische Technik (www.fbmt.de)

The FBMT represents the technical interests of clinical engineers in hospitals.
FKT Fachvereinigung Krankenhaustechnik (www.fkt.de)
The FKT seeks to achieve the closest possible co-operation between the
senior technical personnel of all hospitals in the Federal Republic of Germany,
with the goals of encouraging a practical exchange of experience and of promoting technical training and further training
GMDS - Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Medizinische Informatik, Biometrie und
Epidemiologie (www.gmds.de)
The GMDS pursues the goal of promoting medical informatics, including medical documentation, medical biometrics and epidemiology in theory and application, in research and education.
Further information about Biomedical Engineering in Germany is available from:

DGBMT Deutsche Gesellschaft fr
Biomedizinische Technik im VDE
Stresemannallee 15
D-60596 Frankfurt am Main
Germany
Tel.
(Int+49)69 6308 208/348
Fax: (Int+49)69 96 31 52 17
http://www.vde.com/dgbmt
E-Mail:dgbmt@vde.com
94
Remarks on Curricula in Biomedical Engineering and Clinical Engineering

Olaf Dssel
Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Universitt Karlsruhe (TH)
1 Introduction
2 Competencies in Basic Scientific and Engineering Disciplines
3 Competencies in Biomedical Engineering, Clinical Engineering, Medical Physics,
Medical Informatics - General Remarks
4 Competencies in Anatomy, Physiology, Medicine
5 Competencies in General Economics and in Medical Economics
6 Competencies in Social Aspects and Ethics of Biomedical and Clinical Engineering
7 Personal Soft Skills
8 Theory and Practical Training, Seminars
9 Aspects of Detailed Planning of a Curriculum in Biomedical and Clinical
Engineering
10 Conclusions
1 Introduction
The author has recognized - like many others - that there is a need for
recommendations for curricula in Biomedical and Clinical Engineering. The reason is
not to fence in creativity of universities to set their own focus. All kind of
recommendations should be as week as possible. But some fixed core structures
would have important benefits:
- Students could rely on an accepted quality level if they decide to start their studies
at a specific institution.
- Employers could rely on a specific level of education if they hire a graduate.
- Students could carry out their studies at many different institutions in different
countries and rely on the acceptance of their credits (Bologna Declaration).
- Institutions that are planning to install new programs in Biomedical or Clinical
Engineering could learn form others and make sure that their approach is not below
standard.
These recommendations will not have any legal attitude since in most countries the
universities are free to install their own programs on their own responsibility. But if
many powerful organizations in the field would join to set up some general
recommendations, these recommendations could become some quasi-standard that
95
is well known and accepted everywhere. On the long run these recommendations
could merge into Criteria for Accreditation.
The remarks presented here are preliminary ideas of the author and not official
recommendations yet. They are based on many discussions with experts in the field
from university, hospitals and industry, a questionnaire that was carried out by the
German Association of Biomedical Engineering, the results of the Biomedical
Engineering Education Summit held by the Whittaker Foundation in 2000 in
Washington and a workshop with delegates from all other German associations in the
field of Biomedical Engineering, Clinical Engineering, Medical Physics and Medical
Informatics.
2 Competencies in Basic Scientific and Engineering Disciplines
For all programs, whether they lead to a special degree in Biomedical Engineering or
they are just a major or field of specialization in Biomedical Engineering, a significant
part of basic knowledge in the traditional scientific and engineering disciplines is
strongly recommended. Especially employers from industry demand for these broad
basic competencies giving reference to fast changing technical environments,
flexibility on the job, lifelong learning, cooperating in multidisciplinary teams and so
on.
This holds true not only for Biomedical Engineering and Clinical Engineering but also
for Medical Physics and Medical Informatics. All have their main emphasis in slightly
different areas with large overlap.
In particular the following disciplines are mentioned that should be covered by every
graduate (of course in different depth depending on the specific degree the student is
aiming at):
Mathematics:
Linear Algebra, Analysis, Statistics and Stochastics, Integral Transforms, Differential
Equations, Optimisation, Numerical Mathematics
Physics:
Mechanics, Thermodynamics, Electrodynamics, Optics, Quantum Physics, Atoms
and Molecules, Solid State Physics, Nuclear Physics, Statistical Physics
Mechanical Engineering:
Technical Mechanics, Technical Design, Technology and Materials, Mechatronics,
Microsystems, Computer Assisted Design
Electrical Engineering and Information Technology:
Analogue Circuits, Digital Circuits, Controller Circuits, RF-Electronics, Measuring
Techniques, Microcontroller, Bus-Systems, Communications Engineering
Informatics:
Data Structures, Coding, Algorithms, Programming Languages, Operating Systems,
Architecture of Information Systems
In recent years more and more a good basic knowledge in Cell-Biology and
Biochemistry is asked for (see also chapter 4 and 9).
In all these disciplines of course special emphasis must be put on the ability to apply
the knowledge, to solve problems and to combine the knowledge in a creative way.
96
In the questionnaire mentioned above the amount of these basic disciplines in the
first two years of studies was given quite consistently with 70%. Only 30% of the time
should be spent in courses on Biomedical Engineering, Clinical Engineering, Medical
Physics or Medical Informatics. During the period of advanced studies the
percentage is reversed: 70% Biomedical Engineering but still 30% basic disciplines.
3 Competencies in Biomedical Engineering, Clinical Engineering, Medical Physics,

Medical Informatics - General Remarks
In 2000 the author took the initiative to set up a catalogue of keywords of knowledge
in the field of Biomedical Engineering, Clinical Engineering, Medical Physics and
Medical Informatics. The Biomedical Engineering Handbook (Editor Joseph D.
Bronzino, CRC Press, IEEE Press) was the guideline. Contributions from many
experts in special fields where collected and edited. The result can be found in the
web: http://www.vde.com/de/fg/dgbmt/studiumberuf/gegenstandskatalog/.
Figure 1 shows an overview:
Figure 1: Major topics of the four disciplines Biomedical Engineering, Clinical

Engineering, Medical Physics and Medical Informatics showing the focus and the
large overlap
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A large overlap between the four disciplines can be observed, but some topics can
be found in just one discipline:
Biomedical Engineering: Biomaterials, Biomechanics
Clinical Engineering: Hygienics, Quality Assurance, Safety
Medical Informatics: Communication and Information Systems
Medical Physics: Radiation Therapy Planning, Ionising Radiation Protection
In the questionnaire mentioned above the four most important topics of the
disciplines where asked with the following result:
Biomedical Engineering:
Electro Medicine and Monitoring, Medical Imaging, Biomaterials, Biomechanics
Clinical Engineering:
Hygienics, Laboratory and Analysis Techniques, Quality and Safety, Electro Medicine
and Monitoring
Medical Informatics:
Digital Image Processing and Computer Graphics, Communication and Information
Systems, Medical Statistics, Biosignal Processing
Medical Physics:
Radiation Protection, Dosimetry and Radiotherapy Planning, Medical Imaging,
Modelling and Simulation
Based on this we conclude, that - at least in Germany - there is a clear distinction
between the four disciplines and every student and employer has got a picture of the
knowledge and competencies of this discipline in mind. Therefore we recommend,
that an education program first should clearly state which of the four disciplines it is
aiming at: Biomedical Engineering, Clinical Engineering, Medical Physics or Medical
Informatics. Further on we recommend, that some of the above listed four topics of
the discipline should be compulsory in the program. (Of course not the title of the
course is mandatory but the content must be covered in some way.)
During the production of the catalogue the lecture hours have been listed that a
lecturer should plan for a transfer of an in-depth knowledge in this topic. A total
number of about 700 lecture hours was the result. This demonstrates clearly, that no
student (and perhaps not even a person with 40 years experience in this field) can
gain a perfect knowledge in all of the listed topics. The most important task of setting
up a curriculum in any of these disciplines is obviously to choose the right mixture of
basic knowledge in many of these topics and in-depth knowledge in a small selection
of topics. Chapter 9 is devoted to this.
4 Competencies in Anatomy, Physiology, Medicine, Cell Biology

For Biomedical Engineering (and at least also for Clinical Engineering) nearly every
expert who was asked stated, that a relatively broad knowledge in anatomy,
physiology and medical terminology is a must. The engineer has to communicate
effectively with physicians nearly every day. It is the engineer who has to adapt to the
language of the medical doctor - not the other way around. For the engineer the
patient must not be "a strange machine" but a biological system with special rules
and needs. The engineer can never become a medical doctor this way - much too
much medical knowledge is missing. Employers from industry explicitly do not ask for
98
a 50% engineer / 50% physician. They want to hire the 100% engineer that is able to
work together with physicians in a cooperative and creative way.
A complete course covering the aspects of anatomy, physiology and medical
terminology closing with an examination is strongly recommended.
It is an open question whether the compulsory basic knowledge in cell biology can be
integrated into the course of physiology. If the graduate is put into a multidisciplinary
team working on topics like biocompatibility, cell breeding or molecular imaging this
would be clearly too little.
5 Competencies in General Economics and Medical Economics

One basic course in general economics is already mandatory in many programs at
Universities, Universities of Applied Science, and Polytechnic Schools. This is a
decision of the faculty of every institution and not covered by these comments.
Medical Economics mainly has two different aspects: who pays for the medical
service (financing of hospitals, insurance companies, reimbursement etc) and what is
the impact of an innovation on the costs of healthcare. Both topics are rated very
important by the author, but in the questionnaire about 70% of the experts did not
demand for special knowledge of the engineer in this field.
Obviously in hospitals and in industries there are other experts who take economic
aspects into account. Again the engineer, who lacks some basic engineering
competences for the benefit of economical knowledge, is not asked for. But every
engineer must have a significant amount of awareness for the economical impact of
what he or she is doing.
No special course in medical economics is recommended but regular hints on
economic boundary conditions and constraints as part of the regular lectures.
6 Competencies in Social Aspects and Ethics of Biomedical and Clinical Engineering

Social aspects of engineering are part of every curriculum at some institutions. This
paper does not discuss this topic.
Ethics of Biomedical Engineering do have some special aspects, and the author is in
favour of at least touching these aspects in some way even though the questionnaire
gave a clear statement against the inclusion of this topic into a curriculum.
Experiments with patients, definition of death, donation of an organ, prolongation of
life for any price, medically assisted suicide, genetic diagnostics, genetic therapies,
medical techniques for the poor and for the rich, medical techniques for lessdeveloped countries: there are so many open questions that everybody working in
the field should be aware of. This is may be not a topic for a lecture but I would
encourage everybody to include regular discussions on these topics into the program
(e.g. one afternoon per semester).
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7 Personal Soft Skills

There are many "soft skills" that should be part of any program: ability for teamwork,
effective communication, open for interdisciplinary work and work in multicultural
teams, leadership, positive attitude for lifelong learning, sense of responsibility for
social affairs etc.
A program is perfect, if all these topics are (maybe even invisibly) woven into the
regular lectures.
8 Theory and Practical Training, Seminars
Any program must be a good mixture of theoretical and practical training. Similar
rules as defined by accreditation boards for engineering education are applicable.
Often the first part of the studies contains only 10% laboratories in which the student
is led tightly through the experiments. In the second part advanced laboratories follow
with complex tasks that need a long time of preparation. In this part of the studies in
addition "projects" are recommended, where small groups of students work together
(teamwork) to solve a complex task with fixed output and boundary conditions but
with open ways to reach the target. Advanced laboratories and projects should sum
up to about 30% of the time. In the final phase of the studies a large practical work
like the bachelor or master thesis is recommended with about 80% of the time spent
on independent practical work.
Seminars with presentations on selected topics of Biomedical or Clinical Engineering
round off the building blocks of the curriculum. The presentations should always end
with a discussion on open questions and related aspects. Also a feedback both on
the way the content was presented and on the personal appearance should be
included (see chapter 7).
9 Aspects of Detailed Planning of a Curriculum in Biomedical and Clinical
Engineering
As pointed out in chapter 1 while setting up a curriculum the most delicate task is to
find the right mixture of broad understanding of many topics of Biomedical and
Clinical Engineering and a focussed in-depth understanding of a small number of
selected topics.
It definitely does not make sense to touch all the keywords in the catalogue a little bit
without complete understanding. On the other hand it is also not meaningful to go
into depth in just one or two topics and leave out all the others completely.
I recommend to define e.g. six core competencies of Biomedical Engineering and six
core competencies of Clinical Engineering and then demand, that every student has
gained in-depth knowledge in at least four out of these (for majors or fields of
specialization at least two of six).
These core competencies could be:
For Biomedical Engineering:
100
Electro Medicine and Monitoring, Medical Imaging, Biomaterials, Biomechanics,

Biosignal Processing, Cellular and Tissue Engineering
For Clinical Engineering:
Hygienics, Laboratory and Analysis Techniques, Quality Assurance and Safety, Legal
Aspects of Medical Products, Electro Medicine and Monitoring, Radiation Protection
In addition the student should pick another four topics out of the courses offered by
the institution. These topics should cover important topics of Biomedical Engineering
or Clinical Engineering and give an in-depth knowledge. Possible topics could be (in
addition to the ones already mentioned above):
Biomedical Engieering in Therapy, Minimum-invasive Techniques, Laser in Medicine,
Robotics in Medicine, Digital Image Processing and Computer Graphics, Modelling
and Simulation, Rehabilitation Engineering, Telemedicine, Information and
Communication Systems in Hospitals, Statistical Methods in Medicine.
Finally the student can choose e.g. two special lectures that focus on one specific
issue of Biomedical Engineering or Clinical Engineering and presents latest results of
research or new developments. This is often related to the topic of the thesis.
All these keywords mentioned above need a better description since it is not always
clear and common understanding what is covered by a keyword. The above
mentioned subject catalogue
(http://www.vde.com/de/fg/dgbmt/studiumberuf/gegenstandskatalog/) took the job to
give a detailed description of every keyword. Of course other ordering principles and
other headlines are possible. I recommend not starting a lengthy discussion on
details of the catalogue and loosing the objective out of sight.
In this way every institution is free to define characteristic topics and on the other
hand every student covers a sufficiently broad spectrum of Biomedical Engineering or
Clinical Engineering. Also the student has the chance to choose according to his or
her personal preferences without becoming a specialist in just one small part of the
field.
In the questionnaire a large majority answered the question which topic of Biomedical
Engineering will gain importance significantly in the following years with Cellular and
Tissue Engineering. Based on that it is strongly recommended to offer a course with
this topic and the students are encouraged to choose this course.
10 Conclusion
The division into four disciplines is meaningful: Biomedical Engineering, Clinical
Engineering, Medical Physics and Medical Informatics. Every program should state
clearly what it is aiming at.
Every program must include substantial basic knowledge in Mathematics, Physics,
Electrical Engineering and Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, and
Informatics.
Every program should cover at least four of these six topics:
For Biomedical Engineering:
101
Electro Medicine and Monitoring, Medical Imaging, Biomaterials, Biomechanics,

Biosignal Processing, Cellular and Tissue Engineering
For Clinical Engineering:
Hygienics, Laboratory and Analysis Techniques, Quality Assurance and Safety, Legal
Aspects of Medical Products, Electro Medicine and Monitoring, Radiation Protection
In addition every student should choose four of these courses:
Biomedical Engineering in Therapy, Minimum-invasive Techniques, Laser in
Medicine, Robotics in Medicine, Digital Image Processing and Computer Graphics,
Modelling and Simulation, Rehabilitation Engineering, Telemedicine, Information and
Communication Systems in Hospitals, Statistical Methods in Medicine plus the
courses mentioned above.
For a major or a field of specialization only two plus two courses have to be selected.
Every program must include in-depth courses on Anatomy, Physiology, Medical
Terminology. Cell Biology should play an important role in these lectures.
Regular discussion groups on ethical aspects of Biomedical Engineering and Clinical
Engineering are recommended.
Aspects of medical economics should be added to the above mentioned courses of
Biomedical Engineering and Clinical Engineering.
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Biomedical Engineering in Greece

Nicolas Pallikarakis
Dept. of Medical Physics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Patras, Greece.
email: nipa@bme.med.upatras.gr
1. Introduction
The Biomedical Engineering sector in Greece is rather controversial. On one hand
medical devices production is restricted to a few tens of device types, resulting in a market
based almost entirely on imported products, on the other, the fact that there is a very active
scientific community and the co-existence of faculties of Science, Engineering and
Medicine in four Greek universities, has already given evidence of good potential for the
promotion of R&D and educational activities in the field.
The radical change in the National Health System (NHS) in the 80s, which resulted
in a growth of the public sector with large investments equally distributed between new
buildings and equipment, has been followed by a policy, at the end of the last decade, that
indirectly promoted the development of the private sector. The latter, by placing its
emphasis on profit making, initially invested largely in high tech biomedical diagnostic
equipment, but more recently is also growing quite rapidly in hospital based health care
delivery.
Given the lack of medical device industry in Greece, it is not surprising that
standardisation and regulatory initiatives in the sector (with the exception of radiation
protection regulations), as well as participation and active involvement in international
standardisation activities, have been limited. Following the introduction of the EU
directives on medical devices, however, Greece has implemented them and through its
national standardisation body, ELOT, is now following the developments and the
activities in CEN related to medical device sector.
2. The existing infrastructure

As already mentioned, the National Health System, which was introduced in 1982,
placed an emphasis on the development of the public sector and the decentralisation of
health services. As a result, in 1987, Greece had 140 public hospitals with 35.500 beds and
267 private clinics with 15.900 beds. The public sector supplied 70% of the available beds
by the end of the 80s compared to about 45% in the 70s. Today there are 132 state
hospitals with 41700 beds representing 73% of the total available capacity. During the
same period, the public health investment in Greece has grown constantly. Biomedical
technology has also been absorbing care investments at a constantly increasing rate. The
biggest part of this has been directed to the so-called big-ticket technology resulting for
example in a rise in the number of CT scanners from 26 or 1/375 000 inhabitants in 1986,
to more than 150 or 1/65 000 inhabitants in 1999. The same scenario seems to be repeated
today with MRIs. According to a recent inventory made by the Institute of Biomedical
Technology (INBIT) on behalf of the Ministry of Health for addressing the Y2K problem,
the 128 Greek public hospitals employ less than 100 000 pieces of medical equipment in
total, with an estimated average age of more than 8 years.
As mentioned previously, there are very few manufactures of medical devices in
Greece. The most important, addressing the European market, produce dialysis units,
103
dentistry equipment, infusion pumps, laser systems and syringes. Some large international
enterprises have established subsidiaries, which mainly assemble equipment for the east
Mediterranean market. Smaller producers of wheelchairs, patient beds, custom-made
devices, etc. primarily address local market needs. Finally, recent R&D projects in
universities have also resulted in prototype equipment that has attracted the interest of
manufacturers and some are on the way for marketing.
Computerised equipment management systems made their appearance in Greek
hospitals in the late 1980s and a number of university and hospital departments have
attempted to produce their own versions. In 1988, the Greek Ministry of Health financed
the development of such a system [4] with the aim of installing it in 15 major Greek
hospitals within the framework of a MIP project, involving the systematic application of
informatics in health care in Greece. Since 1992, a STRIDE project has been working
towards creating a network of laboratories in the field of biomedical technology, thus
integrating efforts at a national level and establishing an infrastructure for communication
and information exchange. On a larger scale, at the European level, the BEAM project and
the EUROMEDIES concerted action, co-ordinated by INBIT, have developed integrated
management and telematics tools supporting clinical engineering departments to meet the
challenges of their increasingly demanding field. As a result, today about 30% of the big
hospitals have implemented MEMS (Medical Equipment Management Systems) and all
the public hospitals have an electronic inventory system for medical equipment.
3. The human and organisational resources of the biomedical technology sector

The development of biomedical engineering in Greece is closely related to that of
medical physics. The latter made its appearance in specialised Greek hospitals in the late
1950s and grew steadily in the following years. It was therefore already well established to
form the basis for the development of biomedical engineering in the mid-1970s. So far,
there are close ties between the two fields and much of the research and teaching in
bioengineering takes place in the university medical physics departments.
The first electronics technicians in state hospitals made their appearance at the
beginning of the 1960s. Their primary responsibility was to maintain and repair medical
devices and they were employed by the plant engineering and central supply department.
Although it became clear, early in the 1970s, that high technology health care required
more specific equipment support, public authorities remained inactive and with the
exception of a few big hospitals (mainly involved in cancer treatment), clinical
engineering departments were not developed. Thus, corrective maintenance of equipment
as well as training of users was mainly left to the manufacturers and their dealers. Up to
1982, the number of electronics technicians working in public hospitals was less than 100,
most of them trained on the job. On the other hand, preventive maintenance and quality
control was not usual and acceptance and safety tests rather non-existent (with the
exception of ionising radiation equipment). It should also be mentioned that decisions
concerning the purchase of new equipment were and, to a large extent still remain, under
the control of medical specialists.
Today, about one-third of the hospitals have a kind of in-house-service but only
some of them have well-organised biomedical technology departments with experienced
technical staff. The majority of hospitals are obliged to rely on the private sector, which in
many cases is very inconvenient and leads to higher cost and longer breakdown time. At
present, there are about 300 medical physicists working in Greece, compared to less than
200 biomedical engineers holding a university degree. As far as biomedical equipment
104
technologists are concerned, the number working in Greek hospitals has increased to about
100, according to their association. The private sector, dealing with medical devices,
employs another approximately 500 specialised BMETs mainly responsible for
maintenance tasks.
A public enterprise for the construction of state hospitals (DEPANOM) was
established in 1984 to plan and supervise hospital construction projects with activities
focused on the constructional aspects rather than the sector of biomedical equipment. Its
first task was the supervision of a turn-key project concerning the construction of 3
university hospitals with 700 beds each. This multi-million EURO project was
successfully completed about 4 years later and all installed equipment was tested for
acceptance prior to commissioning. This pilot project proved successful and the valuable
experience that was gained has since been used in the construction of more than 15 new
hospitals over the last 15 years.
In 1990, the Greek Ministry of Health created a Biomedical Technology Division,
mainly dealing with the planning and allocation of budget for equipment acquisition at a
national level. Additionally, it handles strategic issues in equipment maintenance for rural
health centres and small hospitals, lacking their own support services. As the first EC
directives became operative in January 1993, this division also assumed the role of the
Competent Authority in March 1993. In 1999 the responsibility for the implementation of
the directives and the supervision of the market has been passed to the Hellenic Drug
Organisation (EOF) which became the Greek CA (Competent Authority).
Another initiative was the establishment of the Institute of Biomedical Technology
(INBIT), a non-profit organisation focusing on the overall support services for the
management of biomedical equipment. The Institute provides a number of consulting
services relating to EC legislative activities, testing, maintenance and vigilance of medical
equipment as well as quality management in the health care sector, all in connection with
the use of biomedical equipment. It is also engaged in training activities relating to the
above-mentioned areas, as well as research and development of S/W tools, educational
materials, test objects and safety testers as well as telematic support services for clinical
engineering departments.
4. The Hellenic BME society

The Hellenic Biomedical Engineering Society - ELEBIT - was formed in 1976,
mainly by medical physicists and the very few biomedical engineers existing at that time.
One of its first tasks was to introduce this new discipline by organising workshops and
meetings dealing with different areas of application. Members of the society started to
participate in international conferences on a regular basis and in 1989 ELEBIT organised,
quite successfully, the Mediterranean Conference on BME, MEDICON 89. The society
has also been involved in a number of projects in collaboration with the universities and
supported young BMEs in their education and training. Although it has not succeeded to
create the conditions for the society to become an official advisor of the ministries in the
BME sector, its role in promoting the field was quite successful. Today the society has
about 100 individual members and about the same number of student members, is a
member society of IFMBE and there is also an active involvement of its members in
IEEE/EMBS. ELEBIT is supporting the European Symposium on BME organised every 2
years since 1998 at the University of Patras in Greece and will pursue the organisation of
MEDICON 2007.
105
5. Education on biomedical technology in Greece

In 1986, the Technological Educational Institute of Athens established a 3-year
course for biomedical equipment technicians. After 6 months of practical training in
hospitals or industry, students receive a recognised degree, that under the Bologna
Declaration shall be equivalent to a BSc degree. More than 600 BMETs have graduated
from this programme so far and most of them are working in the private sector. There are
about 30 of these graduates that continued their studies, mainly in the UK, and obtained a
Masters degree.
For the last 12 years, the European Union has supported an initiative for the
development of two multinational post graduate programmes, one in Biomedical
Engineering and another in Medical Physics, initially within the ERASMUS and
subsequently within the TEMPUS programme. The courses draw expertise from a large
multinational academic community. The BME programme with 30 teachers originating
from 25 collaborating European universities, addressing a multinational audience from
more than 10 European countries, has succeeded to instruct over 300 students up to now.
The primary objectives of the programme as defined during the annual meeting of the
Faculty are to build a programme offering:
-
a high degree of specialisation in Biomedical Engineering (BME).
a dynamic, continuously updated syllabus, that stays in pace with the most recent
developments in the fields addressed by its topics.
a background setting that will act catalytically in the process of integration of

multinational student groups.
The programme implemented the TEMPERE [3] recommendations to a large extent

and comprises 3 main parts illustrated in the following table.
CURRICULUM OUTLINE
Part
1
Subject Matter
Basic Knowledge & Skills
Basic Medical & Physical Sciences in Medicine
Transferable Skills
Research Methods
Conversion Courses (0-2 taken from):
Fundamentals of Electronics
Fundamentals of Digital Signal Processing
Basic Biomedical Engineering Topics
Biomedical Instrumentation and Signal Processing
Biomedical Imaging and Image Processing
Biomechanics and Biomedical Materials
Clinical Engineering. Health Care Telematics
Modelling and Simulation. Rehabilitation Engineering
%
25-30%
0-10%
45-50%
Advanced Biomedical Engineering Topics

Biomedical Instrumentation
Biomechanics / Biomaterials.
Clinical Engineering
106
20-30%
The first part of the course is providing the basic background required to understand
the context within which a clinical scientist works and illustrates the applications of the
principles of physics and engineering. At the end of this part the student should be able to:
communicate with other health professionals necessary for the pursuit of their
profession
understand normal and abnormal biomedical function
identify the contribution of the physical sciences to medicine.
In this part of the course additional topics are included aiming to provide knowledge
on research methodologies and ethics and develop skills in a broad base of activities that
could be used in a future career. Finally two conversion optional courses are available,
aiming to bring the students to a common level of understanding of the fundamentals of
electronics and digital signal processing. The second part of the syllabus gives broad
coverage to some of the core areas of Biomedical Engineering. The syllabuses are
designed to provide useful education in their own right but also to act as foundation
courses for two advanced biomedical engineering topics.
The main objectives of the third part of the course are to extend the information and
knowledge obtained by the students from the basic biomedical engineering topics, to
improve practical skills and demonstrate clearly how the knowledge and skills can be
applied to solve problems in medicine. There are three areas that the students can select:
Biomechanics and Biomaterials, Biomedical Instrumentation and Telematics, or Clinical
Engineering and Technology Assessment.
Experience in research techniques and their application is gained by carrying out an
extensive research project on some area of biomedical engineering. The project work
should be of at least 800 hours duration. A quality assurance system has been
implemented, aiming to create the necessary conditions that permit the maximisation of
the potential of this co-operative effort, to assure continuous improvement and to provide
the appropriate framework for mutual recognition amongst the participating institutions.
6. References
1. N. Pallikarakis, Medical technology and developments in the field of clinical
engineering. Health Review, 1 (1989) 37-40.
2. J. Kyriopoulos, B. Drizi, E. Ktenas, F. Kontogeorgaki and E. Georgoussi, Health
investments in Greece, 1970-2000, Health Review, 3 (1992) 47-51.
3. Towards a European Framework for Education and Training in Medical Physics
and Biomedical Engineering, Z. Kolitsi, editor, IOS Press, 2001.
Biomedical and Clinical Engineering in Hungary

Dr. kos Jobbgy, Technical University of Budapest, Department of Measurement and
Instrumentation, Budapest
In Hungary biomedical engineering has a long tradition. Georg von Bksy,
Nobel laureate, performed pioneering research work in the field of testing human hearing.
He started to work in the 1930s as a physicist in the research laboratory of the Hungarian
Post. Georg von Hevesy, another Hungarian Nobel laureate, elaborated the method of
using radioactive isotopes in tracing physiological processes.
About a decade after World War II prosperity started within the Hungarian
medical equipment and device industry. The development of the Hungarian health service
required investment in the field of medical equipment and instrument production. In the
beginning of the 1960s a strong medical instrumentation branch was formed in the
Hungarian industry. Only a few firms were involved, MEDICOR being the most
powerful one. MEDICOR has had a wide spectrum of both activities (research &
development, production, trading, service) and product categories (from simple hand-held
instruments to sophisticated X-ray machines).
The engineers of these firms gained experiences in the biomedical engineering
industry. Many of them are leaders even today in the Hungarian BME industry and
trading.
Within the Scientific Society of Measurement and Automation (MATE) the
Biomedical Engineering Section was founded in 1962. This section had members from
all fields related to activities in medical technology. The majority of the members were
dealing with the development and production of medical devices. Among the founding
members there were also engineers working in universities and research institutes.
Between 1965 and 1989 there was a strong co-operation between medical equipment
manufacturers and universities as well as other central research institutes.
1989 brought about substantial changes both in the political and in the economical
system in Hungary. Multinational companies became owners of prosperous firms and
generally imported their products and stopped the development sometimes even the
production in Hungary. In the meantime there has been a rapid development in the field
of science and technology. Information technology and computer science spread over to
many BME devices. A new generation of medical instrumentation has arrived. The new
era caused a change even in the name of the society, augmenting it with Informatics
(Scientific Society of Measurement, Automation and Informatics).
Since 1973 the Hungarian Biomedical Engineering Conference has been held in
every third year. MATE was the organiser of the first 9 conferences. The conferences
attracted participants from a number of countries. Since 1996 the Hungarian Clinical
Engineering Society (MEDING) is a co-organiser thus drawing clinical engineers to these
conferences as well. This year (2002) the 12th Biomedical Engineering and the 3rd
Clinical Engineering Conference will be held.
The Hungarian medical instrumentation industry has had good international
relations that helped MATE to join IFMBE more than 25 years ago. In 1973 during the
107
IFMBE World Congress in Dresden MATE became full member. This helped our experts
to participate in foreign conferences even during the existence of the iron curtain.
The Hungarian economy was relatively open even between 1960 and 1989. This
helped a member of MATE to become a member of the Executive Committee of IFMBE
in 1978 thus acknowledging the Hungarian activities in the field of biomedical
engineering. Nndor Richter was elected president of IFMBE in 1985 and in 1988 he
became vice-president of IUPESM. From this time on our society has been represented in
the leadership of IFMBE. Since 1994 N. Richter has been president of the IFMBE
International Governmental Organisations Liaison Committee. So far the Hungarian is
the only Central and Eastern European society that has had such a high-ranking officer in
the international BME organisations.
The Biomedical Engineering Section of MATE tries to involve young experts and
students in its activities. Hungary is supposed to become a member of the EU within a
few years. This will mean new possibilities but also obligations in participating European
BME projects. Our young colleagues will have to take their share in these activities.
The changes in the Hungarian political and economical system widened the
possibilities for ambitious persons. As a result, many of our members do not have enough
time for being active in the society. Together with other societies related to biomedical
and clinical engineering we are working on founding an umbrella organisation to assure
one voice within Hungary. Our aims are very similar to those that promote the
European umbrella organisation.
There are no accurate statistics available but we estimate that approximately half
of those engineers that have studied biomedical engineering find a job outside this field.
On the other hand less than twenty percent of engineers working in firms involved in
medical instrument development and production are biomedical engineers. Hospitals
should have many more clinical engineers and at least one biomedical engineer
authorised to control the purchase of medical instrumentation. This means that the
Hungarian biomedical and clinical engineering courses should be held with the present
average enrolment for the coming years. Accepting the main ideas of the Bologna
Declaration, Hungary is ready to introduce the two-cycle higher education. The Budapest
University of Technology and Economics offered to elaborate the structure of these
programmes in general for technical courses. The biomedical and clinical engineering
programmes on the one hand should conform to the general rules. On the other hand, in
the accreditation process of these programmes national and international BME experts
should participate.
Teaching Biomedical and Clinical Engineering in Hungary

Courses resulting in a BME or CE degree
Biomedical Engineering postgraduate course, Budapest University of

Technology and Economics, Semmelweis University (50 - 70 students enrol
yearly)
Clinical Engineering postgraduate course, Semmelweis University (20

students enrol in every second year)
108
Optional modules within a course (approx. 80 students yearly)
Biomedical Engineering module within Electrical Engineering course

(BUTE) 4 lectures, 2 (3) labs, 24 (40) ECTS credits
Biomedical Engineering module within Mechanical Engineering course

(BUTE) 9 lectures, 35 ECTS credits
Biomedical Equipment and System module within Electrical Engineering

course (Budapest Polytechnic) 6 lectures, 1 lab
Medical Informatics module within Electrical Engineering course

(University of Veszprm) 5 lectures, 1 lab
Medical Informatics module within Electrical Engineering course

(Szchenyi Istvn University of Applied Sciences, Gyr) 10 lectures, 35 ECTS
credits
Elective subjects within a course (approx. 100 students yearly)
Budapest University of Technology and Economics
University of Szeged
Semmelweis University
University of Veszprm
Budapest Polytechnic
Biomedical Engineering postgraduate course, Budapest University of Technology

and Economics, Semmelweis University
The course results in a BME degree. The subjects of the course require 1080
contact hours, equivalent to 130 ECTS credits, thesis work and its defence at the end is
required. The prerequisite of enrolment is a degree in engineering, medicine or science.
Students of these courses may also enrol provided they already have 180 - 200 credits of
their first degree course.
The course is supposed to last for 6 semesters. Students are suggested to take 8
contact hours per week during the first three semesters, in the last three semesters 24
contact hours per week.
Three basic subjects are different for students:
Students with engineering background must take the following three basic subjects:
Physiology
Anatomy
Biochemistry
Students with medical background must take the following three basic subjects:
Mathematics
Physics
Computer science
109
Compulsory subjects
Biophysics
Measurement and instrumentation
Clinical instrumentation and diagnostics
Biocompatible materials
Biotechnology
Process control
Mechanics
110
Technical and biological systems

Radiology
Process simulation
Optical and medical devices
Molecular biology
Ecological architecture
Clinical Engineering postgraduate course, Semmelweis University

The course results in a clinical engineering degree. The subjects of the course
require 432 contact hours; students are expected to deal with their studies for an extra
1320 hours.
The prerequisite of enrolment is a first degree in electrical, mechanical, civil,
chemical engineering or in architecture, informatics, energetics or in physics. Students
with college level degree may also apply for admission.
Main fields of the course
Biomedical engineering fundamentals
Economic and human studies
Professional basic subjects
Special subjects
Edited by kos Jobbgy PhD

Budapest, 11th July, 2001.
111
Biomedical Engineering in the Republic of Ireland
Contributing organisations are members of the Council of Chairmen of Medical

Engineering Organisations:
- Biomedical/Clinical Engineering Association of Ireland

- Healthcare Informatics Society of Ireland/ Royal Academy of Medicine in
Ireland, Health Informatics Section
- Institution of Engineers of Ireland, Biomedical Engineering Section
- Irish Medical and Surgical Trade Association
- Royal Academy of Medicine in Ireland, Bioengineering Section
-
Contact name: Meabh Smith (meabh.smith@beaumont.ie)
- 1-
112
Contents
1.0
Executive Summary
2.0
Back-ground
3.0
The Medical Device Industry in Ireland
4.0
The Role of the Professional Bodies and Biomedical Engineering

4.1
Biomedical/Clinical Engineering Association of Ireland (BEAI)
4.2
Institution of Engineers of Ireland (IEI)
4.3
Clinical Engineering Professional Vocational Group
4.4
Physics Vocational Group
4.5
Association of Physicists and Scientists in Medicine (APSM)
4.6
The Healthcare Informatics Society of and the Healthcare
Informatics Section of the Royal Academy of Medicine in Ireland
4.7
Royal Academy of Medicine in Ireland, Bioengineering Section
4.8
The Council of Chairmen of Medical Engineering Organisations
5.0
Career Structures
5.1
Technician Biomedical Engineers
5.2
Graduate Biomedical Engineers
5.3
Roles and Responsibilities
6.0
Opportunities for Education and Training
7.0
Professional Registration
8.0
Current Issues Impacting on Biomedical Engineering

8.1
Bologna Declaration
8.2
Inter-professional Benchmarking
9.3
Statutory Registration
9.0
Proposal for Professional Formation and Development of the Clinical

Engineer
10.0
Conclusion
Appendix A:
1.0
Current Educational Courses in Biomedical Engineering
Executive Summary
- 2-
113
This paper provides the background to Biomedical Engineering in the Republic of

Ireland. It gives an insight into public sector career grades and routes through them as
well as opportunities for education. It identifies current issues requiring resolution so
that the profession can continue to develop and it notes external factors which must be
considered.
The Medical Device industry is an important part of the Irish economy. An overview
of the Medical Device Industry, the majority employers of Biomedical Engineers in
Ireland is also given.
This paper provides an indication of the current status and future development of
Biomedical Engineering. The term "Clinical Engineering" is used when specifically
referring to Biomedical Engineers working in the patient environment, either in
hospitals or in rehabilitation.
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114
2.0
Back-ground
The evolution of medical technology has led to Engineers, Physicists and Computer
Scientists collaborating and competing with one another to provide new methods to
see, measure and treat ailments. As technology develops to meet the theoretical
possibilities, there is a need to manage this new technology and to ensure that there is
efficient feedback between technology designers, manufacturers and users- a role in
which the Biomedical Engineer is pivotal.
The medical device industry accounts for approximately 8% of GNP. The sector is a
significant employer of Biomedical Engineers. However, the education and training
of these Biomedical Engineers has until now been considered to be independent of
that for Biomedical Engineers working in the Clinical Environment.
Early hospital-based Biomedical Engineering in Ireland, in common with many
countries around the world was primarily a "technician"-based profession, where the
engineer was primarily responsible for maintenance of equipment. The presence of
Medical Physicists in the hospital environment arose with developments in radiationbased diagnostic procedures where their input was and is vital to the safe and
appropriate use of imaging technology. The Medical Physics profession was and is
primarily a "graduate"-based profession.
With the evolution of technology, technicians working in the hospital environment
became increasingly specialised and no longer belonged in a "maintenance
department" where the skills required, for example, to manage and maintain a
building's heating system are inadequate for the application, management and
maintenance of specific items of medical equipment which are used directly in the
patient treatment or diagnosis. There was a need for a professional home for
To accommodate the increasing number of graduate and technician engineers, a
'marriage' of Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering happened in some Irish
hospitals to varying extents and in many but not all hospitals around the world.
Where it did not happen, biomedical engineers working at technician level often still
belong to maintenance departments or in recent years have evolved into departments
in their own right. The term "Clinical Engineers" refers to Biomedical Engineers
working in the hospital or rehabilitation environment.
The rate of change of technology in terms of both application and design has required
both professions to evolve. Equipment has become more reliable; electronic repairs
are module-based rather than component-based and increased complexity of
equipment has raised the need for user support on a day-to-day basis. The Biomedical
Engineering field has evolved to meet the changing needs as may be observed from
the expanding role they play in the healthcare environment.
- 4-
115
3.0
The Medical Device Industry
Ireland is the location of choice for healthcare companies seeking to establish a
presence in Europe to develop and manufacture high end technology medical device
products, as well as an operating base for business support activities such as shared
services centres and eBusiness functions.
Leading medical device companies select Ireland as a base for developing,
manufacturing and marketing a diverse range of products from pacemakers and
orthopaedic implants to contact lenses and stents.
Eighty companies, including 13 of the world's top 20 medical device companies, have
significant operations in Ireland, making it one of the largest industry sectors, with
over 16,000 employees. These companies export over IR2.5 billion every year.
Ireland is the preferred location for three out of four green-field medical device
projects locating in Europe.
The sub-sectors of the medical device industry in Ireland are:medical
disposable
and
support
interventional
orthopaedics
and
vision,
dental
and
hearing
equipment
products
products
implants
products.
It is estimated that 1,600 Biomedical Engineers are employed in this Sector in Ireland.
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116
4.0
The Role of the Professional Bodies and Biomedical Engineering
The following submissions are directly from the professional bodies or are based on
their respective world wide web sites.
4.1
Biomedical/Clinical Engineering Association of Ireland (BEAI)
In order to meet the needs of the evolving profession of Biomedical Engineering in
Ireland, the Biomedical/Clinical Engineering Association of Ireland (BEAI) was
established in 1992. At that time the stated objectives of the founders were to develop
communications between those working in the profession and to develop
opportunities for education and learning. More formally the goals were identified as
being:
To encourage and promote the professional development of Bioengineering
personnel ( i.e. individuals whose principal occupation is in the provision of a
Biomedical Engineering service) employed in the Health Care service and support
infrastructure.
Advance the science, technology ethics and art of Biomedical Engineering through
association, education, training, publication and other materials
Facilitate co-operation and understanding among Biomedical Engineering
personnel and other health care professionals, hospitals, academia, vendors and
other organisations with an interest in Biomedical Engineering.
The BEAI continues to focus on these primary goals and has achieved a great deal in
the ten years since its foundation. It is the Irish member of the International
Federation of Medical and Biological Engineering and the European Association of
Medical and Biological Engineering Societies. Members of the BEAI are associated
with committees of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society.
4.2
Institution of Engineers of Ireland (IEI)
The Institution of Engineers of Ireland (IEI) was founded in 1835 and under the
Charter Amendment Act, 1969 is empowered to define and protect its registered titles.
Within Ireland the IEI is the authoritative voice of the engineering professional and
currently represents the interests of in excess of 19,000 engineering professionals.
The fundamental aims of the institution are:
To promote knowledge of engineering and of engineering science
To establish and maintain standards of engineering education and training
To promote and provide continuous professional development
To maintain standards of professional ethics and conduct
To ensure that registered Professional titles of the Institution are assigned only
to appropriately qualified engineers and technicians
The membership of the IEI is open to all Biomedical engineering personnel.
The IEI registered titles are:
Chartered Engineer
Associate Engineer
Engineering Technician
- 6-
117
In 1998 a group of Biomedical Engineers approached the Institution of Engineers of

Ireland (IEI) with a view to setting up a Biomedical Engineering Section within the
Institution. The IEI is the body with statutory responsibility for accreditation of
engineers, that is they are the only body in Ireland who may award Chartered
Engineer Status. The Biomedical Engineers recognised the need for direct
involvement with the Institution as well as the value to be gained by interaction
between all the facets of Biomedical Engineering (including those based in hospitals,
rehabilitation, industry and education). The Biomedical Engineering Section of the
IEI was established and has provided a platform for debate and learning across all
sectors of Biomedical Engineering. It has spearheaded a cross-body working group
which is currently finalising a proposal for the Professional Formation and
Development of the Clinical Engineer.
4.3
Clinical Engineering Professional Vocational Group
The Clinical Engineering Professional Vocational Group currently represents Clinical
Engineers at trade union level. This is a Trade Union body.
4.4
Physics Vocational Group
The Physics Vocational Group currently represents those employed as Medical
Physicists in the hospital sector. This is a Trade Union body.
4.5
Association of Physicists and Scientists in Medicine (APSM)
The Association of Physical Scientists in Medicine is a forum where people can meet
and exchange views and information relating to the application of the physical
sciences to medicine.
With the continuing evolution of the role of the medical physicist, the A.P.S.M.
allows members to discuss professional issues, develop views as an organisation and
represent these views to appropriate organisations and individuals. The A.P.S.M. is
considered as a major voice for medical physics in Ireland. This is reflected by its
positions on state boards such as the Radiological Protection Institute of Ireland
(RPII) or participation in the European Federation of Organisations of Medical
Physics (E.F.O.M.P.). These positions are open to all members and holders of these
positions communicate with and reflect the views of the A.P.S.M. members.
The A.P.S.M. regularly engages in discussions with government departments and has
been invited and continues to be invited to contribute to draft legislation affecting
medical physics at national and EU level.
The A.P.S.M. regularly organises scientific meetings including the Association's
Annual Scientific Meeting.
4.6
The Healthcare Informatics Society of Ireland and the Healthcare

Informatics Section of the Royal Academy of Medicine in Ireland
Over the past thirty years, Healthcare Informatics has developed from a narrow crossdisciplinary interest to a discipline in its own right. In Ireland we have a growing
number of full-time Healthcare Informatics professionals, in hospitals, in health
boards, in universities and in service companies.
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118
From 1976 to 1996, Healthcare Informatics interests in the Republic of Ireland were
represented by the Health Care Specialist Group of the Irish Computer Society. This
group represented Ireland at the European Federation for Medical Informatics (EFMI)
and the International Medical Informatics Association (IMIA). It hosted the European
Medical Informatics conference, MIE 82, and was associated with the IMIA Working
Group 8 international symposium on Nursing Informatics held in Dublin in 1988.
In May 1996 the members of the Health Care Specialist Group formed a new society,
the Healthcare Informatics Society of Ireland (Cumann Romheolais Slinte), in order
to broaden the base of membership and increase the range of services offered. By
formal agreement with the Irish Computer Society, the Health Care Specialist Group
was disbanded, and its functions, assets and liabilities transferred to the new Society,
which then became affiliated to the Irish Computer Society.
The Healthcare Informatics Society of Ireland was inaugurated formally at its First
Annual Conference in the Burlington Hotel, Dublin, on Thursday 10th October 1996.
The society incorporates the Healthcare Informatics section of the Royal Academy of
Medicine in Ireland. Thus the Healthcare Informatics Society is in a position to build
bridges between computer professionals interested in health care, and health care
professionals interested in computing, while supporting and embracing the new
professionals of health care informatics. There are currently some 200 members,
drawn from information technology, biomedical engineering, medicine, nursing, other
professions allied to medicine, education, government and industry.
The objectives, as set out in the Constitution, are:
1. To develop and disseminate knowledge of the use of informatics in health
care.
2. To promote research and education in health care informatics.
3. To participate internationally with bodies of similar interests.
In pursuit of the third objective, the Healthcare Informatics Society of Ireland has
been accepted as a member of the European Federation for Medical Informatics, and
the International Medical Informatics Association
4.7
The Section of Bioengineering was founded in 1994 to facilitate collaboration
between medical doctors, engineers and scientists. It runs the Bioengineering Design
Forum three times each year, where problems are discussed informally and
interdisciplinary research projects initiated. Research papers are presented at its
annual conference "Bioengineering...in Ireland" where an invited speaker delivers the
Samuel Haughton Lecture for which the Academy Silver Medal is awarded.
4.8
The Council of Chairmen of Medical Engineering Organisations
In 2000, The Council of Chairmen of Medical Engineering organisations was
established to acknowledge the value in developing co-operation, collaboration and
communications between the individual organisations.
The organisations represented are:
Biomedical Engineering Association of Ireland
Healthcare Informatics Society of Ireland/Royal Academy of Medicine in Ireland,
Health Informatics Section
- 8-
119
Institution of Engineers of Ireland, Biomedical Engineering Section

Irish Medical and Surgical Trade Association
- 9-
120
5.0
Career Structures
Biomedical Engineers based in hospitals and rehabilitation institutions, may be
employed as graduates or technicians and are subject the following career structure.
5.1
Technician Clinical Engineers
The entrance qualification for technician grade is education to Diploma level. There
is currently no formal structured training for progression through the career path.
Criteria for progress are based on post availability and years of experience. It should
be noted that some personnel employed at Clinical Engineering Technician level hold
Bachelor or Masters degrees.
5.2
Graduate Biomedical Engineers
As noted previously, graduate Biomedical Engineers, based in hospitals and
rehabilitation institutions are employed as physicists. The entrance qualification for
technician grade is education to primary degree level (or equivalent); no structured
training is currently required to progress through the employment grades. For
progression, a higher degree is preferred but not essential. Criteria for progress are
based on post availability, candidate aptitude and years of experience.
Within Ireland the highest grade held by a hospital-based Biomedical Engineer is
"Principal Physicist". The array of problems arising from the lack of recognition of
the Graduate Engineer by title is well recognised and acknowledged by the
profession. It is one of a series of important issues which will be dealt with following
publication of the proposal for Professional Formation and Development of the
Clinical Engineer.
5.3
Roles and Responsibilities
The work carried out by Biomedical Engineers across all the grades is similar to that
carried out across Europe. However, there is a degree of "blurring" regarding the
roles and responsibilities specific to a particular grade. Some of the large acute
hospitals have combined departments of Medical Physics and Biomedical
Engineering which are peopled by Physics and Engineering graduates and Biomedical
Engineering Technicians, these are headed by Chief Physicists. However the
Biomedical Engineering role for all the hospitals (up to ten) in a geographical region
may be managed by a Principal or Chief Clinical Engineering Technician.
The profession recognises the need for regularisation of this situation.
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121
6.0
Opportunities for Education and Training
The broader area of Biomedical Engineering is important to Ireland's economy
accounting for 8% of its GNP. As such there are many opportunities for education and
research in Biomedical Engineering particularly as a feed to the industry sector.
Appendix 1 contains a detailed overview (which may not be exhaustive) of all the
educational opportunities in Biomedical Engineering currently available in Ireland.
One route to education and training for Graduate Biomedical Engineers which has
been undertaken by many of those working the field in Ireland is the MSc (Trinity
College Dublin) in Physical Sciences in Medicine which is based at St James's
Hospital in Dublin.
The need to formulate a structured requirement and mechanism for achieving an
appropriate standard of education and training is also acknowledged and dealt with in
the proposal for Professional Formation and Development of the Clinical Engineer.
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122
7.0
Professional Registration
A voluntary scheme for Registration of Biomedical Engineers was established in 2000
in anticipation of the requirement for Statutory Registration. Although, the scheme
has only been operating for a few months, the majority of hospital-based Biomedical
Engineers in the Republic of Ireland have enrolled.
- 12 -
8.0
123
Current Issues Impacting on Biomedical Engineering
8.1
Bologna Declaration
In addition to its direct impact on educational courses, the Declaration will have an
impact on the entrance qualifications for Biomedical Engineers at both Technician
and Graduate level.
8.2
Inter-professional Benchmarking
The Irish government is currently facilitating a process of benchmarking between
professions. The goal is to manage wage bills particularly in the public sector.
Biomedical Engineering is part of this process. The process compares (among other
parameters) education and training requirements for posts.
For Biomedical
Engineering at the technician end of the grade to maintain its affiliation with
paramedical grades, education and training must be of at least an equivalent standard.
8.3
Statutory Registration
Statutory Instrument 1, 1999 sets out the legal requirements for the professional
registration of all Health Care professionals. In October, 2000, the Department of
Health and Children (DOH&C) published a guidance document, Statutory
Registration for Health and Social Professionals for implementation of the Statutory
Instrument in 1999. Registration is being dealt with in two waves. Biomedical
Engineering will be in the second wave. The first wave is currently being dealt with.
The profession needs to understand the impact and issues around registration in
advance of the requirement for Statutory Registration.
- 13 -
9.0
124
Proposal for Professional Formation and Development of the Clinical

Engineer
This is a document currently under draft and nearing completion. The need for such a
document acknowledging current difficulties within the Clinical Engineering
profession and proposing a mechanism for dealing with them is clear as identified
above.
The Proposal identifies the criteria for professional registration in terms of both
education and training; it provides guidelines for educators on the content and
standard of educational courses; it establishes a mechanism for Continuing
Professional Development; and in consideration of these it proposes a new career
structure.
During development discussions took place with several medical device
manufacturers and it is hoped that the "Proposal for Professional Formation and
Development of the Clinical Engineer" will be taken up at some level by companies
involved in the medical device industry.
This document will be in the public domain by mid-2002.
- 14 -
10.0
125
Conclusion
Biomedical Engineering is a strong and developing profession in Ireland which has

been establishing itself as an individual entity only in the last ten years. The
profession has identified internal issues which must be addressed while at the same
time reacting to national and international factors with direct and indirect impact on
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126
Appendix A
Biomedical Engineering Education and Training within the University and
Institutes of Technology (IT) Sector in Ireland
1. Introduction
This document will outline programmes available in biomedical engineering
education at diploma, degree and postgraduate level within the Irish university and IT
sectors, together with available / desired in-house practical training elements within
the hospital sector. An outline of higher degree and postgraduate research
opportunities will also be made.
The aim is to educate students to a high academic standard in biomedical and clinical
engineering. Successful graduates should be equipped with marketable bioengineering
skills, thereby possessing the appropriate knowledge and technical skills that will
enable them contribute effectively as professional engineers within the biomedical
environment.
2. Certificate / Diploma courses currently on offer
Cork Institute of Technology
A newly formulated certificate / diploma, - National Certificate in Biomedical
Engineering, has been established at Cork Institute of Technology. The programme
has been formulated that graduates will be qualified to work as biomedical
engineering technicians within the healthcare medical device and support industries,
pharmaceutical industries, in research and development facilities and also in precision
manufacturing companies.
Contact person: Dr. K. Bryan.
Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering.
Tel: 021-4326505
E-Mail: kbryan@cit.ie
3.
Degree courses currently on offer
There are a number of possible paths of progression within the higher education
sector to those considering embarking upon a career in the challenging and rewarding
clinical engineering healthcare environment. Furthermore, for graduates who may be
interested in engaging in research with a human dimension, there are many exciting
opportunities to embark on study leading to higher degrees in various disciplines
within the broad field of biomedical engineering.
In addition to a number of dedicated degree strands in biomedical engineering which
have come on stream in recent years, including those at NUI Galway, Dublin City
University and the University of Limerick, catering broadly for the biomechanics and
biomaterials strands in bioengineering, there has also been an evolution of biomedical
specialised course options on offer within a number of the traditional university and
IT degree programmes.
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3.1
Existing Degree Programmes
Ireland has over eighty medical-device-related companies including ten of the worlds
top fifteen medical device companies. Devices and equipment include kidney
machines, heart and lung machines, cardiological devices such as heart valves and
pace-makers, devices associated with radiology, urology, endoscopy,
vascular/endovascular surgery, together with neurological devices and orthopaedic
implants such as artificial hips and knees.
A number of degree programmes have been established in order to service this
Industry with appropriately qualified personnel.
3.1.1
Dublin City University
The School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering in co-operation with the

School of Biological Sciences is offering a four-year degree programme, BEng. in
Medical Mechanical Engineering. The degree programme on offer at DCU aims to
integrate the necessary aspects of biology and medicine with the technical engineering
aspects required to engineer medical devices and related devices.
Contact person: Dr. B. McNamara.
3.1.2
University College Galway
A number of leading medical device manufacturing companies have established a

base in the west of Ireland, and the department of Mechanical Engineering at
University College Galway has responded positively in establishing a four-year
degree programme in Biomedical Engineering. An expansive course programme
incorporates multi discipline syllabi including bioinstrumentation, biomaterials,
biomechanics, cellular tissue and genetic engineering, medical imaging,
orthopaedic and rehabilitation engineering. A co-operative programme provides the
facility of enabling student placement for the duration of their project semester with
one of the leading manufacturing industrial firms in the Galway and mid-west region.
Contact person:
Dr P. McHugh
Department of Mechanical Engineering.
Phone: 091-524411, ext. 3152
E-Mail: peter.mchugh@nuigalway.ie
3.1.3
University of Limerick
A four-year degree, B. Eng. Mechanical Engineering (Biomedical), provides a

specialised biomedical degree within the structure of the current B. Eng. Mechanical
Engineering programme. In year 3 students are introduced to Physiology and
Kinesiology in Biomedicine, whilst in year 4 Medical Device Design, Biomechanics,
and Biomaterials form a large part of the required course curriculum.
Contact person:
Dr T. McGloughlin
Assistant Dean of Academic Affairs for College of Engineering.
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Phone: 061-202217
E-Mail: tim.mcgloughlin@ul.ie
3.2
Further Elective Programmes in Biomedical Engineering
In addition to the degree streams outlined above, a number of specialised elective
option subjects in Biomedical Engineering are also on offer to students partaking of
degrees in Electrical and Electronic Engineering, in particular at University College
Dublin and at Dublin Institute of Technology.
3.2.1 University College Dublin
An elective option is on offer in year four of the degree in Electrical and Electronic
engineering. The option is intended to serve as an introduction to some of the many
ways in which the fields of engineering and medicine interact. Topics covered include
the principle of biomedical apparatus and the applications of engineering analysis to
the functioning of various physiological systems.
Participating students are invited to take their final-year project on a related topic in
biomedical engineering, with some of their time spent at an applied research
laboratory which has been set up at the National Rehabilitation Centre, Our Ladys
Hospital, Dun Laoghaire. Many of these students advance to postgraduate studies as a
follow on to their undergraduate studies.
Contact person:
Professor Annraoi de Paor.
Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering.
Phone: 01-7061910
E-Mail: annraoi.depaor@ucd.ie
3.2.2 Dublin Institute of Technology
An elective option in Biomedical Engineering is available to students taking the
fourth year of the honours degree programme in Electrical / Electronic Engineering.
This course is to be expanded, with commencement at year three, and with a
broadening of syllabus content to incorporate Health Informatics.
The biomedical section incorporates a study of the nature of physiological signals,
with inclusion of both practical laboratory sessions and implementation of signal
analysis tools as a means of analysing brain and heart signals. Students are offered
projects in biomedicine and a number progress to postgraduate studies at both masters
and PhD level.
Contact person:
Dr Eugene Coyle.
School of Control Systems and Electrical Engineering.
Phone: 01-4024873
E-Mail: eugene.coyle@dit.ie
4.
Taught Postgraduate Degree Courses
In addition to the options available in registering for postgraduate degrees by research
at all of the University and IT centres listed in section 3, there are also full-time taught
masters degree programmes on offer at many of the listed universities.
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4.1 Combined taught Masters, - University of Trinity College Dublin,

University of Limerick, and University of Ulster (Jordanstown Campus)
This is an innovative programme wherein students are invited to engage for one
semester at each of the dedicated university centres. The course aims to provide
students with an education that will enable them to realize their ambitions to practice
as enterprising and successful professional biomedical engineers. Graduates of the
course will have a high level of proficiency and a sound understanding of the
application of engineering and anatomy and physiological principles in the profession.
Explicit in course content design and content will be subject material essential to a
full educational experience in areas such as anatomy and physiology, biomechanics,
biomaterials, medical instrumentation and biomedical Informatics.
The course is offered jointly by the Faculties of Engineering and Informatics,
University of Ulster, Trinity College, Dublin and University of Limerick.
Duration and Mode of Attendance:
Full-time:
Postgraduate Diploma:
one academic year.
MSc:
one calendar year
Contact Detail:
1.
University of Ulster at Coleraine
Cromore Road
Coleraine
BT52 !SA
Phone: 0044-28-70344141
Email: online@ulst.ac.uk
2. University of Limerick:
Dr T. McGloughlin
Assistant Dean
Engineering.
Phone: 061-202217
E-Mail: tim.mcgloughlin@ul.ie
of
Academic
Affairs
for
College
of
3.
Trinity College Dublin
Dr. Patrick Prendergast
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Phone: 01-6082061
Email: pprender@tcd.ie
4.2
Postgraduate Diploma / MSC in Health Informatics
This degree is configured to provide students with a broad background appreciation of
Information Technology and of the fundamentals of Health Sciences. In addition to
practice and theory it covers appropriate medico-legal and ethical issues. The diploma
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is run over one academic year on a part-time basis, with the MSc extending to one
further year during which students undertake an independent research project.
Contact Detail:
Professor Jane Grimson
Phone: 01-6081780
Email: jane.grimson@tcd.ie
4.3
Trinity College Dublin - Faculty of Health Sciences / Haughton Institute
Coordinator: Prof. J. Malone (Clinical Medicine/Medical Physics)
Duration Diploma, 1 year full-time
MSc, 2 years full-time
This course, formerly known as Bioengineering or Medical Physics was completely
revised and updated in 1993/4. It aims to present the academic foundation for the
application of the Physical Sciences in Medicine; to demonstrate practical
implementations of medical physics/bioengineering in clinical practice; to provide
students with an opportunity to engage in original research in the field of Physical
Sciences in Medicine.
The Course normally extends over two academic years and is timetabled to facilitate
students in full-time employment (who may register for a third academic year in order
to complete their dissertation).
Contact Detail:
Professor Jim Malone
Faculty of Health Sciences
Email: jfmalone@tcd.ie
5. Postgraduate Degrees by Research / Research Centres
5.1
Overview
In addition to the various taught masters degree programmes within the university and
IT sectors, students may register for postgraduate studies at all of the listed colleges,
leading to award of either an M.Eng or Ph.D. degree by research.
There are many well-established research centres located within the universities
throughout Ireland, many with both a broad interest in biomedical engineering and
also with particular advanced niche specialisation.
A brief resume is provided in the following sections of these centres.
5.2
Research Centres
5.2.1
National Centre for Biomedical Engineering Science National
University of Ireland, Galway
This Centre brings together researchers from many different disciplines in a shared,
problem-centred approach addressing fundamental questions originating in biology
and medicine, but seeking solutions using technologies, skills and creativity from
outside the traditional boundaries of these disciplines. Such interdisciplinary activity,
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131
carried out by researchers in clusters of critical mass, has been identified as a priority
research area in the National University of Ireland, Galway.
Aims and Objectives
Biomedical Research - the way forward for NUI Galway
The establishment of a National Centre for Biomedical Engineering Science on the
NUI Galway campus is consistent with the changing needs of society, reflected by the
establishment of similar centres of excellence world-wide, dedicated to biomedical
sciences and engineering. As the European home of many multinational and national
biomedical industries, and with a pool of dynamic and scientifically literate graduates,
Galway and Ireland are well positioned at the leading edge of this exciting field. The
Centre will act as both a local and national resource, and will, in time, place Ireland in
a positive strategic position internationally with respect to this emerging discipline
Goals of the Centre
To extend and improve the existing research capability in NUI Galway and in its
partner institutions, through productive collaboration between talented researchers
across a wide range of scientific disciplines
To provide state of the art research facilities and an intellectual climate that will
foster, encourage and support interdisciplinary activities; and attract international
conferences in specialist areas
To further improve our research and educational capabilities through formal
partnerships with other institutions in the Western region, in Ireland and
internationally
To initiate a new model of graduate education and training which emphasises
problem-oriented multidisciplinary approaches to questions of fundamental
importance, and educate graduates of outstanding calibre.
Research
The fundamental ethos of the National Centre for Biomedical Engineering Science is
that sound research is conducted at the interfaces between disciplines. Accordingly,
our research programme and development plan brings together engineers, IT
specialists, physicians and scientists in a common approach to problems of major
scientific and clinical importance. Team members share their experience, insights and
expertise with others, and in turn learn from those with whom they collaborate.
Our philosophy is reflected in our continuing development and strategic planning. In
the short term this involves sharing of postgraduates and postdoctorates among
research teams, common equipment facilities and group seminar and symposia
programmes. When the Centre is fully established all of our teams and activities will
be housed in a single, state of the art research building, further enhancing
opportunities for collaboration and productive interaction.
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132
The research programme encompasses five major priority research areas. These are
as follows:
Cell and Molecular Biotechnology
Biomaterials
Biofilms
New Measurement Methodologies
Biomechanics
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5.2.2 Centre for Biomedical Electronics - Department of Electronic and

Computer Engineering, University of Limerick
The Centre for Biomedical Electronics has at its core two principle activities:
The development of Electronic Systems for the Correction of Human Gait
Disorders using Functional Electrical Stimulation (F.E.S.).
The development of mobility assessment and ambulatory monitoring systems for a
wide range of applications
Gait Correction Research
At present the gait correction activity is focused on the correction of Hemiplegic Drop
Foot, a condition resulting from stroke where the sufferer cannot lift his/her foot or
dorsiflex while walking. During the Gait Cycle, the ability to dorsiflex is critical as it
provides clearance for the foot when the leg is swinging through the air during the
swing phase. With a Drop-Foot sufferer the lack of dorsiflexion results in a dragging
of the leg and as a result has a significant impact on the persons gait.
There are four elements to the gait correction activity of the Centre.
The development of Portable Biomedical Electronic Instrumentation
The use of Functional Electrical Stimulation (F.E.S) for Gait correction
The evaluation of Sensor Technologies for Gait Assessment and Correction
The evaluation of Control Strategies including Fuzzy Control for Gait Correction
Mobility Assessment Research:

Mobility Assessment refers to the development of Electronic Systems to assess the
level of mobility and the type of mobility of an elderly subject, a subject that is
recovering following surgery or a subject being assessed for some drug treatment.
These mobility assessment systems have strong synergistic links to the gait correction
activity of the Centre. Both research activities require the use of gait sensors and
portable electronics. Another application of mobility assessment systems is their use
in Sports applications.
There are three elements to the mobility assessment of the Centre:
The development of data compression schemes

The development of pattern recognition schemes for mobility assessment
applications
The evaluation of integrated accelerometers as mobility assessment sensors
Collaboration has been established with:

Prof. Peter Veltink, University of Twente, Enschede.
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134
Prof. Thomas Sinkjaer, University of Aalborg, Denmark.

Dr. Duncan Wood, Dr. Jane Burridge and Paul Taylor, Salisbury
District Hospital (SDH), Salisbury, England.
Prof. Declan Lyons, The Stroke Unit, St. Camillus Hospital,
Consultant Gerontologist
Prof. Pierce Grace, Regional Hospital, Limerick, Consultant Vascular Surgeon
5.2.3 Biomedical Engineering Research Group, - NUI University College
Dublin, Faculty of Engineering
Overview
The Biomedical Engineering research group has activities in three areas,
Rehabilitation Engineering, Biomedical Signal Processing and Physiological
Modelling. The Rehabilitation engineering work is mainly done in the Rehabilitation
Engineering Research Laboratory in the National Rehabilitation Hospital, which is a
unique collaborative venture between the Department of Electronic and Electrical
Engineering and the Hospital. The group also has strong links with the Department of
Human Anatomy and Physiology in UCD and has established an Interdisciplinary
Sleep and Breathing Research Group.
Projects
Brain computer interface for disabled people Gait analysis
Music therapy for disabled people
Dynamic pressure monitoring for adaptive seating design
Computer based environmental control for disabled people
Modelling and simulation of electromyography
Modelling and simulation of spasticity
Respiratory and cardiovascular responses to transient arousal from sleep
Novel bioengineering approaches to the study of upper airway muscle fatigue
Heart rate variability in obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome
Automated detection of arousal from sleep using digital signal processing
Image registration of ophthalmic images
There are research opportunities on offer in
1. Rehabilitation Engineering
2. Muscle modelling and electromyography
Funding:
Scholarships are available
Contact Staff:
Dr. Conor Heneghan; Dr. Richard Reilly; Prof. Annraoi de Paor; Prof. Mark O'Malley
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135
The Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research

University College Dublin
Telephone: 353.1.706.2871 Fax: 353.1.706.2872 Email: conway.director@ucd.ie
The Research Programme
The Conway research portfolio focuses on seven programmes, covering Molecular
Medicine, Integrative Biology, Chemical Biology and Bioprocessing which
complement research into cancer and vascular biology, infection/immunity and
inflammation and neuroscience. The researchers have embraced an interfaculty,
interdisciplinary approach to scientific investigation with the hallmarks of success
being defined by scientific excellence and exploitation of research findings both into
the industrial and healthcare sectors.
An International Scientific Advisory Board has been established to provide expert,
constructive and objective guidance on how the scientific and research goals of the
Conway Institute can best be achieved.
Technology Transfer and Collaboration with Bioindustry; The Conway Institute has
proactive policy for fast-tracking of discoveries to bioindustry through its links with
UCD's University Industry Programme and BioResearch Ireland. Many of the
Institute's Principal Investigators have links with the biotechnology and
pharmaceutical sector in the form of collaborative programmes, contract research, and
campus companies.
5.2.4
Centre for Health Informatics - Trinity College Dublin
Health Informatics is a rapidly developing scientific field, which deals with

biomedical information, data and knowledge, their storage, retrieval, and optimal use
for decision making, diagnosis and treatment of patient illnesses.
The Centre for Health Informatics (CHI) is multi-disciplinary and draws on resources
and expertise from the Faculties of Health Sciences and Engineering and Systems
Sciences in Trinity College Dublin. It incorporates significant clinical and
technological resources to design and implement a range of projects in the field of
Health Informatics.
What is Health Informatics?
As one of the largest consumers of public funds, health plays a major role in
economic policy throughout the world. The main objectives of western governments
in the health sector today are twofold - efficiency and effectiveness - with improved
quality of care at the same, or reduced cost. Healthcare is an information intensive
industry generating enormous volumes of information every day in hospitals, GP
surgeries, clinics and laboratories. Yet most of this data continues to be processed
manually in spite of decades of experience in the successful application of
Information Technology (IT) in other information intensive industries such as banking
and insurance.
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136
There are many reasons for the slow uptake of IT in healthcare including lack of
investment in the technology and a lack of people with the relevant skills. The
application of IT in healthcare, now generally known as Health Informatics, is a
complex and intellectually demanding interdisciplinary field in which Medicine,
Computer Science, Management Science, Statistics and Engineering are all
represented. Health Informatics is no longer viewed as a peripheral issue but rather as
a central means of improving the overall efficiency and effectiveness of healthcare
delivery. This in turn is encouraging Governments to increase investment in IT in
healthcare.
Academic and research staff in the Faculties of Health Sciences and of Engineering
and Systems Sciences, in association with colleagues in St Jamess Hospital, the new
hospital at Tallaght, the Federated Dublin Voluntary Hospitals and the Dublin
Institute of Technology, have been actively involved in the field of Health Informatics
for a number of years. In 1991 a joint inter-faculty Research Centre for Health
Informatics was established in Trinity College, and is currently involved in a number
of projects funded mainly by the European Commission, covering both research and
development, and education and training.
5.2.3
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137
Biomedical Engineering in Israel
Israel Society for Medical and Biological Engineering

Edited by Dan Adam
Technion Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
INTRODUCTION
Biomedical Engineering (BME) in Israel has been active for over 30 years, with several graduatelevel programmes creating quite a large number of M.Sc. and Ph.D. professionals. Industry,
though active in these areas, was actually seeking engineers graduating from the more classical
disciplines. The huge increase of the high-tech industry during the 90s created a very large
demand for people of BME background, and a continuously increasing understanding that BME is
a discipline of its own. With the establishment of MBE undergraduate programmes in three large
academic universities as well as in colleges, the BME discipline and profession are recognised and
properly appreciated. The Israel Society for Medical and Biological Engineering (ISMBE), which
is the largest and main professional BME society in Israel, has members from universities, BME
industry, and hospitals as well as from other BME organisations. It advocates scientific and
professional BME activities within Israel, it represents the profession and its members in Israel
and in international organisations.
2
The National Society
The Israel Society for Medical and Biological Engineering (ISMBE) was established in 1958,
actually in the same year that the first IFMBE meeting convened in Paris. One of the founders of
the ISMBE, Prof. Joseph Weinman, was also active in establishing the IFMBE and became one of
its Honorary Life Members. In 1969 the ISMBE went through another formal registration, as a
non-profit society. In 1979 the ISMBE organised and hosted the International Conference of the
IFMBE (in association with the International Organisation for Medical Physics) in Jerusalem,
Israel. The Society also organised and hosted the Mediterranean countries regional conference
MECOMBE92 in Jerusalem.
The ISMBE is the largest body representing the Biomedical Engineers as well as the Clinical
Engineers. Additional BME activities are run by the IEEE Israel Section BME subsection. The
Association of Engineers and Architects also has a BME subsection, while the Medical Physics
Society is working under the umbrella of the Physics Society. Since academic undergraduate
programmes of Biomedical Engineering opened only recently, the majority of members of the
ISMBE and the other sister-societies are engineers in other fields who got a M.Sc. degree in
Biomedical Engineering, or have been working in the area for many years and went through
Continuing Education courses.
The ISMBE has a name list of over 800 members, but paying membership is fluctuating around
200-300, depending on the activity from year to year (with people tending to pay their dues only at
the annual conference and not pay yearly on a regular basis). The majority of the members are
working in R&D in industry or within the universities, with only a minority of about 20% working
in service and maintenance within hospitals or outside vendors who provide such services to the
138
hospitals. While there have been some medium sized manufacturers in operation for over 25-30
years, the last 7 years have seen a significant increase of interest and involvement in BiomedicalMedical equipment, in both development and manufacturing. There are currently around 500 startups in this area, at different levels of operation.
Thus the classical roles of societies like the ISMBE have become much more important, the roles
and goals that have been defined when the Society was established:
Development and advancement of the medical and biological engineering discipline in
Israel.
Exchange and dissemination of knowledge and information related to the Medical and
Biological Engineering discipline within Israel, by organising conferences, seminars and
workshops.
Encouragement of collegial relationships among members of the Society, advancement of
scientific activity and guarding the level of professional ethics.
Advancement of professional relationships with local and international organisations and
groups of similar interests. Representation of the Israeli Medical and Biological
Engineering profession in national and international activities and organisations.
Several additional goals have been added since then:
Participation in national and international standardisation committees, and producing
impact by active participation in government organisations responsible for standardisation.
Serving as a vehicle for collaboration among financial bodies and (start-up) industries.
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND ACCREDITATION
3.1
Education
Graduate level studies in Biomedical Engineering towards M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees have started in
Israel in 1968 (at the Technion). Currently there are such programmes in 3 universities, with more
than 200 graduate students enrolled, most of them performing a research thesis as part of their
studies.
Undergraduate studies towards a B.Sc. degree in Biomedical Engineering (4 years programme)
have started only in recent years, at 3 universities and one college. Currently about 140 students
start each year, and, since the entrance level is extremely high, about 90% are expected to finish.
The undergraduate Biomedical Engineering programmes consist of mandatory courses and a wide
range of electives. During the first two years students take extended courses in Basic Sciences
(Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry and Computers), in Life Sciences (Anatomy, Biochemistry, Cell
Biology and Physiology), and in Basic Engineering (Mechanics, Electronics, Biomaterials and
Transport Phenomena). The last two years include: elective courses; two Biomedical Engineering
laboratory courses; two design courses and two project courses in which students implement their
engineering knowledge to analyse and provide solutions to biomedical needs. The projects are
carried out in co-operation with the Biomedical industry. In the elective courses, students choose,
for example, two out of the following three tracks: (a) Imaging and Medical Equipment (system
engineering and control, non-invasive techniques, principles of imaging, signal processing and
processing of medical images). (b) Movement, Rehabilitation Engineering, Artificial Organs and
Implants (research of walking and movement, mechanics of sports, equipment for
orthopaedic/neurological rehabilitation and aids for the handicapped, surgical implants,
bioengineering of cells, tissues and of tissue substitutes, artificial organs); (c) Biomaterial,
139
Biotechnology and Tissue Engineering (biochemical engineering, molecular engineering,

biosensors, artificial metabolic organs, controlled drug release biological substitutes).
There are also Biomedical Engineering tracks in several classical engineering faculties (like EE,
Mechanical Eng. etc.).
3.2
Continuing Education/Training
The various universities offer a wide range of courses as Continuing Education courses in many
cases these are graduate level courses that are open to the public and to engineers willing to get
training in a specific subject. There is no formal requirement for engineers to accumulate
Continuing Education courses during their career - though this topic is currently under review.
The ISMBE does organise, though, in addition to its annual national conference (which was this
year on Feb 17th), also several workshops, Special Topic Conferences etc. For example this
spring the ISMBE organises and co-sponsors several one-day Workshops:
a. Tissue Engineering - Technion, Haifa, Monday April 8th, 2002 (Details: Prof. Yoram Lamir,
Prof. Eitan Kimel).
b. Ultrasound and Tissues - Tel-Aviv University, Wednesday, April 10th, 2002 (Details: Dr.
Zehava Blechman).
c. Molecular Cardiology - cellular and tissue engineering - Kefar Hamakabia, May 9th, 2002
(Details: Dr. Miki Sheinovitz) - co-sponsoring.
d.
5th Israeli Symposium on Computer-Aided Surgery, Medical Robotics, and Medical
Imaging (ISRACAS'2002), Sheba Medical Centre, Tel-Aviv, Wednesday May 22nd, 2002 co-sponsoring.
In these activities the lecturers are from both academia and industry, and the audience is also
similarly mixed. These activities are usually free to the ISMBE members, but non-members are
charged.
The annual ISMBE conference is usually a one day meeting, with several sessions which include
lecturers from academia, industry and from hospitals. Oral presentations are given as well as
posters. For many years this annual meeting was run as part of a national conference that included
many of the medical societies. The last 5 years have seen such an increase of interest in the
Biomedical Engineering discipline and in the ISMBE annual conference, thus it was decided to run
this annual conference independently.
Quality assurance, as part of clinical engineering, quality audit and accreditation of hospital
laboratories, are carried out by Government bodies and private laboratories which are authorised to
perform these operations. Most of the personnel in such institutions are people who went through
Quality Assurance Engineering graduate set of courses (usually obtaining M.Sc. in Quality
Assurance Engineering).
3.3
Certification/Accreditation
All university (and college) programmes and degrees are approved by the Higher Education
Council, which is a government-supported public entity. Each university department is subject to
review (each 3-5 years) by an international committee. There are no national (government or
professional) examinations, or certification of an individual; employers accept the university or
college grades as valid indication of the professional competence.
140
An unofficial survey, among BME department heads, faculty, the ISMBE Board of Directors and a
large number of ISMBE members, produced a unanimous agreement to participate in a future
accreditation programme if it is established. There is of course willingness to share the workload
and be part of establishing the guidelines and in the future committees and site-visit
responsibilities.
4.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
4.1
Activities in the Field and Contacts with Authorities
The Israel Standardisation Institute is responsible for promoting initiation of new standards,
controlling the oversight of existing standards etc. Due to Israels small population (~6M), most
standards are adopted from international standards usually U.S. or European standards. The
ISMBE had no official policy, and did not participate in these activities. ISMBE members, though,
are active in various standardisation committees and quality assurance bodies.
In recent years the ISMBE has intensified its activities as promoter of BME activities within the
various national funding institutes in an effort to establish BME as a stand-alone discipline.
These efforts must continue, since currently BME is still regarded as some activity between
Biotechnology, Medicine and Engineering. This attitude must be changed.
4.2
European and International Activities
The ISMBE has been active in international organisations since it was established. As mentioned
above, ISMBE organised and hosted the International Conference of the IFMBE (in association
with the International Organisation for Medical Physics) in Jerusalem, Israel, in 1979. The Society
also organised and hosted the IFMBE Mediterranean countries regional conference
MECOMBE92 in Jerusalem. The Computers in Cardiology International Conference was
organised and hosted in Jerusalem in 1989. Many other Medical and Engineering Conferences
were held in Israel (but unfortunately this trend was stopped since last year, due to the violence in
this region). There are multiple bi-lateral research funding agreements between Israel and various
European and other nations.
Israel is one of the non-EU countries who participated in the earlier Framework Programmes,
currently participates in the Fifth Framework Programme, and plans to participate in the 6th
Framework Programme as an ASSOCIATED STATE who may participate WITH COMMUNITY
FUNDING, and this participation is In Force. This means that the Israeli Government
contributes its share to each Framework Programme budget and that on the other hand industry and
academia participate in any of the Fifth European Community Framework Programme covering
research, technological development and demonstration activities. This is a major factor in the
ISMBE enthusiasm to participate in the effort of the various European BME Societies to create an
umbrella organisation and to promote the BME discipline within the European Commission
Community Research.
141
Biomedical Engineering Education in Italy

prof. Marcello Bracale
Dept. of Electronic Engineering and Telecommunications
University of Naples "Federico II"
Via Claudio, 21 80125 - Napoli, ITALY
1. Introduction
Biomedical engineering teaching activities in Italy started in the years 1968-69. The course
Biomedical Electronics" was activated at the University of Padova and at the University of Naples
and the courses "Bio-energetic" and "Biological Electronics" started at the Polytechnic of Milan.
Since then many other courses and educational programmes have started in many Italian
Universities. Post-graduate courses started in the years 1971-72 when "post-graduated courses of
biomedical instrumentation" were set-up at the University of Naples, while Bioengineering PhD
courses were activated in 1982 as consortium of various universities with two administrative
headquarters in Milan and Bologna.
In 2000, about 150 undergraduate courses in Biomedical Engineering were active at 19 Italian
Universities (Ancona, Bologna, Brescia, Firenze, Genova, Milano, Modena e Reggio Emilia,
Napoli, Padova, Pavia, Pisa, Roma 1"la Sapienza", Roma 2 "Tor Vergata", Roma 3, Roma Campus
Biomedico, Sassari, Siena, Torino and Trieste), while PhD courses in Bioengineering and postgraduate courses were available in 9 universities (see Appendix 1).
According to the reform of the European Higher Education, since 2001, a new educational path was
adopted in Italy, consisting of a first level degree (3 years) eventually followed by a second level,
specialist degree (2 years) and /or Masters and finally by the PhD.
At the moment, the Universities of Bologna, Genova, Milano, Napoli, Padova , Pavia, Pisa, Roma
1"la Sapienza", Roma Campus Biomedico and Torino offer the first level degree (3 years) in
Biomedical Engineering and in the next future will offer the specialist degree (2 years). Other
Universities offer specific curricula or some modules of Biomedical Engineering within other
engineering degree courses (see Appendix 2).

As early as 1965, a group of medical engineers headed by Prof. G. Francini met to formally
organise the Italian Electronic Group applied to Medicine and Biology in affiliation to the
International Federation of Medical and Biological Engineering (I.F.M.B.E.).
Later, in 1967, the constitution of the Association was approved together with the name
"Associazione Italiana di Ingegneria Medica e Biologica" (A.I.I.M.B.). It had started with 76
members of medical engineers, physicist and physicians all over Italy. Its objectives are scientific
informative and educational with the specific aims of encouraging researches, spreading scientific
information, applying knowledge and promoting collaboration with other specific groups.
At present the A.I.I.M.B. counts about 130 active members. Most of them work at universities
while the others are clinical engineers and physicians working at hospitals and other healthcare
departments.
DRAFT - 12 February 2002
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142
The A.I.I.M.B. had participated in and organised many scientific activities, conferences, symposia,
and round tables on different topics regarding Biomedical Engineering.
In 1997, A.I.I.M.B. initiated the series of the MEDICON - Mediterranean Conferences on Medical
and Biological Engineering (September, 12-17, 1977 - Sorrento, Italy). Subsequently, A.I.I.M.B.
hosted also the VI MEDICON in Capri island (July, 5-10, 1992 - Italy) and will host the X
MEDICON in Ischia island (June or September 2004 - Italy).
The A.I.I.M.B. also co-ordinates in co-operation with other Italian and International Technical and
Scientific Organizations general and specialized activities in the field of Biomedical Engineering
and Clinical Engineering within the structures of the National Health Services. A.I.I.M.B.
participates in the Italian Group Sub-Committee 62D of the International Electrotechnical
Commission for the Standardization of Medical Equipments.
The A.I.I.M.B. has formed two Working Groups on "Clinical Engineering" and on "Biomechanics"
since 1983. Recently a Working Group on "Cellular Engineering" has been established. The
A.I.I.M.B. maintains co-operation with different Italian associations (such as: Gruppo Italiano di
Ultrasonologia Vascolare - GIUV, Societ Italiana Reti Neuroniche, Associazione Italiana di Fisica
Biomedica - AIFB, Sezione Italiana dell'International Society of Electrophysiological Kinesiology ISEK).
3. BME Education, Training and Accreditation in Italy

3.1 Education
University degree programmes in Biomedical Engineering are provided in Italy at both undergraduate and post-graduate level.
According to the new definitions of the Italian Ministry of Education, Universities and Research,
there are two scientific-disciplinary sectors (i.e. homogeneous scientific-educational topics or areas)
concerning Biomedical Engineering education at university level:
"Electronics and Informatics Bioengineering" ING-INF/06:
This sector born from the organic integration of the methodologies and the technologies
proper of the engineering, principally of the information, with the medical and biological
problems of the life science, of the clinical engineering, of the labour world and of the sport.
the basic methodologies of this sector concern the modelling of the physiological systems
(from the cellular components to the apparatus and organs); the description of the electrical
and/or magnetical phenomena and the device to measure or modify them; data end signal
processing; biomedical images; the representation of the medical and biological knowledge.
The technologies include the biomedical and biotechnological instrumentation (diagnostic,
therapeutic, and rehabilitative: from its elementary components to the to the integrated
hospital systems); prosthesis; biomedical robots; artificial intelligence systems; systems for
the healthcare management and organisation; informatics systems at patient, ward, hospital,
regional and national level; medical informatics; telemedicine. Advanced research areas in
biology and neuroscience include cellular and tissue engineering; informatics techniques for
biology and neurology (neuro-informatics and bio-informatics); bio-electronics.
"Industrial Bioengineering" ING-IND/34:
This sector born from the organic integration of the methodologies and the technologies
proper of the industrial engineering, principally of the mechanics and chemistry, with the
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medical and biological problems of the life science. The aim of such integration is directed
to the technological, industrial, scientific, clinic and hospital environment. Scientificdisciplinary contents relate to the bioengineering application of methodological,
technological, theoretical, and experimental aspects proper of the chemical and mechanical
engineering and therefore the study, the planning, the technologies, and the functional
evaluation of medical instrumentation, device or implants, of natural and artificial materials,
tissues, apparatus and organism by means of models, analytical and numerical instruments.
Methods proper of the sector are based on structure-property link characteristic of
biomaterials and biomechanical structures. Also the knowledge thorough examination, based
on the observation scale, allows the biomechanical characterisation of the biological
structures and the analysis of the biological-artificial interface characteristics, which are the
support for the planning of biomedical devices.
At present, there is a total of 83 teachers (of which 27 are full professors, 28 associate professors
and 28 researchers) belonging to ING-INF/06 sector and there is a total of 24 persons (of which 9
are full professors, 11 associate professors and 4 researchers) belonging to ING-IND/34 sector.
3.1.1 Undergraduate degrees
In 2000, about 150 undergraduate courses in Biomedical Engineering were active at 19 Italian
Universities (Ancona, Bologna, Brescia, Firenze, Genova, Milano, Modena e Reggio Emilia,
Napoli, Padova, Pavia, Pisa, Roma 1"la Sapienza", Roma 2 "Tor Vergata", Roma 3, Roma Campus
Biomedico, Sassari, Siena, Torino and Trieste), while PhD courses in Bioengineering and postgraduate courses were available in 9 Universities (see Appendix 1 for details).
The 2000-2001 academic year witnessed a historic transition because Italy will pass from the
traditional system of one level (the degree) to a system organised around different levels (the
degree, the specialised degree, the master's degree, and the doctorate of research), aligned with the
goal of a European space of higher education which is contained in the declaration signed by the
Ministers of Education or their equivalents of twenty-nine European countries at the University of
Bologna on 19 June 1999. The challenge which universities are now facing is a colossal one, and it
has forced them to revise all the university curricula and to create new ones adapted to a society
based upon knowledge which innovates and renews at extraordinary rhythms. In this revision the
universities are finally enjoying certain spaces of autonomy and in the interest of the students are
interacting with employers' associations and trade unions and other state and private systems which
are interested in university education and training.
The credits system has been adopted to be in line with the ETCS European system of credits, in
which credits go from 1 to 60, are based upon the course unit, and describe the total work burden
which each course unit requires.
At the moment, the Universities of Bologna, Genova, Milano, Napoli, Padova, Pavia, Pisa, Roma
1"la Sapienza", Roma Campus Biomedico and Torino offer the first level degree (3 years) in
Biomedical Engineering and in the next future will offer the specialist degree (2 years). Other
Universities offer specific curricula or some modules of Biomedical Engineering within other
engineering degree courses (see Appendix 2 for details).
3.1.2 Postgraduate degrees
In Italy the PhD in Bioengineering is a research degree, usually of 3 years duration. Entry to
doctoral study is allowed to postgraduates (until now, students who took a 5 years university
degree), while having a Master's degree or a post-graduate specialisation is not a prerequisite.
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In 1982 a PhD course in "Bioengineering", based on a consortium of the Universities of Genova,

Milano, Padova, Pavia and Pisa (with administrative headquarters in Milan) and another
Bioengineering PhD course based on a consortium of the Universities of Ancona, Bologna, Firenze,
Napoli and Roma (with administrative headquarters in Bologna) have started.
In 1985 a Bioengineering curriculum was activated within the PhD programme in Information
Engineering at the University of Trieste.
In 1997 a PhD course in "Bioengineering and Medical Informatics" started at the University of
Pavia.
In 1998 a PhD course in "Bioengineering and Bioelectronics" started at the University of Genova.
In 2000, at the University of Pavia, the PhD course in "Bioengineering and Medical Informatics"
turned into the PhD course in "Bioengineering and Bioinformatics".
In 2000 a PhD course in "Biomedical Technologies Applied to Dentistry" started with a
collaboration of the University "Federico II" of Napoli and the Second University (SUN) of Napoli.
In 2001 a PhD course in "Bioengineering" started at the University of Padova.
In 2001 a PhD course in "Biomedical Engineering" started at the Polytechnic of Torino.
In 2001 a PhD course in "Healthcare Economics and Management" started at the University
"Federico II" of Napoli (a collaboration of the Faculties of Medicine, Economy and Engineering).
In 2001 a PhD course in "Diagnostic of Laboratory and Bioengineering" started with a collaboration
of the University "Federico II" of Napoli and the Second University (SUN) of Napoli.
In 1989 the Italian Universities of Bologna, Milano, Napoli and Padova joined the "European
Course on Biomedical Engineering and Medical Physics" organised in Patras, Greece, within the
Erasmus project. The Italian participants in the Course so far are both teachers and students.
In 1991 a postgraduate specialisation school in Clinical Engineering was established at the
University of Trieste. The duration is two years.
3.1.3 Other educational activities
Since 1982, the Italian scientific community of Bioengineering annually organises monothematic
schools held in Bressanone of a duration of few days about specific Biomedical Engineering topics.
Every year many students (undergraduate and postgraduate) and teachers participate in the school.
1982 - Methods and analysis of the neuro-sensorial systems; 1983 - The computer in the
clinical practice; 1984 - Biomaterials; 1985 - Eidetic Bioengineering; 1986 - Bioengineering
of the cardiovascular system; 1987 - Bioengineering of the Rehabilitation; 1988 - Structure
of the biomedical knowledge; 1989 - Cellular and molecular bioengineering; 1990 Bioengineering of the artificial organs; 1991 - Neuroscience and science of the artificial:
from neuron to intelligence; 1992 - Bioelectronics and nanotechnologies for bioengineering;
1993 - Biosystems and complexity; 1994 - Biomedical and healthcare technologies:
development evaluation and management; 1995 - Prosthesis and aids for the
communication; 1996 - Informatics healthcare systems; 1997 - Mechanics of the biological
tissues; 1998 - Bioengineering of the metabolic systems; 1999 - Technology and
methodology for functional images. 2000 - Analysis and modification of biomolecules and
cells; 2001 - Bioengineering of the respiratory system.
Various courses on specific Biomedical Engineering subjects have been organised for PhD students
in different Italian universities.
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3.2 Training
At present, biomedical engineers in Italy usually do not undergo training in addition to their
education.
Unlike in the case of Medical Physicists, there is not yet any recognition of the Clinical Engineer by
the National Health Service in Italy. Final training for engineers employed in hospitals, healthcare
structures or industries is optional and, in general, carried out independently.

At present, in Italy there is not yet an accreditation process for the university education nor for
specific training.
After the ministerial decree (DM 509/99) on autonomy in the sphere of teaching, some of the
traditional customs and habits of Italian universities are changing, passing from the traditional
system of one level (the degree) to a system organised around different levels (the degree, the
specialised degree, the master's degree, and the doctorate of research), aligned with the goal of a
European space of higher education which is contained in the "Bologna Declaration".
Recent documents already contain the new general organisational principles and present the
characteristics that the university system should have acquired at the end of the process of
innovation, among which there is the accrediting of the courses of study (a system of certification
based on the cultural value of a qualification derived from university studies, on the meeting of the
social and economic demand, and on the suitability of the resources deployed by universities).
In particular, in July 2001, the National Committee for the Evaluation of the University System
(Italian Ministry for Education Universities and Research), issued a document (Doc 12/01) about
the "Activation of an accrediting system of the degree courses in the Italian Universities: first
recommendation and proposals"
Furthermore, the Institution "National System for the Accreditation of the Courses of Study in
Engineering" (S.I.N.A.I.) will be soon constituted. The aim of the SINAI Institution is to determine
the Minimal Requirements (in terms of Credits and arguments covered) in order that a course of
study would be "accredited" (i.e. to get recognition at national and eventually international level).
At moment the accreditation matter is at the attention of the CRUI (The Italian Rectors' Conference)
and of the National Committee for the Evaluation of the University System.
Concerning the Biomedical Engineering Education, in April 2001 the Education Committee of the
National Group of Bioengineering submitted to the Committee of the Deans a proposal about the
contents of the courses in Biomedical engineering (see Table 1). In July 2001, the Committee of the
Deans transmitted a new proposal (see Table 2) to receive comments, remarks and objections in
order to prepare soon a document about the minimal requirements for the Courses of Study in
Engineering.
Table 1
Bioengineering
Models of biological systems. Transfer function. Feedback. Stability. Simulation.
Identification.
Biomaterials
Metallic, ceramic, polymeric materials and their chemical-physical properties.
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Biocompatibility and biodegradation.

Biomechanics
Mechanical properties of biological and artificial materials. Human motion analysis.
Prosthesis.
Biology and Physiology
Cellular biology. Tissue biology. Integrated physiological functions (respiration, circulation
metabolism, functions of the neuro-sensorial and muscular system, water and metabolite
homeostasis).
Biomedical Signal and Image Processing
Principal characteristics of the biomedical signals and images. Analysis in the frequency
domain. Sampling. Numerical filtering.
Applied Electronics
Components. Analogue and digital electronic circuits. Semiconductor memories. Analogue
to digital conversion.
Electrotechnique
Electrical circuit in DC and AC. Transient response. Elements of electrical devices.
Mechanics and Thermodynamics
Mechanics of the rigid body, elastic bodies and fluids. Mechanical components. Kinematics
chains. Thermodynamics of the open system. Energy and mass balance. Transport
phenomena.
Elements of the measure. Functioning principles of the main instruments for diagnosis,
therapy and rehabilitation. Network instruments and telemedicine. Electrical safety of the
biomedical device and legal aspects.
Table 2
Mechanics and Biomechanics
Mechanics of the rigid body, elastic bodies and fluids. Mechanical components. Kinematics
chains. Biomedical applications. Operating devices: pumps and compressors. Mechanical
properties of biological and artificial materials. Prosthesis.
Bioengineering
Mathematical models of simple biological systems. Experimental assessments and
determination of empirical parameters. Simulations.
Biomaterials
Metallic, ceramic, polymeric materials
Biocompatibility and biodegradation.
and
their
chemical-physical
properties.
Biomedical Signal and Image Processing

Principal characteristics of the biomedical signals and images. Analysis in the frequency
domain. Sampling. Numerical filtering.
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Measures and Biomedical Instrumentation

Measure theory. Measure of electrical, thermal and mechanical quantities. Functioning
principles of the main instruments for diagnosis, therapy and rehabilitation. Safety of the
biomedical devices.
Biology and Physiology
Cellular biology. Tissue biology. Integrated physiological functions (respiration, circulation
metabolism, functions of the neuro-sensorial and muscular systems, water and metabolite
homeostasis).
Technological Installations in Hospitals
Conditioning and heating systems. Electrical systems. Auxiliary installations and normative
aspects. Thermodynamics and transport phenomena. Thermodynamics of open systems.
Mechanics of the fluids. Mass and heat transport.
Electrotechnique
Electrical circuit in DC and AC. Transient response. Principles of functioning of electrical
devices. Building typologies. Converters and inverters.
Applied Electronics
Components. Electrical analogical circuits, elementary amplifier and the operational
amplifier. Digital circuits and main logic families. Semiconductor memories. Analogue to
digital conversion.
Automatic Controls.
Analysis of the control systems. Criteria for stability. Methods of synthesis of control
systems. Basic aspect of the digital control. Components of a control system, sensors and
actuators.
3.3.2 The Right to practice for engineers

In Italy engineers who intend to practice the engineering profession have to register with the Italian
Council of the Engineers (Ordine degli Ingegneri).
Recently, after the new reform of university education, the Council of the Engineers decided to
form two sections, Section A for those having the Specialised Degree in Engineering (giving the
professional title of Engineer) and Section B for those having only the Degree in Engineering
(giving the professional title of Junior Engineer).
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148
BME Education in Italy
List of Biomedical Engineering courses in ITALY in 2000

(This list is available at AIIMB web-site at the address:
http://biomant.die.unina.it/aiimb/BMEcourses_iten.htm)
updated to January 16, 2001
Note that Italian names of the courses, topics and degrees have been freely translated to English
University of ANCONA
Degrees:
Electronics Engineering Degree (Biomedical course)
PhD in Bioengineering
Courses:
Bioengineering
Bioengineering of the physiological systems
Biological systems models
University of BOLOGNA
Degrees:
Biomedical Engineering Degree
Biomedical Engineering Bachelor
PhD in Bioengineering (consortium with the Univ. of Ancona, Firenze, Napoli and Roma 1)
Courses:
Physiology
Automation and organization of the health services
Bioengineering I
Bioengineering II
Bioengineering III
Biomedical data and signals processing
Biomaterials
Biomechanics constructions
University of BRESCIA
Degrees:
Electronics, Mechanics, Civil, Management Engineering Degree
Courses:
Automation and organisation of the health services
University of FIRENZE
Degrees:
Electronics Engineering Degree (Bioengineering course)
Mechanics Engineering Degree (Biomedical course)
Courses:
Physiology
page 8 of 21
APPENDIX 1
149

Biomedical technologies
Medical informatics
Biomechanics
University of GENOVA
Degrees:
Courses:
Bioelectromagnetism I
Bioelectromagnetism II
Biomechanics I
Biomechanics II
Bioimages
Biomaterials
Bioelectrochemistry
Bioengineering and medical informatics
Medical informatics II
Bioengineering laboratory
Perceptive systems models
Anthropomorphological robotics
Natural and artificial intelligent systems
Biochemistry
Human physiology
Polytechnic of MILANO
Degrees:
Bioengineering Bachelor
Courses:
Human physiology
Biomaterials I
Biomechanics
Bioelectromagnetism
Instrumental analysis and materials control (Lab)
Bioimages
Bioengineering of the physiological systems I
Bioengineering of the physiological systems II
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APPENDIX 1
150
Bioengineering of the rehabilitation and prosthesis I

Bioengineering of the rehabilitation and prosthesis II
Molecular biology
Biomachines
Biomaterials II
Biomaterials III
Biomechanics of the rehabilitation I
Biomechanics of the rehabilitation II
Biomechanics of the rehabilitation III
Biomechanics constructions (Lab)
Biomedical data and signals processing I
Biomedical data and signals processing II
Biomedical data and signals processing III (Lab)
Biological transport phenomena
Medical informatics I
Medical informatics II
Medical informatics III (Lab)
Artificial organs and prosthesis I
Artificial organs and prosthesis II
Natural and artificial intelligent systems
Technology of the biomaterials
University of MODENA and REGGIO EMILIA

Degrees:
Medicine, Health-Care Planning Sciences Degree
Courses:
Medical informatics
University of NAPOLI "Federico II"

Degrees:
PhD in Biomedical Technologies Applied to Dentistry
Courses:
University of PADOVA
Degrees:
page 10 of 21
APPENDIX 1
151
Biomedical Engineering Bachelor

Courses:
Bioengineering
Elements of physiology
Medical informatics
Biomachines
Biomaterials
Biomechanics
Biomechanics construction
University of PAVIA
Degrees:
Computer Science Degree (Bioengineering course)
Courses:
Human physiology
Bioengineering
Economics of health services
Medical informatics
University of PISA
Degrees:
Bioengineering Bachelor
Courses:
Bioengineering I
Bioengineering II
Biomedical electronics I
Biomedical electronics II
Biomedical data and signals processing I
Biomedical data and signals processing II
University of ROMA 1 "La Sapienza"

Degrees:
Electronics, Telecommunications, Computer Science, Mechanics Engineering Degree
(Bioengineering course)
Movement Sciences Degree
page 11 of 21
APPENDIX 1
152
Courses:
Seminars and laboratory of human physiology
Hospital systems
Bioelectromagnetic interaction
Biomechanics of the human movement
University of ROMA 2 "Tor Vergata"

Degrees:
Medical Engineering Degree
Courses:
Science and technology of the materials of biological interest
Mechanics of biological systems
Human biomorphology
Diagnosis devices
Physiology
University of ROMA 3
Degrees:
Electronics Engineering Degree
Mechanics Engineering Degree (Bioengineering course)
Courses:
ROMA Campus Biomedico

Degrees:
Courses:
Biomaterials
Elements of physiology and anatomy
Hospital systems
Biochemistry
Bioelectrochemistry and biomedical technologies
Biomaterials II
Biomechanics
Chemical kinetics and biochemistry
Biomedical transport phenomena
Physiology
Biomedical fluid-dynamics
Medical informatics
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153
Bioelectromagnetic interaction
Nuclear methods for therapy and diagnostics
Artificial organs
University of SASSARI
Degrees:
Medicine and Dentistry Degree
Courses:
Mathematics and physics methodologies
University of SIENA
Degrees:
Medicine and Surgery Degree
Bachelor (audiometrist technician, audioprosthesis technician, physical therapist, dental hygienist,
nurse, logopedist, technician in neurophysiopathology, orthoptist-assistant in ophthalmology,
obstetrician, sanitary technician of medical radiology, sanitary technician of biomedical laboratory)
Courses:
Medical physics and bioengineering
Human physiology (physiological systems models)
Medical informatics
Electronic bioengineering
Polytechnic of TORINO
Degrees:
Mechanics Engineering Degree (Biomedical course)
Electronics Engineering Degree (Bioengineering course)
Courses:
Biomechanics
Biomaterials
Basic techniques of biomedical data and signals processing
Advanced techniques of biomedical signals processing
Human physiology and measurements on living systems
University of TRIESTE
Degrees:
School of Specialisation in Clinic Engineering
Bachelor (sanitary technician of medical radiology)
Courses:
Processing of data and images of clinical interest
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154
Elements of human physiology

Elements of human morphology
Hospital information systems
Instrumentation for functional explorations
Telematics and integration of the health services
Biomaterials, artificial organs and prosthesis
Electrical systems in the hospitals
Organisation and management of the health services
Planning and organisation of the health services
Health risks and prevention in hospital
Safety and prevention in hospital environment
Medical statistic and epidemiology
Instrumentation for bioimages
Instrumentation for clinical chemistry
Bioengineering
Radiology equipments-Electronic bioengineering
Informatics and archiving-General informatics
Informatics and archiving-Electronic bioengineering
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155
APPENDIX 2
Synoptic table of Biomedical Engineering degree courses

in ITALY from the Academic year 2000-2001
This information is preliminary and in progress - last update October 2001
UNIVERSITY
University of ANCONA
University of
BOLOGNA
University of FIRENZE
BME
curriculum
(another
degree)
BME degree
(class)
BME
specialised
degree
BME PhD
(Electronics)
YES
(Information)
YES
Bioengineering
(Electronics)
(Mechanics)
YES
(Information)
YES
(Information &
Industrial)
YES
(Information)
YES
(Information)
YES
(Information)
University of NAPOLI
(Federico II)
University of PAVIA
University of PISA
University of ROMA 1
(La Sapienza)
Bioengineering
(Electronics)
(Informatics)
(Mechanics)
YES
Bioengineering
Bioelectronics
YES
Bioengineering
YES
Bioengineering
YES
Bioengineering
YES
Bioengineering
Bioinformatics
Robotics,
Industrial
automation
systems,
Bioengineering
YES
(Information &
Industrial)
YES
YES
(Information &
Industrial)
YES
Bioengineering
YES
(Information &
Industrial)
YES
Biomedical
Engineering
University of SASSARI
University of SIENA
University of TRIESTE
(Electronics)
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156
APPENDIX 2
List of the Biomedical Engineering courses in ITALY

(within the BME 1st level Degree - 3 years)
from the Academic year 2000-2001
This information is preliminary and in progress - last update October 2001

Note that Italian names of the courses, topics and degrees have been freely translated to English
University of BOLOGNA
BME Courses
Biomedical Laboratory L-A
Bioengineering L-A
Biomechanics L-A
Biomedical Laboratory L-B
or English course L-B
Biomaterials L-A
Biomedical Instrumentation L-A
Biomedical Data and Signals Processing L-A
CFU
3
5
5
3
Year
II
II / III T
II / III T
III
5
5
5
III / I T
III / II T
III / II T
CFU
12
5
10
5
5
5
Year
I/IS
II
II / I S
II / II S
III / I S
III / I S
5
5
5
III / I S
III / II S
III / II S
BME Courses
Bioengineering + Medical informatics
Bioengineering Laboratory
Principles of Bioelectronics and Bioinformatics
Principles of Biomedical Instrumentation
Biomedical Signals and Images Processing
Mathematical Physics
or Principles of Mechanics and Biomechanics
Medical Informatics II
Biological Systems Control and Models
Informative Systems and Telemedicine
page 16 of 21
157
APPENDIX 2
BME Courses
Principles of Bioengineering Electronics
Principles of Bioengineering Mechanics
Principles of Bioengineering Chemistry
Medical Informatics
Bioelectricity and Biomagnetism I
Biomechanics I
Chemical Phenomena in Biological Systems I
Safety and Regulations for Medical Equipment
Training/Project, Table P, other courses
Electronic Hospital Instruments and Equipment
Clinical Bioimages
Biomachines
Chemical Hospital Instruments and Equipment
Automation and Organisation of the Health
Systems
Hospital Systems
Quality and Organisation in Biomedical
Companies
Technology for Prosthesis and Artificial Organs
Technology for Sensors and Instrumentation
Instrumentation and Methods for Functional
Evaluation
Life Support Systems
Techniques of Functional Electrical Stimulation
Aids and Prosthesis for Hearing and Seeing
Systems for Motor and Postural Rehabilitation
Aids for Environment and Mobility
CFU
10
7.5
5
5
5
5
5
2.5
2.5
5
2.5
5
2.5
5
Year
II / I S
II / I S
II / I S
II / II S
III / II S
III / II S
III / II S
5
2.5
III / I S
10
10
5
III / I S
III / I S
III / I S
5
2.5
2.5
7.5
2.5
III / I S
III / I S
III / I S
III / I S
III / I S
CFU
3
3
6
6
6
Year
I / II S
II / I S
II / II S
III / I S
University "Federico II" of NAPOLI

BME Courses
Principles of Bioengineering I
Principles of Bioengineering II
Biomedical Data and Signals Processing
Organisation and Automation of the Health
Services
Biomedical Technologies
Artificial Organs, Prosthesis and Rehabilitation
Technologies
Biomaterials I
Biomaterials II
6
6
6
6
6
II
III
page 17 of 21
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APPENDIX 2
Bioelectromagnetism
Installations and Systems in Hospitals
Cellular and Molecular Engineering
6
6
6
III
III
III
page 18 of 21
159
APPENDIX 2
BME Courses
Biomaterials
Biomechanics
Biomedical Signals and Models
Mechanics Bioengineering
CFU
6
6
6
6
6
Year
II / III T
III / I T
III / II T
III / II T
III / III T
CFU
5
5
5
5
5
6
5
5
5
5
5
Year
I / II S
II / I S
II / I S
II / II S
II / II S
II / II S
III / I S
III / I S
III / I S
III / I S
III / II S
CFU
12
12
12
Year
University of PAVIA
BME Courses
Bioengineering
Chemistry and Biomaterials
Medical Informatics
Hospital Informative Systems
Biomedical Data Processing
Biomechanics
Biomedical Signals Processing
Internet and Medicine
Biomedical Technologies
University of PISA
BME Courses
Electronics Bioengineering
Biomedical Measurements and
Organisation and Automation of the Health
Services
Medical Informatics
Chemistry and Chemistry Bioengineering
Mechanics Bioengineering
Biological Transport Phenomena
Biomaterials
6
6
12
12
6
6
page 19 of 21
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APPENDIX 2
University "La Sapienza" of ROMA

BME Courses
Hospital Systems
Biological Systems Models
CFU
6
6+4
training
5
5
10
Year
II
CFU
4
4
6
4
4
5
4
4
4
Year
II / II S
II / II S
II / II S
III / I S
III / I S
III / I S
III / I S
III / II S
III / II S
III / II S
4
5
4
4
III / II S
III / I S
III / II S
III / II S
III / II S
4
4
III / II S
III / I S
5
5
4
4
III / I S
III / I S
III / II S
III / II S
III / II S
BME Courses
Mechanics Bioengineering I
Electronics Bioengineering I
Technologies of the Biomaterials
Mechanics of the Fluids for Bioengineering
Mechanical Construction of Biomedical Devices
Chemistry Bioengineering
Electronics Bioengineering II
Mechanics Bioengineering II
Sensors for Bioengineering
or Microsystems for Medical Use
Support to Clinical Decision
or Classification and Interpretation of Biomedical
Data
Electronics Bioengineering III
Assisted Design of Biomechanical Structures
Mechanics Bioengineering P II
Sensors for Bioengineering
or Microsystems for Medical Use
Mechanics Bioengineering III A
or Mechanics Bioengineering III B
Bioimages
Management of Health Technologies
or Hospital Informative Networks
Medical Informatics
Hospital Systems
Mechanics Bioengineering P I
Support to Clinical Decision
or Classification and Interpretation of Biomedical
Data
Electronics Bioengineering P
page 20 of 21
APPENDIX 2
161
Legenda: in the field "Years", where specified, is indicated the year (I, II or III) where the module is
allocated and the corresponding Semester (S) or Trimester (T).
page 21 of 21
162
Status Reports on Biomedical Engineering: Latvia

1. National Society
Latvian Medical Engineering and Physics Society (LMEPS).
The LMEPS had been established in 1996. It has about 30 members.
Its main goals are:
The development of recommendations on education in the field of medical (biomedical)
engineering and physics;
Dissemination of information on the achievements in the field of medical (biomedical)
engineering and physics;
Education and training for professionals (medical engineering and physics)
The Society is a member of IFMBE and joined EFOMP.
The representatives of the Society are active at the Physica Medica Journal and the
European Scientific Institute.
The Society is closely co-operating with the International Agency on Atomic Energy, EC and
Latvian governmental organisations and medical societies.
2. BME Education
In Latvia, two universities are offering BME education/degrees.
An undergraduate BME programme, Medical Engineering and Medical Physics, is offered
by Riga Technical University. Its completion takes 3-4 years, the awarded degree is the BSc.
There are two graduate BME programmes in Latvia:
An MSc in Medical Engineering and Medical Physics can be obtained at Riga Technical
University; (it takes 2-1 year, up to the above BSc duration)
A 2 year MSC programme in Biomedical Optics is offered by the University of Latvia.
All programmes have been developed within the framework of the EC TEMPUS project and
are in accordance with the ECTS.
Medical engineering and medical physics programmes have been achieved at the
interdisciplinary level. The medical module is delivered by the Medical Academy of Latvia.
Additionally, the Faculties of Computer Science, Mechanical Engineering,
Telecommunications, and Economics contribute.
In addition to these programmes, Riga Technical University is delivering engineering
education (BSc+2 years or 4 years without BSc) and college-type education for medical
professionals (1.5 years) with continuation to engineering education (2.5 years).
The Biomedical Optics programme is interdisciplinary: the Faculties of Mathematics and
Physics, Medicine and Economics contribute.
Ph.D. programmes are offered by Riga Technical University and the University of Latvia in
dependence on the previous MSc education.
163
3. Training/Continuous Education
Training is delivered voluntary by Riga Technical University: Radiation safety and
protection in medicine.
This course is supervised by the Radiation Protection Centre of Latvia.
4. Certification/Accreditation
All above university programmes are accredited internationally.
5. Registration
There is no mandatory registration as Engineer, Euro Engineer or Chartered Engineer. Such
a procedure does not in power in Latvia for the BME field.
6. Appendix
The BME syllabi and courses are available from www.bimi.vip.lv , www.rtu.lv and
www.lu.lv
164
Status Reports on Biomedical Engineering in Norway

1. National Society:
The Norwegian Society for Biomedical Engineering has 320 members. Its goals are to
support the biomedical engineering activities in Norway, to give its members a network of
persons working/interested in the field and to organise courses and meetings.
It is a member of IFMBE.
2. BME Education
B.Sc. in Clinical Engineering (1 university college)
M.Sc. in Biomedical Engineering (2 universities)
Occasionally Ph.D. programmes.
3. Training/Continuous Education
Given by the employer / manufactures
4. Certification/Accreditation
Voluntary: Clinical Engineer MTF and Medical technicians MTF issued by the
society.
5. Registration
None
6. Appendix
Syllabi and courses in BME at universities offering BME degrees: On the
the universities, normally written in Norwegian only.
homepage of
165
Biomedical Engineering in Poland at the Beginning of XXI Century

Ewaryst Tkacz
Silesian University of Technology, Institute of Electronics, Division of Biomedical
Electronics, Gliwice, Poland
1. Brief historical background
The history of both medical physics and biomedical engineering development in
Poland is strongly connected with the history of the Radium Institute (currently Center of
Oncology) in Warsaw. That former institution was established in 1934 and the main
inspiration had come from a double Nobel Prize winner, Maria Skodowska-Curie. In 1936
professor Cezary Pawowski, the leader of the division of physics in the Radium Institute,
started first training courses incorporating subjects from the area of medical physics and
biomedical engineering. The regular courses on biomedical engineering at the academic level
were introduced in 1946 at the Warsaw University of Technology (Faculty of Electrical
Engineering) as a very first in the world (next to the similar courses at the University of
London). Professors: Pawowski, Keller and Nowosielski have introduced a multidisciplinary
direction of study named at that time medical electrotechniques. Students with basic
knowledge in electrical engineering were further trained in the following disciplines: medical
fundamentals, radiology, light therapy, Rtg devices and electromedical devices. During more
than 50 years of experience the system of biomedical engineering education was modified
many times with respect to both programme contents and some organisational aspects. In
1951 biomedical engineering was transferred into the newly established Faculty of
Communication which was 15 years later renamed into Faculty of Electronics. In 1970 an
additional discipline was established and named Medical Electronic Equipment, which after
several years was modified and renamed again into Biomedical Engineering. At the same time
three other universities of technology i.e. Gdask, Gliwice and Wrocaw introduced training
courses in Biomedical Engineering. Recently courses in Biomedical Engineering were also
introduced at polytechnics in Biaystok, Cracow and d especially directed into both
orthopaedic and prosthesis engineering. Currently, apart from normal regular academic
courses in Biomedical Engineering, some additional courses for graduated students as well as
Ph.D. students are organised. The later courses are mainly organised in association of
academic institutions such as universities of technology.
2. Research and development of BME

2.1. Introduction
The previous subchapter allows the conclusion that research in Biomedical
Engineering (BME) has a long tradition in Poland. However, due to very well know reasons
mainly political, many ideas, activities and possibilities were lost irreparably. A more ordered
approach to both research and education on BME started in 1972, when the Biocybernetics
and Biomedical Engineering Committee of the Polish Academy of Sciences was founded.
Earlier almost all of the research projects were initiated by members of the following
organisations: Polish Biophysics Society, Polish Biocybernetics Society and Polish Medical
Physics Society. Three years later, i.e. in 1975, the Institute of Biocybernetics and Biomedical
166
Engineering in Warsaw was established and directly after that took over the coordinating
position in country research projects from the BME area. At the beginning there were 58
research groups participating in these programmes and the main activity was focused on:
analysis and modelling of physiological systems with particular emphasis on the nervous
system, methods and measurement systems for medical diagnostics, artificial internal organs,
biomaterials, biomechanics and medical informatics. Research in these above mentioned areas
was continuously developed through 1980s. Altogether, at country level coordinated BME
programmes, 136 research groups participated during the period of 1986-1990. Growing
popularity of BME as a scientific discipline stimulated the organisation of the National
Conference on Biocybernetics and Biomedical Engineering. The first conference was held in
1975 and further conferences were organised biannually. There were 12 conferences
organised until now. In 1989-1990 the 6 volume monograph Problems in Biocybernetics and
Biomedical Engineering, edited by professor Maciej Nacz, was prepared by the above
mentioned groups participating in the previously listed research programmes. Currently the
second, enriched 9 volume edition of that monograph is under preparation and will be
published within the next two years.
In 1988 the International Centre of Biocybernetics (ICB) was organised with the aim
to arrange international conferences, seminars, symposia as well as training courses. These
meetings slowly converted themselves into an excellent opportunity for scientists from West
and East to meet and discuss. There were 32 seminars organised by the ICB, so far. Advances
in biocybernetics and biomedical engineering in Poland were recognised in other countries. In
1991 both the Institute and Centre were appointed as a Collaborating Centre of the World
Health Organisation (WHO) and were nominated for membership in the UNESCO Global
Network for Molecular and Cell Biology.
In 1991 a significant change in sponsorship of BME research was introduced. The
countrywide research programmes were cancelled and financing based upon direct support of
institutes and research grants was established. At the same time the State Scientific
Committee for Research was brought into existence.
2.2. Present organisational structure
At present the research in biomedical engineering is conducted in three self-reliant
institutions as well as in 35 other laboratories at the institutes of the Polish Academy of
Sciences, Medical Academies and Universities of Technologies. The research institution
incorporating most of the BME activity areas is the Institute of Biocybernetics and
Biomedical Engineering (IBBE) of the Polish Academy of Sciences (PAS) in Warsaw. The
IBBE employs at present about 150 persons including 30 senior researchers and its structure
consists of four departments and three research units:
Department of Biomeasurements and Biocontrol
Department of Bioflow
Department of Biomedical Information Processing Methods
Research Unit of Clinical and Experimental Bioengineering
Research Unit of Clinical Informatics
Research Unit of Rehabilitation Engineering and Biomechanics
The IBBE is the only institution in Poland entitled to grant both the Ph.D. and D.Sc.
degrees in the field of biocybernetics and biomedical engineering.
There are two industrial institutions dealing with BME in Poland. First is the Institute of
Medical Technology and Equipment in Zabrze and the second one is the Medical Engineering
Centre in Warsaw.
2
167
Among the numbers of smaller research centres working in the area of biomedical
engineering, some have already a long tradition and play an important role in the development
of BME in Poland. Most of these centres are localized directly at the universities of
technology institutes, departments or divisions and their missions cover both BME education
and research. The main BME education and research centres are the following:
Warsaw University of Technology; Faculty of Mechatronics, Institute of Fine and
Biomedical Engineering, Institute of Nuclear and Biomedical Electronics prof.
T. Pako, prof. G. Pawlicki, prof. A. Pitkowski
Silesian University of Technology in Gliwice; Faculty of Automatic Control and
Computer Science, Institute of Electronics, Division of Biomedical Electronics
prof. J. ski, prof. E. Pitka, prof. E. Tkacz
Centre for Bioengineering in Gliwice; an institution coordinating collaboration
between University of Silesia, Silesian Medical Academy and Silesian University
of Technology prof. J. Marciniak
Technical University of Gdask; Department of Medical and Ecological
Electronics prof. A. Nowakowski
Technical University of Wrocaw; Department of Automatics and Electronics
prof. M. Kurzyski, prof. R. Bdziski
Mining and Metallurgy Academy; Department of Automatics, Electronics and
Electrical Engineering prof. R. Tadeusiewicz
Technical University of Szczecin prof. H. Mikosza
Foundation of Cardiac Surgery Development in Zabrze prof. Z. Religa
The total number of researchers working actively full or part time in the field of
biomedical engineering in Poland can be estimated at a little more than 1000 persons
including about 70 professors and 150 Ph.D.s. The important inspiriting role in both planning
and coordination of research in the whole country plays the Committee of Biocybernetics and
Biomedical Engineering PAS, Polish Society of Medical Physics and Polish Society of
Also there are some Polish journals devoted to publish achievements in this field of
research, namely: Biocybernetics and Biomedical Engineering and ICB Lecture Notes, both
in English, as well as several others published in Polish such as Medical Physics and
Engineering, Technical Problems in Medicine, Polymers in Medicine and scientific booklets
named Works of IBBE PAS.
3. Common BME teaching programme at Polish academic institutions
Biomedical Engineering teaching programmes slightly differ from one academic
institution to another (see Appendix 1). However, it is not difficult to notice that the most
important subjects and courses taking into account the specificity of Biomedical Engineering
education are quite similar. In general one may say that to start BME education it is necessary
to gather a basic knowledge covering many scientific disciplines, with a special emphasis
placed on the medical sciences. The explanations of this well known fact are the general
features, which characterise the biomedical systems. Among many features possible to
enumerate, the most important is that a biomedical system can easily be damaged during
experiments. Therefore, pure technical disciplines applied in the biomedical engineering
courses must be specially adopted in a way that they fit the requirements resulting from the
specificity of biomedical systems.
4. Conclusion
168
The current status of Biomedical Engineering in Poland fortunately is not fixed or

established, but it permanently develops into the right direction. This is a process which is
impossible to restrain, especially taking into account a worldwide science development,
change of political conditions and in the background of those former two, the fact that Poland
will very soon join the European Community.
169
P L A N OF S T U D Y for ELECTRONICS & TELECOMMUNICATION
II level study (M.Sc. degree)
speciality: Biomedical Electronics
Hours
Name of Course
Training courses in particular semesters (number of teaching hours per week)
including
sem 7
sem 8
sem 9
ECTS
Total
COMMON AND
1 INDIVIDUALLY CHOSEN
COURSES
2
MEDICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
720
375 135
Lab
210
C Lab P
14 4
L
3E
30
sem 10
ECTS
C Lab P
3
45
45
3 PATTERN RECOGNITION
75
30
30
15
4 BIONICS
60
30
30
ECTS
L
16
C Lab P
2
ECTS
L
10
C Lab P
0
ELECTROMEDICAL
MEASUREMENTS
45
15
30
RTG AND RADIATION

DEVICES
60
30
30
7 ARTIFICIAL ORGANS
30
30
BASICS OF
8 ENGINEERING
KNOWLEDGE
45
30
15
75
30
30
15
45
30
15
30
30
405
45
MEDICAL INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
10 BIOCYBERNETICS
11
CARDIOLOGICAL
DIAGNOSIS SYSTEMS
TOTAL
1230
630 150
NUMBER OF HOURS PER WEEK

NUMBER OF EXAMS
NUMBER OF OTHER COURSES
14 4
25
30
11 3
10 1
25
30
13 2
25
3
E
30
3
2
3E
3E
4E
EGZ. DYPL.
170
NATIONAL SOCIETY OF MEDICAL ENGINEERING

AND BIOLOGICAL TECHNOLOGY
Technical University of Cluj-Napoca
Medical Engineering Center
Str. George Baritiu Nr. 25, room 167
3400 Cluj-Napoca, ROMANIA
Tel/Fax: +40 (0)64 194548
Biomedical Engineering Education in Romania

Professor Radu V. CIUPA
Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Radu.Ciupa@et.utcluj.ro
1. INTRODUCTION
The modern techniques and apparatuses used in medical care institutions require qualified
assistance for many operations and procedures: correct technical installation and utilisation,
extension of standard performances, maintenance, etc. At the same time, the companies and
research institutes specialised in research, design, manufacturing and the marketing of medical
care technique (mainly electric products) are interested in a highly trained, multidisciplinary
qualified personnel.
Biomedical engineering is an interdisciplinary domain where all engineering and
technological sciences merge into solving the problems that arise in Biology and Medicine. All
activity sectors benefit from the recent, fast growing engineering technology: modern medical
hardware is produced and utilised with technical engineering assistance; modern, highly accurate
investigation methods through visualisation and measurements demand specialised, modern
instrumentation; modern therapy calls for assistance in adapting and individualising the
treatment schemes prior to their application, etc.
On a national scale, in hospitals, research services, educational institutions, technical medical
schools, or technical assistance and governmental organisms for medical instrumentation
regulations and specifications, there is a major need for biomedical engineering specialists. To
respond to this demand, consistent educational programmes in biomedical engineering are
needed.
An educational curriculum in biomedical electrical engineering is interdisciplinary,
concerned with both engineering and medical sciences. A recent survey of the current trends and
effectiveness of the educational process towards career oriented goals shows that the biomedical
engineering professional education has to rely on the modern engineering curricula, yet to be
focused on specific aspects of biomedical engineering. This approach corresponds also to the
national goal of integration in the European academic and career-related policies and structures.
An important role is played by the Romanian Society of Medical Engineering and Biological
Technology both in the promotion of biomedical engineering in Romania and in the education
and training of the individuals engaged in biomedical engineering and science.
2. THE NATIONAL SOCIETY
The NATIONAL SOCIETY OF MEDICAL ENGINEERING AND BIOLOGICAL
TECHNOLOGY was established on June 2nd 2000, when 49 founders were present, and was
legally recorded on March 30th 2001.
The NSMEBT is an independent scientific organisation with an interdisciplinary background,
aiming at promoting the co-operation, research, application of know-how and dissemination of
171
information related to the utilisation of modern technology in the field of medical, clinical and
biological engineering. Some of its objectives and aims are:
To participate in the development and promotion of biomedical engineering in Romania,
To take part in the co-ordination of activities concerning the professional upgrading of
engineers and technicians working in biomedical engineering,
To organise national and international conferences,
To be involved in improving the curricula for the training and education of the interested
parties,
To act as consultant for the establishment of laws, regulations and standards or norms
with reference to biomedical engineering,
To generate and disseminate valuable field-related information to other partners in the
technical, medical and biological community.
Our Society has organised an international conference (in June 2000) and a national
conference up to the present. Preparations have been made in view of publishing a scientific
journal, as an answer to the national level requirements expressed in the domain of biomedical
engineering.
The serious commitment of our Society to education is also shown by the fact that the
majority of its members are university staff; other members work in research institutes, hospitals,
clinics, health care departments, and private companies trading medical equipment or offering
service for the equipment. However, we are certain that there still are a number of people with
significant concern or activity in medical engineering and biological technology who have not
signed up (yet) to become members of our Society.
Another thing to be admitted is the fact that besides our Society there are other organisations
or societies that are involved in fields more or less related to biomedical engineering.
3. BME EDUCATION, TRAINING AND ACCREDITATION IN ROMANIA
3.1 Education.
BME education in Romania has been developed both at undergraduate-short-cycle (3 years),
and graduate-long-cycle (5 years) as well as postgraduate level (1-2 years). The position of
biomedical engineer was not included in the Romanian job list up to March 2001; at that date the
profession was officially included in the job list so that the status of the graduates should
improve and a larger number of applicants should be met in the future.
3.1.1 Undergraduate Bachelor Degree.
The Bachelors Degree is awarded after three years of college education, in what we call shortcycle. The undergraduates are qualified as higher-educated technicians. Their job descriptions
show that they are dedicated to practical work on biomedical equipment, to repair, build,
maintain and operate the equipment as described by specific medical-related situations and cases.
This type of education operates within several universities in Romania:
1. The Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, the Technical College (Medical Engineering)
2. The Politehnica University of Timisoara, the Technical College (Medical Engineering)
3. The University of Oradea (Medical Engineering)
Details of the curricula are given in Appendix 1.
3.1.2 Graduate Masters Degree
The graduate Masters Degree is conferred after five years of study (long-cycle); at present the
curricula and syllabi are varied and diverse, although their basic principle consists in having a
common-core education in the first and second year (possible, third too); in the majority of cases
such courses belong to the electrical engineering field. During the last years of study (the third,
fourth and fifth), elective courses are offered in packages (modules) for more specialisation in
the domain of medical engineering. This form of education is developed now in the following
universities in Romania:
1. The Technical University of Cluj-Napoca,
2. The Politehnica University of Timisoara,
2
172
3. The Politehnica University of Bucharest,

4. The University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Iasi.
More details are presented in Appendix 2.
3.1.3 Postgraduate Masters Degree
This kind of degree is awarded 1 year after graduating (sometimes 2-year long courses, but in
other field than biomedical engineering). The degree courses are addressed to graduates of five
year courses, whose qualification is that of engineers (or physicists, or doctors). The only
Romanian University to offer such a course is the Politehnica University of Bucharest. It
should be mentioned, however, that about 20 Romanian students have attended the postgraduate
programme in BME held at the University of Patras (Greece), in the interval 1995-1999; their
attendance is due to the partnership of the Cluj-Napoca, Timisoara and Bucharest Technical
Universities with the University of Patras.
3.1.4 PhD Degree
The PhD is a research degree, generally extended over the duration of four years. Normally, only
graduates who have already got a Masters degree are permitted to attend PhD courses. But at
present there are no teams, departments or universities to organise PhD courses in BME. PhD
candidates are enrolled to function in the competence field of the supervisors-university
professors. Annually, quite a significant number of dissertations are focused upon biomedical
engineering topics. Unfortunately, with us the records do not specify the narrow field or topic of
the PhD dissertation; only large domains are mentioned, such as engineering: mechanical,
electrical, etc. or humanistic: literature, languages, etc.
3.2 Training
No coherent training system for postgraduate study organised to confer professional
competencies in BME exists. Updating and upgrading courses, refreshing courses or the like are
mainly organised by universities not in the framework of a well-defined time-table, but
following the demand of a group or institution. This situation originates in the relatively small
number of experts, the official absence of the position of biomedical engineer (up to March
2001) as well as in the socially and economically unfavourable state of Romania during the last
decade. We regard the National Society of Medical Engineering and Biological Technology as a
body which is responsible for taking over the main role in establishing an Act on Training in
Health Care on a legal basis.
3.3 Accreditation of Education
According to the Romanian legislation, accreditation is performed by state authorities (normally
accreditation boards of corresponding ministries) and not by professional organisations. These
organisations may supply their recommendations, views and proposals.
All degrees and study programmes must be accredited by the Ministry of Education and
Research (through the National Council for Academic Assessment and Accreditation). Otherwise
the university is not allowed to award the degrees (this is valid for both state and private
universities).
For the practice in health care, the degrees and study programmes are accredited by the Ministry
of Health of Romania. All degrees are accredited by evaluating the degree content in the light of
the syllabus. The academic staff, their expertise and the infrastructure available within the
university are also considered.
The qualification level for engineers working in health care is presented in chapter 3.1
Appendix 1
3
173
TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF CLUJ-NAPOCA

The Technical and Administration College
Specialisation: Medical Engineering
The duration of the courses is 6 semesters, out of which, in the sixth semester, students do field
work and practical application in hospitals, clinics, production companies, companies for service,
repair, installation of medical equipment and write their graduation paper. Each of the 6
semesters lasts 14 weeks and each ends in a session of exams.
The table below presents a list of subjects with the number of classes allotted per week in the
respective year of study:
Course title
Mathematics
Physics
Computer Programming I,II
Physiology
Electricity in Medicine. Biophysics
Introduction to Biomedical Engineering
Biomedical Amplifiers
Sensors and Transducers
Biomechanics
Electrical, Hydraulic and Pneumatic
Systems
Data acquisition and Teletransmission
Biosignals Processing
Management
Prosthesis and Rehabilitation
Radiological Devices
Nr. hours/week
10
4
4+5
4
5
3
6
5
4
4
Year of study
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
5
5
6
3
5
4
3
3
3
3
3
3
Appendix 2
TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF CLUJ-NAPOCA

Specialisation: Biomedical Engineering
After common-core courses for three years, students can opt for packages of elective courses,
according to their specialisation. It should be mentioned that college (3-year course) graduates
can continue their studies on the condition that they passed some exams to supplement their
college diploma with their long-term educational purpose of 5-year courses. These exams are
necessary as there are no identical subjects during the first three years of study for the graduates
of the long- and short-term education.
Individual BME Courses:
Medical Informatics
Bioelectromagnetics
Modelling of Biomedical Systems
Image Processing and Analysis
Medical Electronics
Expert Systems in Medical Diagnostics
It is necessary to pass all courses mentioned above for obtaining a certificate on BME study.
Moreover, it is necessary to pass the BME Diploma Thesis.
4
174
GR.T.POPA UNIVERSITY OF MEDICINE AND PHARMACY - IASI

FACULTY OF MEDICAL BIOENGINEERING
EDUCATION, TRAINING AND ACCREDITATION
Founded in 1994 at Gr.T.Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy in accordance with

the governmental resolution H. G. 568/ 1995, 360 / 1997 and having 4 specialities:
BIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES AND MEDICAL BIOTECHNOLOGY

BIOMATERIALS AND PROSTHETIC TECHNOLOGY
BIOINSTRUMENTS AND MEDICAL TECHNIQUE
BIOINFORMATICS AND HEALTH CARE MANAGEMENT
The Faculty of Medical Bioengineering is one of the first such institutions in Central and
Eastern Europe
The Faculty of Medical Bioengineering has an undergraduate enrolment of 459 students and
45 students at post-graduate studies.
Education
University degree programmes in medical or biomedical engineering at both the undergraduate
and the postgraduate level are provided in Gr.T.Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy.
The training programme for undergraduate level has been developed based on an
interdisciplinary curriculum. The curriculum has 2 cycles.
Cycle I (terms 1-5) trains the students in fundamental sciences belonging to the biological, exact,
informational and technical domains; the training is completed by the inclusion of a humanities
programme.
Basic biological interdisciplinary science: they are included in integrated modules, focusing
on Molecular, Cellular and Tissue Biology, in order to prepare the students for the phase during
which they study the applications of technical sciences in the field of medicine:
a) a general presentation of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Genetics, Histology, Biochemistry,
Biophysics, Physiology, Microbiology, Immunology and Biometrology
b) a systematic approach to Anatomy, Histology, Biochemistry, Biophysics, Physiology,
Bioinstruments and Function Testing.
- Exact Sciences: Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry. The inclusion of these subjects in the Ist
cycle is seen as a means to prepare the students for the IInd cycle during which the applied
sciences will be studied within the framework of the 4 specialities.
- Informatics: Basic Informatics, Multimedia Informatics and Theory of Systems. The study
of these disciplines will allow the students to successfully approach Medical Informatics, Health
Care Informatics, System Analysis and CAD, during the IInd educational cycle.
- Applied Biotechnical Sciences: Science and Technology of Materials and Biomaterials,
Technical Design and Computer Graphics. The knowledge thus acquired will permit the students
to better understand Biomaterials, Biomechanics, Prosthetic Technology, Bioinstruments and
Medical Technique.
- Humanities: Modern languages (which help the students gain access to specialist
information and participate in the communication process going on in the scientific
community), Philosophical and Functional Anthropology (contributing to the development of
a holistic vision of the human body as a complex bio-system), Physical Education and
Kinesiology (assisting in the understanding of the concept of human locomotion).
Cycle II (term 6 through 12) introduces the students to clinical science, applied sciences
selected according to the requirements of the 4 specialities:
5
175
Bioactive Substances and Medical Biotechnology;

Biomaterials and Prosthetic Technology;
Bioinstruments and Medical Technique;
Bioinformatics and Health Care Management.
It is worth mentioning that the contents and the objectives of the second cycle are
compatible with the Bioengineering programmes devised by European and American
educational institutions active in the same domain.
The structure of the curriculum, its contents and coherent succession of disciplines and
modules expose the students to an adequate theoretical and practical input, according to the
specificity of each of the 4 specialities.
In order to give the students the best opportunities, the practical activities are scheduled
to take place not only in the industrial and administrative environments but also in hospital or
health centre laboratories, medical and surgical wards and in public health institutions. The
purpose of the practical training is the acquisition of technical and managerial skills in
accordance with the specificity of various work places such as laboratories, pharmacies, plants
specialised in the production of drugs, biomaterials, biomedical research equipment, diagnostic
and therapeutic equipment, information processing hardware and managerial departments in the
health care system. Beginning with the second cycle the students are encouraged to participate in
research activities and to present and publish the results of their endeavour.
In order to graduate the faculty, the students have to take and pass a series of
examinations, one of which consists in the presentation of an original paper or of a project,
produced under the guidance of our specialists.
Bachelor Degree
The graduate is awarded the Bachelor of Medical Bioengineering (BMB) degree and thus
he becomes a MEDICAL BIOENGINEER specialised in one of the 4 domains he chose at the
beginning of the second study cycle.
Master Degree
Master degree Medical Bioengineering education (one year) has been organised in Gr.T.Popa
University of Medicine and Pharmacy for the following specialities:
- Systems of monitoring and telemedicine
- Progresses in the fields of the bioactive synthesis substances
- The biomechanics of the orthopaedic prosthetic systems
- Health care management
Training
BIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES AND MEDICAL BIOTECHNOLOGY
The current application of biotechnology in medicine impinges upon many important
health issues, changing the way in which diagnosis, treatment and pathology are understood.
The following domains can benefit from the contribution of biotechnology: the production of
drugs and vaccines used in the treatment of various disorders such as cancer, multiple sclerosis,
AIDS, obesity, heart conditions, etc; the possibility to use enzymes as prostheses or their
administration as iv injections, the production of antibiotics, vitamins, biosensors (etc); the
biotechnology of biological processes under sterile conditions involving the creation of tests
meant to help the physician reach an exact diagnosis soon enough, so that the disease could be
treated in an early stage.
BIOMATERIALS AND PROSTHETIC TECHNOLOGY
Biological molecules such as proteins and complex sugars are often used as structural
elements in plastic surgery.
176
Biomaterials are used to create an interface between the tissues of the human body and the
materials used for implants and prostheses. The implantable materials include alloys, ceramics,
polymers and mixed material.
Biomaterials have to possess certain characteristics: they should not be toxic and carcinogenic;
also they should be chemically inert and stable and they are expected to show a high endurance
over a long period of time so that the necessity to change them should occur very infrequently.
The production of prostheses and artificial organs implies a good knowledge of biomechanics,
including the study of the motion of various organs and cells, the deformation of materials and
the circulation of blood as well as other substances within the body.
An interesting type of activity within the domain is medical rehabilitation. In this case, the
specialist can engage in the production of customised prosthetic devices, adapted to the needs of
each patient.
BIOINSTRUMENTS AND MEDICAL TECHNIQUE
The bioinstruments represent an application of advanced electronics and of measurement
principles and techniques to the field of medicine in order to establish a diagnosis, and also, with
respect to carrying out certain therapeutic procedures (e.g. medical investigations based on
imaging).
In this context, the specialist as part of the health care team is responsible for the development of
the computer data bases, the recording of the biosignals and the use of sophisticated medical
equipment.
The specialist may also work, alongside with the physician, on the adaptation of the medical
equipment to the specific needs of the doctor or to those of the hospital. This could often involve
the development of an interface between the equipment and the computerised systems as well as
the creation of specialised software employed in the control of the equipment and in the analysis
of the recorded data.
BIOINFORMATICS AND HEALTH CARE MANAGEMENT
Computer modelling is used in the data analysis and in the mathematical description of
physiological phenomena.
In research, models are mainly used in order to initiate new experiments.
Application domains: monitoring the reactions of the body during surgery, intensive care or
under unusual conditions; the development of decision making strategies for clinical situations
using expert systems and artificial intelligence; processing biological signals and performing
image analysis; the computerised simulations of the function of the human body; the analysis
and the classification of medical and biological methods and technologies.
Health Care Management comprises many types of activities such as: the analysis of the
relations cost effectiveness and cost income in connection with the evaluation of health care
programmes; the economic evaluation of biomedical research; the assessment of the influence of
environmental hazards and mortality upon health status and health indices; other issues to deal
with could include: health insurance, biostatistics, health care policy and the choice of applicable
reforms.
Accreditation of Education and Training
According to Romanian legislation, accreditation is performed by state authorities after the 3rd
series of graduated students. In 2002 the University of Medicine and Pharmacy from Iasi has to
apply for final accreditation.
In 2001 the new profession named Medical Bioengineer was inserted into the Romanian
Classification of Jobs
THE ELECTRICAL BIOMEDICAL EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMME AT THE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
POLITEHNICA UNIVERSITY OF BUCHAREST
7
177
The Electrical Engineering Department at POLITEHNICA University of Bucharest initiated,

in 1994, an optional electrical engineering educational programme aimed at specialising the
undergraduate students in the final years (fourth and fifth), in the area of:
electro-physiological (natural and stimulated) phenomena,
electrical and electronic measurements in medical diagnosis and therapy,
electrical drives and equipment used in medicine.
The programme was concerned with orienting students' and graduates' interest and knowledge to
applied electrical engineering in medicine, that means:
approaching and understanding electro-physiological phenomena from the engineering

perspective,
using their major specialisation based on classic electromagnetic theory and applications,
adjusting to the specific medical environment (basic knowledge, concepts and
vocabulary, healthcare needs and priorities, specific technologies and instrumentation,
etc.).
The growing interest in electrical biomedical engineering motivated us into undertaking the
challenges arising from the re-orientation of the educational curriculum that was offered by the
Department of Electrical Engineering at POLITEHNICA University of Bucharest. Currently, a
major educational grant by the National Council for Higher Education (CNFIS) sustains our
efforts of profiling and substantiating what is thought to be a consistent curriculum in electrical
biomedical engineering.
The CNFIS project for the biomedical educational programme.
The objectives of the CNFIS project are both quantitative and qualitative, and the financial
support that it provides is directed mainly to developing experimental and computational
laboratories, to acquiring informative and educational materials (books, periodicals, multimedia
software, etc.).
A better orientation of the specific disciplines (Biophysics and Biochemistry,
Bioelectromagnetism, Medical Instrumentation and Measurements, Modelling in Biology and
Medicine, Drives and Electric Equipment in Medicine) is a major concern of the programme,
and it implies both a sustained textbook publishing activity and the creation of a modern,
exciting and stimulating environment for teaching and learning.
On a broader scale, the current project is also contributing to reducing the disparity in
education that exists in this area, with a regional educational impact on the interdisciplinary
academic co-operation, and on graduates training and career-related orientation.
The educational goals and means of the project are within the limits of the regulations and
policies that are formulated by the Ministry of Education and Research and by POLITEHNICA
University. The strategic objectives of the proposed project are:
Students professional, career-related orientation, aimed at explaining the biomedical

engineering curriculum, the career-related options, better information for the selection of
their major field of study, the understanding of biomedical electrical engineering as a
discipline, professional goals and possible careers.
The re-evaluation of the educational curriculum focused on the electives for the IIIrd
Vth years of studies, the optionals for the Ist IIIrd years of studies, and on the
integration of research into the educational curriculum.
The balance between the professional specialisation that is offered and the labour market
demand (both biomedical and classical electrical engineering related positions).
The main components to approaching these objectives are:
A. The Educational component (re-evaluation of the educational programme, its focus on
biomedical electrical engineering).
8
178
B. The Research component (integration of research into the educational curriculum);

C. The Infrastructure component (acquisition of adequate laboratory and computational
hardware and software, publications, etc.).
D. The Informative component (labour market trends; technical database; academic
exchanges aimed at learning the educational experience of other universities interested
in implementing similar programmes).
The First Phase of the project (1999) was exploratory. It was aimed at a global modernisation
of the present educational curriculum in biomedical engineering with focus on the IIIrd year of
studies. It also helped defining the main tracks of action towards an in-depth change of the
educational programme for all years of study, which is the final objective of the major
programme.
The Second Phase (2000) is concerned with assisting the IVth year of studies
The Third Phase (2001) that concludes the project addresses the educational programme for
the Vth year of studies.
The system of transferable credits to be finalized in the near future at PUB will
significantly contribute to the individualization of the educational programme that is needed in
defining a consistent, modern interdisciplinary educational offer.
The PROGRAMME Main Phases and Key

Phase I
Phase II
Phase III
Educationa
A 1. Biomedical classes update
A 2. The educational programme for the IV-V
years of studies the technical component
A 3. The educational programme the nontechnical component
A 4. Extra-curricular lectures
A 5. Practical practice at affiliated institutions
A 6. Other means and ways of modernising the
educational programmes
Researc
B 1. Own research
B 2. The undergraduate/graduate research
integration within the educational process
B 3. Other means and ways to developing the
interdisciplinary research
Infrastructure
C 1. Publications and related materials
C 2. Hardware/software and multimedia
C 3. Hardware/software and multimedia
for laboratory works and research
Own efforts
Information
D 1. Job market survey
D 2. Technical data base
D 3. Exchanges / expertise
1999
2000
2001
179
Biomedical Engineering in the Slovak Republic

Milan Tyler, Institute of Measurement Science, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava
Peter Kneppo, Faculty of Mechatronics, University of Trenn,
Duan imk, Jozef ivk, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Koice
Klra pov, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of ilina
1. Introduction
Biomedical Engineering in the Slovak Republic has quite a long tradition. The first undergraduate
educational programme in the former Czechoslovakia started at the Technical University of Brno in
1967. But already in 1971, an educational programme for medical electronics has been established
at the Slovak Technical University in Bratislava. In the late sixties, research in this area also began
in the Institute of Measurement Science of the Slovak Academy of Sciences and the development of
medical electronics was established in the former main medical electronics company Chirana in
Star Tur. In the eighties and nineties, biomedical engineering courses started at other universities
and nowadays undergraduate biomedical engineering courses are taught at three major universities
in Slovakia: in Koice, ilina and in Bratislava. Besides these undergraduate programmes,
postgraduate courses in co-operation between universities and the Slovak Academy of Sciences
have been organised since the eighties. Since 1969 biomedical engineers also have their own
professional organisation - the Society of Biomedical Engineering and Medical Informatics, which
is organised as one of the societies belonging to the Slovak Medical Association. Since the
beginning it closely co-operated with the Czech Society for Biomedical Engineering and Medical
Informatics and they alternated in organising common biannual biomedical engineering congresses.
2. National Society
The Society of Biomedical Engineering was established in 1969 as one of the professional societies
belonging to the Slovak Medical Association. It was founded by a group of medical engineers,
biophysicists and medical doctors from universities, research and development as well as industrial
institutions, but clinical engineers and doctors also joined. In 1996 it was transformed into the
Society of Biomedical Engineering and Medical Informatics and two working sections, Biomedical
Engineering and Medical Informatics, were established. Since its origin, the society is active mainly
in the scientific and educational fields, but recently legislative activities became more and more
important too in connection with the economic and health care system transformation in the
country. The Society is involved mainly in following activities:
- organisation of national and international congresses, conferences, seminars and workshops in
biomedical engineering and medical informatics,
- publishing activities, the Society is a co-publisher of the journal "Lka a technika" published in
Czech and Slovak languages by the Czech Society as the main publisher,
- co-operation with state institutions in preparation of new legislative regulations, which is
important in connection with the approximation of Slovak legislative to the legislative of the
EU.
In 2002 the society has over 30 active members participating in most Society activities. Another
more than 40 BME specialists co-operate with the Society on an informal basis. Most of the
members are from universities and research institutions, some of them are clinical engineers and
practising medical doctors. The Society is the official representative of the Slovak biomedical
engineering and medical informatics community in the International Federation for Medical and
Biological Engineering (IFMBE) and International Medical Informatics Association (IMIA).
180
3. Biomedical Engineering Education, Training and Accreditation in Slovakia

3.1. Education
Slovak universities have the right to render the university education and an exclusive right to grant
titles and academic titles to graduates of the university study. The universities also have the right to
execute scientific training in the form of doctoral study and an exclusive right to grant scientific
academic degrees.
Undergraduate study
At present Biomedical Engineering in Slovakia is organised as an interdisciplinary study with fixed
or flexible curriculum. Undergraduate BME courses are organised at three technical universities: at
the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University in Koice (FME TU), at the Faculty
of Electrical Engineering, University of ilina (EF UZ) and at the Faculty of Electrical Engineering
and Informatics, Slovak Technical University in Bratislava (FEI STU). Currently, at all universities
biomedical engineering is a Master degree study only. Bachelor study has only a short tradition in
Slovakia and is not introduced at all universities yet. However, current changes lead to an
approximation to European universities, so the Bachelor degree in BME might be possible in the
future.
At FME TU specialised BME courses are taught in the 4th and 5th year of the study and the
students graduate as mechanical engineers specialised in Biomedical Engineering. At EF UZ the
students are specialised from the beginning of the study, however, some courses are common with
other specialisations. The students graduate as electrical engineers specialised in Biomedical
Engineering. At FEI STU optional courses of medical electronics are taught in the 4th and 5th year
of the study, students graduate as electrical engineers specialised in Radioelectronics.
Postgraduate study
The PhD study is the highest type of University study in Slovakia. The goal of the PhD study is to
prepare a candidate for individual creative scientific activity. Besides the above mentioned
universities the Slovak Academy of Sciences as an external scientific and educational institution
also has the right to organise postgraduate study. The Institute of Measurement Science (IMS) is
one of the institutes of the Slovak Academy of Sciences, which has been authorised by the Ministry
of Education to guarantee the postgraduate PhD study in the following scientific specialisations:
39-71-9
Measurement Science
39-52-9
Bionics and Biomechanics
The standard duration of the study is 3 years and a student who successfully finishes the study
obtains the PhD (Philosophiae Doctor) degree.
The training residencies of the Bionics and Biomechanics postgraduate study, which is the currently
possible official specialisation for BME students, are the Institute of Measurement Science in
Bratislava and the Mechanical Engineering Faculty at the Technical University of Koice, which
only has rights to award the PhD degree in Bionics and Biomechanics after approval by the
Scientific board of the Faculty. Both training residencies are responsible for all the educational
processes for all postgraduate students accepted for study at the residency. The common
examination commission for thesis defence consists of members from several universities and
institutes of the Slovak Academy of Sciences.
The whole process of the postgraduate study in Bionics and Biomechanics is controlled by the
Joined Scientific Board (JSB) situated in the Institute of Measurement Science. Members of the
board are Scientists from the Institute of Measurement Sciences, the Technical University of
181
Koice, the Slovak Technical University in Bratislava and the Medical Faculty of the Comenius
University in Bratislava. The Bionics and Biomechanics PhD postgraduate study is designated for
students with MSc. graduation or with an MD degree. Possible languages of study are Slovak or
English.
3.2. Training
In general, no special training is required for biomedical engineers at present. In some hospitals
attestations similar to those passed by medical doctors are required for BME engineers who come
into contact with patients. They usually have to pass some courses at the Postgraduate Academy of
Medicine, including subjects on health care technologies and medical informatics.
3.3. Accreditation
According to Slovak legislation accreditation of education is performed by state authorities, namely
by the Accreditation Commission of the Ministry of Education of the Slovak Republic. Currently
only the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University in Koice and the Faculty of
Electrical Engineering, University of ilina have accreditation for education in biomedical
engineering. Only the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University in Koice currently has the
right for habilitation of docents and inauguration of professors of biomedical engineering in
Slovakia.
182
Appendix
Biomedical Engineering at the Technical University of Koice
Biomedical engineering study at the Technical University of Koice was initiated in 1987 by the
main producer of medical devices in the former Czechoslovakia - CHIRANA company in Star
Tur. Instrumental engineering was the background for that programme. It meant basic level of
knowledge on the subjects medical equipment design, system design, operation control and field
service of instruments. The extra package of subjects was oriented on special medical knowledge. It
was expected that these engineers would work in design and development of medical devices, in
medical systems projecting and in the clinical engineering field at medical facilities.
Theoretical fundaments are common for all students at the Mechanical Engineering Faculty. They
take the first three years of study. In next the two years, students can choose Biomedical
Engineering (current name) as their specialisation. It is a branch accredited by the Ministry of
education of the Slovak Republic. The current courses of Biomedical Engineering include of
following subjects:
a) obligatory:
Biomedical Engineering I, II
Measurement, Monitoring and Control
Biomechanics
Medical Electronics
Anatomy and Physiology Fundamentals
Biomechanisms
Dependability and Safety of Instruments

Components and Modules of Medical Instruments
Ergonomic and Kinesiologic Measurements
Medical Apparatuses I, II
Medical Systems Design
Human Engineering
b) elective:
4 th year
Biophysics
Biocybernetics
Biomeasurement
Sensors and Transducers
Mechatronics
Electrical Actuators
Precision Mechanics
Biomaterials and Biotolerance
5 th year
Medical Products Design
Rehabilitation Devices
Surgical Technology
Diagnostics and Therapy in Orthopaedics
Maintenance and Diagnostics of Medical Instruments
Small Business
Foreign Language
Physical Training
During last two years students also solve two semestral projects and a Diploma project, which are
mostly parts of research or practical tasks for clinical field.
Diploma projects orientation and numbers during period 1992 - 1999
Diploma project themes
Numbers
Rehabilitation
35
Measurement
22
Medical informatics
6
Stomatology
6
Others
27
183
PhD postgraduate study of Bionics and Biomechanics

The general orientation of the Bionics and Biomechanics specialisation is as follows:
- biomedical engineering,
- automated measuring and monitoring systems,
- imaging methods and image processing
- modelling of biological objects and structures,
- sensoric systems,
- neural networks,
- artificial intelligence,
- biomechanics,
- biometrics.
In accordance with the Bionics and Biomechanics main orientation, the postgraduate student must
pass a qualifying examination (exam from 2-3 subjects based on selected thesis themes).
One subject is from the group of a general character like selected parts of physics or mathematics,
theoretical electrical engineering and others.
Two subjects should be from the group of specialised areas like there are modelling, simulation and
control in physiology; biomechanics; bio-cybernetics and biocontrol; rehabilitation engineering.
Research in the field of BME
BME research at the university is oriented mainly in the following activities:
- medical manipulation systems,
- rehabilitation systems,
- exercise and diagnostic machines for motion system treatment,
- sensors for clinical applications.
184
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of ilina

The University of Zilina was established in 1953 as the University of Railway Transport in Prague.
In 1959 the institution changed its name to University of Transport and moved to Zilina. In 1980
the name was amended to University of Transport and Communications and
after wide-ranging changes at the beginning of the nineties, it was renamed to University of Zilina
pursuant to the law passed by the Slovak National Council on November 20, 1996.
Interdisciplinary study of Biomedical Engineering was prepared as a result of an international
Tempus/Phare programme of the EU "Applied informatics in biomedicine and medical
engineering" in the years 1996-1999 with participation of 4 universities from EU countries and 6
Slovak university and research institutions.
The study started in 1999 and in 2000 the university obtained accreditation from the Ministry of
education of the Slovak Republic to graduate students in the study branch Biomedical engineering.
The interdisciplinary BME study is organised in co-operation with Jesenius Medical faculty,
Comenius University in Martin. It takes five years and students graduate with the Universitys basic
engineers degree (corresponding to MSc. degree). The students are specialised from the beginning
of the study but some general courses are common with other study branches. The curriculum of the
courses is selected such that the students should obtain not only theoretical technological
knowledge but also knowledge of selected medical disciplines.
Study subjects of Biomedical Engineering branch at the EF UZ
Algebra and Geometry
Mathematical Analysis 1, 2
Introduction to Engineering
Physics 1, 2
Basic Chemistry
Basics of Electromagnetic Compatibility
Basic Human Anatomy and Histology 1, 2
Seminar of Physics
Basic Biochemistry
Algorithms
Medical Biology
Seminar of Theoretical Electricity 1, 2, 3
Medical Biophysics
Probability and Statistics
Sensors and Measuring Methods in Biomedicine
Numerical and Discrete Mathematics
Radiation and Protection from Radiation
Simulation Languages
Basic Physiology and Pathological Physiology 1,2 Wave Processes
Digital Image Processing
Quality Management
Computer Modelling of Biosystems
Introduction to Physics
Diagnostic and Therapeutic Methods 1, 2
Structural Programming in C
Modelling of Real Processes
Theory of Circuits
Basic Medical Bionics
Complex Quality Management
Biostatistics
Physical Basis of Optoelectronics
Electrical Measurements
Logical Circuits
Information Systems in Biomedicine
Digital Signal Processing 1, 2
Tomographic Diagnostic Methods
Database Systems
Radiology and Nuclear Medicine
Audio and Video Basics
Bioethics and Medical Ethics
Transport Media
Management of Health Care Services
Transportation Technology
Seminar of Mathematics
Data networks
Computers Basics
Neural Networks
Materials for Electrical Engineering
Microelectronic Systems
Electrotechnology
Digital Sound Processing
High Programming Languages
Analogue Circuits
Functions of Complex Variable and Integral Psychology and Sociology
Transformations
Theoretical Electricity 1, 2, 3
Services of Computer Networks
Theory of Information
Electronics 1, 2
Theory of Signals and Systems
185
Gymnastics
Foreign Language - English
Foreign Language - German
Professional English
Professional German
Research in the BME field

The university has established contacts with many universities in Slovakia and abroad. Professors
and researchers at the university participate in international educational and research projects.
These include the European Union projects TEMPUS, COPERNICUS, COST, SOCRATES
ERASMUS, LEONARDO and, since 1994, the university has included the programme CEEPUS
for collaboration with other universities in Central and Eastern Europe. The academic staff is
actively involved in co-operation within the EU 5th Framework programme.
186
Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Informatics, Slovak Technical University, Bratislava

The study of electrical engineering at the Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Informatics, Slovak
Technical University, Bratislava, takes 5 and a half years, with the Bachelor degree study taking 4
years and Master degree study 1 and a half years. Within the Department of Radioelectronics, the
educational programme of medical electronics started in 1971 as the first in the Slovak part of
Czechoslovakia. This specialisation is maintained until today and 6 special courses are taught for
students oriented to medical electronics:
subject
Biophysics
Sensors of Biosignals
Medical Devices
Digital Image Processing
Dignostics in Medicine
Biosignal Processing
semester
7
7
8
9
10
10
The students graduate as Electrical Engineers (MSc.) with specialisation in Radioelectronics.
187
Institute of Measurement Science, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava

Students interested in biomedical engineering can also pass postgraduate courses at the Institute of
Measurement Science, Slovak Academy of Sciences in Bratislava. The Institute is the seat of the
Joined Scientific Board (JSB) for Postgraduate Study in Bionics and Biomechanics and offers 3
years of study on selected topics. The students are graduated as PhDs (Philosophiae Doctor) at the
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Koice. Students of Measurement
Science graduate as PhDs (Philosophiae Doctor) at the Faculty of Electrical Engineering and
Informatics of the Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava. Possible languages of study are
Slovak or English.
Requirements for the study are:
- MSc graduation certificate,
- Acquirement of integrated theoretical knowledge and mastering of scientific research methods,
- Qualifying examination after the first year of study including an exam from 3 subjects based on
the selected thesis theme and defence of a tractate (introduction) of the dissertation,
- Dissertation defence at the end of the study.
Postgraduate study of Bionics and Biomechanics is oriented towards the exploitation of knowledge
of biological processes for solving problems of medical electronics, automated medical monitoring
systems, medical imaging, modelling and simulation of biological objects and structures, medical
sensor systems, neuronal networks and biomechanics.
Depending on the theme of the dissertation, a selection of following subjects has to be studied:
general subjects
Selected Parts of Mathematics,
Selected Parts of Physics,
Theoretical Electricity,
Theory of Information and Signals,
Theory of Electromagnetic Field,
Probability and Mathematical Statistics
special subjects
Biophysics
Basic Physiology
Normal Anatomy, Histology and Embryology
Biochemistry
Modelling, Simulations and Control in Physiology
Biotechnology
Electrical Measuring Methods, Sensors and Devices
Imaging Methods and Systems
Digital Image and Speech Processing
Biosignal Processing and Analysis
Medical Electronics
Biomechanics and Biomechanisms
Biocybernetics and Biocontrol
Biomaterials
Biomedical Optics
Biological Effects of Electromagnetic Fields
Medical Informatics
Artificial Intelligence
Applied Mechanics
Rehabilitation Engineering
Safety of Medical Devices
Postgraduate study of Measurement Science is oriented to measuring methods in Biology and
medicine, presumes a deep knowledge of mathematics and physics, enabling original solutions of
188
problems of measurement science in biology and medicine based on the latest technologies,
computing methods and informatics
Depending on the theme of the dissertation, a selection of following subjects has to be studied:
Selected Parts of Mathematics
Selected Parts of Physics
Measurement Theory
Measuring Devices and Systems
189
Biomedical Engineering in Slovenia

D. Miklavcic, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Ljubljana,
Slovenia
1. Introduction
Biomedical Engineering in Slovenia is a scientific discipline with rich tradition and a
number of excellent research groups. It is well recognised and relatively well funded
on a national level. Many of these research groups have also participated in European
research programmes like BIOMED and 5th PCRD. In spite of all efforts so far
Biomedical Engineering as a professional discipline is not recognised.
The development of biomedical engineering in Slovenia started four decades ago with
the research work of Professor Lojze Vodovnik on functional electrical stimulation.
He was able to join efforts of medical doctors and engineers to work on problems
related to rehabilitation of disabled patients. His enthusiasm and vision motivated
many researchers throughout Slovenia. A number of new research groups were
formed, and an educational programme of biomedical engineering was introduced at
the Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Ljubljana. He was also one of the
founding members of the then Yugoslavian Society for Medical and Biological
Engineering. After the fall of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, the Slovenian
Society for Medical and Biological Engineering was established and is now the
member of the IFMBE.
The only society joining various individuals working actively in the area of
biomedical engineering and those interested in it is the Slovenian Society for Medical
and Biological Engineering which has a stable membership of about 100 members.
The vast majority of members is coming from the University of Ljubljana and is
actively involved in research. An important number of members is coming from
hospitals and other medical institutions. The main activities of the Society are
publishing of the Newsletter four times per year and organising various national and
international scientific meetings. Three years ago a section for Clinical Engineering
was formed with the aim to join all engineers working in medical institutions. Since
their work is not well respected in hospitals they joined our Society in order to have
an organisational structure allowing them to improve their work and cohesion. The
majority of the members, however, are not active in the Society. The activities are
strongly supported by researchers from the Faculty of Electrical Engineering. All the
work and activities are performed on a voluntary basis. The Society has an excellent
co-operation with the Croatian society CROMBES and good relationships with other
national societies, e.g. Slovenian Biophysical Society and its section for Medical
Physics.
3. Education
3.1. Undergraduate programme
As a part of the university level electrical engineering programme, Biomedical
Engineering is available to students at the University of Ljubljana. The duration of the
electrical engineering university programme available is four and a half years and an
additional half year for the preparation of diploma work. Students can choose to
enter Biomedical Engineering courses after the third year. On average 10 students are
enrolled in this sub-programme every year. Many of them continue their studies after
graduation for a Masters degree and Ph.D. and work in research.
In a very short time we expect the restructuring and reorganisation of undergraduate
programmes in the light of Bologna declaration.
3.2. Postgraduate programme
After graduation students can choose various courses offered by the University of
Ljubljana. Some of the courses also cover different topics and areas of Biomedical
Engineering. The choice of courses is variable and students are free to choose.
No dedicated programme of Biomedical Engineering that would lead to the degree of
Biomedical Engineer is available in Slovenia. In introducing Biomedical Engineering
courses on the undergraduate and postgraduate levels, and throughout many
reforms of higher education, the choice was made not to offer a special degree in
Biomedical Engineering, due to low professional recognition and employment
opportunities for biomedical engineers. This is the case for all specialities in
Electrical Engineering and this way, the employment opportunities at least formally
are not restricted.
There is no formal accreditation of either Clinical or Biomedical Engineers in
Slovenia.
Appendix
Undergraduate Programme of Biomedical Engineering at the University of
Ljubljana, Faculty of Electrical Engineering.
The Faculty of Electrical Engineering offers a five-year university programme (nine
semesters of lectures and six months of Diploma thesis work), which leads to the
degree University Dipl. Eng. of Electrical Engineering. The entry requirement for
this programme is the national secondary school baccalaureate. Graduates from this
programme can continue with M.S. and Ph.D. study.
190
191
1st year
Common
curriculum
2nd year
Common
curriculum
Automatic
Control
3rd year
4th year
5th year
PA
IS
RO CM
PA
IS
RO CM
Electronics
Telecommunications
Power Eng.
PS
ST
CT
DIPLOMA THESIS
PA - Process Automation
IS - Intelligent Systems
RO - Robotics
CM - Cybernetics in Medicine
PS - Power Systems
ST - System Technology
CT - Construction
Technology
The undergraduate programme of electrical engineering has a general core-curriculum

in the first two years which consists of mathematics, physics, fundamentals of
electrical engineering and computer engineering. After the second year students
choose one of the fields of studies (Automatic Control, Electronics,
Telecommunications or Power Engineering). Students choosing the Automatic
Control field of studies can choose Biomedical Engineering (which in fact is called
Cybernetics in Medicine, due to historical reasons) after the third year.
The following courses form the Biomedical Engineering programme:
4th year:
Medical Informatics and Diagnostics
Biocybernetics (covering basic biochemistry, biological evolution, cell biology,
human physiology, molecular genetics, theory of chaos, therapeutic application of
electrical currents in medicine, ...)
Bioelectromagnetic Phenomena (covering volume conductor theory, health risk
effects of electromagnetic fields, ...)
5th year:
Biomedical Signal Processing
Biomechanics
Neurocybernetics (covering basic neurophysiology and functional electrical
stimulation)
The study programmes of the Faculty of Electrical Engineering are registered
with the European Federation of National Engineering Associations (FEANI)
and meet the criteria for the title EUR ING.
Biomedical Engineering Education in Spain

Laura M. Roa (1) and Enrique J. Gmez (2)
(1)
Biomedical Engineering Group, University of Seville
(2)
Biomedical Engineering and Telemedicine Research Centre, Technical University of
Madrid
1. Introduction
Biomedical engineering activities in Spain started 25 years ago around several research
groups located at Barcelona, Madrid, Valencia and Seville universities and hospitals.
Teaching activities were initiated in the 80s in universities of those main cities. Since then
many other universities have created undergraduate and postgraduate educational
programmes in biomedical engineering.
Nowadays more than 60 undergraduate courses in biomedical engineering are offered by 8
Spanish universities. They are listed in Appendix 1. The number of research centres is even
bigger, growing up to 20, showing the more intense activity in research rather than in
education in Spain. A non-exhaustive list of some of the most important research centres is
included in Appendix 2.
The BME education scenario in Spain will change in the next months after the official
approval of a new degree on Biomedical Engineering. This second-cycle degree is a clear
recognition of the current relevance of the biomedical engineering field in Spain. This
degree is being developed by several universities in response to the growing demand of the
Spanish society to incorporate biomedical engineers into the industrial, university and
health sectors.

The first BME National Society named Asociacin Espaola de Bioingeniera (Spanish
Association of Bioengineering) was created by a small group of BME researchers at the
beginning of the 70s. This society has evolved during the last years to the current Spanish
Society of Biomedical Engineering (SEIB Sociedad Espaola de Ingeniera
Biomdica). The SEIBs main goal is to promote and support the research and education
activities of professionals, researchers and students that work in the Biomedical
Engineering field in Spain. This society belongs to the International Federation of Medical
and Biomedical Engineering.
192
Nowadays the SEIB has 150 members working in many BME areas such as bioelectronics,
modelling of physiological systems, telemedicine, biosignal processing, medical imaging,
biomechanics, etc.
The SEIB has fostered many scientific conferences and activities having the responsibility
for the organisation of its Annual Conference and an International Symposium on
Biomedical Engineering held every four years.
3. BME Education, Training and Accreditation in Spain
3.1 Education
Undergraduate courses
BME undergraduate courses are not provided in a homogeneous way by Spanish
universities. Most universities are offering these courses as elective subjects under
engineering degrees such as Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering.
Postgraduate courses
Postgraduate studies are mainly pursued at the Doctoral level. The PhD is a research degree
(normally of 3 years duration) comprising courses and research work. This situation is
currently changing due to the last Spanish Doctoral Law that allows universities to offer a
Third-Cycle Degree after students overcome the PhD courses and before getting the PhD
degree.
Other activities
Many other training and education seminars are organised by research groups in specific
BME areas.
3.2 Training
Biomedical engineers in Spain are not undergoing training activities in addition to their
education.
3.3 Accreditation
In Spain, there are neither established procedures nor criteria for BME accreditation.
3.4 The new degree: Biomedical Engineering
193
This degree arose from a joint effort of several BME educational and research groups from
five Spanish universities (Barcelona, Madrid, Seville, Valencia and Zaragoza). The degree
is already officially approved and will be developed and set up in the next years.
It is a Second Cycle degree (4 and 5 course of Engineering Degree) consisting of a
minimum of 120 hours of lectures. The mandatory subjects constitute a minimum of 75
hours of lectures including subjects such as Medical Foundations of BME, Bioelectronics,
Bioinstrumentation, Biomedical Signals and Images, Biomaterial and Biomechanics,
Physiological Modelling and Simulation, Medical Decision Support Systems, Information
Technologies and Communications in Medicine, Clinical Engineering and Health Care
Models.
The elective subjects are organised around three main specialities:
Bioelectronics and Biomedical Instrumentation
Information Technologies and Communications in Medicine
Biomechanics and Rehabilitation Engineering
194
Appendix 1 List of Biomedical Engineering Courses in Spain
Technical University of Catalonia

Degrees
Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering
PhD Programme in Biomedical Engineering
Master Programme in Bioengineering
Medical instrumentation
Engineering in medicine
Postgraduate courses (PhD)
Bioelectric signals acquisition systems
Frequency analysis of biomedical signals
Bioelectrical signal processing
Multivariante analysis of biomedical data
Nonlinear modelling of biomedical systems
Biomedical image processing by fuzzy techniques
Electrical safety in the electronic design
Interaction of electromagnetic fields and biological systems
Electromagnetic compatibility
Biomechanics
Robotics in medicine
Postgraduate courses (Master)
Introduction to biomedical engineering
Therapeutic devices
Clinical engineering
Hospital safety
Biomedical signals and images processing
Statistical analysis of biomedical data
Analysis and modelling of biomedical systems
Biomechanics
Biomaterials
Technical University of Cartagena
195
Degrees
Control and Industrial Electronics Engineering
PhD Programme in Robotics Vision and Biomedical Engineering
Biosignal instrumentation
Postgraduate courses (PhD)
Biomedical engineering
Technical University of Madrid
Degrees
Telecommunications Engineering (Biomedical Engineering Speciality, comprising six
BME subjects)
PhD in Telecommunications Engineering (including Biomedical Engineering)
Undergraduate Courses (Biomedical Engineering Speciality)
Foundations of biomedical engineering
Biomedical signal processing and medical imaging
Telemedicine
Neurosensorial engineering
Lab. of telemedicine
Lab. of biomedical signal processing and medical imaging
Postgraduate courses (PhD programme)
Telemedicine
Medical imaging
Biomedical sensors and instrumentation
Medical decision-support systems
Postgraduate courses (Master)
Information technologies in medicine
Telemedicine and information systems for physicians
New information technologies for nurses
Information processing in hospitals
Medical imaging
Information technologies for managers
Technical University of Valencia

Degrees
Electronics, Automatics and Telecommunications Engineering
Informatics Engineering
PhD in Bioengineering and Instrumentation
196
Bioelectronics (Telecommunications Engineering)

Bioelectronics (Automatics and Electronics Engineering)
Biomedical signals and images
Bioinformatics

Amplification of bioelectric signals
Bioelectronics. bioelectric signals
Biosensors
Modelling of bioelectric systems (I)
Modelling of bioelectric systems (II)
Electromagnetic compatibility: shielding and grounding
Signal acquisition
Biosignal processing techniques
Low level signal acquisition and processing. Application to bioengineering
Analysis and diagnostic techniques applied to biological signals.
University of A Corua
Degrees
Licenciated in Informatics
Medical Informatics
University of Sevilla
Degrees
Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering
University of Valencia
Degrees
Electronics Engineering
197
University of Vigo
Degrees
Telecommunications Engineering
Foundations of biomedical engineering
Biomedical signal processing
University of Zaragoza
Degrees
Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering
Design of electromedical devices
Neural networks for modelling and simulation
Electrical implants for in vivo physiological data acquisition
Rehabilitation
Surgery simulators for training
Home automation for elderly and handicapped
Universidad Nacional de Educacin a Distancia (UNED)
Postgraduate courses
Biomedical techniques and instrumentation
198
Appendix 2 List of Biomedical Engineering Research Centres
Technical University of Catalonia

Biomedical Engineering Research Centre (CREB)
The CREB research network is comprised by five divisions:
Biomaterials and biomechanics
Instrumentation, sensors and interfaces group
Biomedical signals and systems
Robotics and vision
Dosimetry and ionising radiation
Its working areas are:
Bioimpedance measurements: impedance tomography and spectroscopy
Biosignal acquisition, processing and analysis
Physiological monitoring by non-invasive measurements
Diagnostic, therapeutic and preventive systems
Implants and biomaterials
Technologies for the handicapped
Applications of radiation to medicine
Technical University of Cartagena

Medical and Industrial Electronics Group (EIMED)
Medical equipment innovation,
Technical aids for handicapped people
Elderly care services
Evaluation of cognitive and functional skills
Technical University of Madrid

Biomedical Engineering and Telemedicine Research Centre (GBT)
The GBT R&D centre has two research laboratories:
Telemedicine
Medical Imaging.
Research on telemedicine applications
Data mining
199
Intelligent monitoring and decision support systems

Home care technology, systems and services
Medical image processing and visualisation
Surgery simulators for laparoscopic surgery
Biomedical Image Technology Group (BIT)

Analysis of quantitative and functional studies: cardiac and cerebral activity
Automatic analysis of optical microscopy images
Magnetic resonance acquisition techniques
Technical University of Valencia

Bioengineering Net Centre (BNT)
The BNT research network spreads over eight divisions:
Bioengineering, Electronics and Telemedicine Group
Centre of Biomaterials
Centre of Research and Innovation on Bioengineering (ci2b)
High Performance Networking Computation Group
Institute of Biomechanics of Valencia
Integrated Laboratory of Bioengineering (LIB)
Laboratory of Computer Medical Imaging
Medical-Physics Engineering of Ionising Radiations Group
Centre of Research and Innovation on Bioengineering (ci2b)
This centre comprises the following research groups:
Bioelectronics and Medical Instrumentation Group
Advanced Graphics Applications Group
Inmunotechnology Group
Integrated Laboratory of Bioenginering (LIB)
This laboratory comprises the following sections:
Bioelectronics and Biosensors
Immunoassays and Monoclonal Antibodies Production Unit
Biomaterials
Biomechanics
Bioelectronics
Medical instrumentation
Medical images
Surgery assistance
Information and communication technologies in medicine
Bio-analysis
200
Radio-physics
University of A Corua
Laboratory for Research and Development in Artificial Intelligence (LIDIA)
Medical applications of expert systems
Intelligent patient monitoring and management
Medical informatics
Representation of temporal knowledge in biomedical domains
University of Navarra (Public University)

Medical Applications of Radiofrequencies and Microwaves Group
Treatment of cancer by hyperthermia
Treatment of cardiac arrhythmia by catheter ablation
University of Sevilla
Biomedical Engineering Research Group
Modelling and simulation of physiological systems
Integration of information technologies and communications in biomedical systems
Bioelectromagnetism
University of Valencia
Digital Signal Processing Group (GPDS)
Medical diagnosis aid and support systems
University of Zaragoza
BioEngineering Research Group of the University of Zaragoza (BERGUZ)
The BERGUZ research group spreads over four divisions:
Group of Structural Mechanics
Group of Biomaterials
Group of Medical Signal Processing
Electromedical Instrumentation Group
201

Constitutive behaviour of bone and biological soft tissues
Finite element analysis of fractured bones and implants
Applications of shape memory alloys in medicine
UHMWPE in total joint replacements
Medical signal processing
Design of electromedical devices
Modelling and simulation of neural networks
Hospital Universitario Puerto de Hierro (Facultad Medicina Universidad Autnoma

de Madrid)
Bioengineering and Telemedicine Laboratory
Medical imaging processing
Teleradiology
Out-of-hospital follow-up and monitoring
Instituto de Salud Carlos III

Dept. of Research on Telemedicine and Information Society
Telemedicine
202
203
Biomedical Engineering in Sweden

Swedish Society for Medical Engineering and Medical Physics
Edited by Olof Lindahl
Ume University, Sweden
INTRODUCTION
Biomedical Engineering (BME) in Sweden is a scientific as well as a professional discipline

with a long Swedish history. There are several larger academic centres in Sweden that offer
education in the field of BME, e.g. Linkping University, Chalmers University in
Gothenburg, and also in Stockholm, Lund, Malm and Ume. Those universities also have
Ph.D.- programmes in BME. There are also BME-programmes at universities in Uppsala,
Mlardalen, rebro, Bors etc. The Swedish Society for Medical Engineering and Medical
Physics gives courses and has a self-accreditation system for professionals in BME and there
are several other organisations in Sweden that are engaged in giving courses and creating
networks for BME professionals, e.g. SLF (for BME-companies), Kanalen MT, SEMKO etc.
BME has been a scientific discipline in Sweden since 1950 when the first Swedish professor,
Henry Wallman, introduced it as a subject at Chalmers University. Today there are more than
20 professorships in BME at Swedish universities. The Swedish society has members from
BME industry, universities, and hospitals and from other organisations with connections to
BME. Sweden has a very good reputation concerning development of new companies from
BME ideas and several organisations are involved in that business, usually commissioned by
the Swedish government.
2
The National Society
The Swedish Society for Medical Engineering and Medical Physics (MTF) is working in the
fields of medical physics, biomedical engineering and biophysics. The society was first
founded in 1956 and it was called at that time "The Swedish Society for Medical Physics and
Medical Engineering". The society was also affiliated to the Royal Swedish Society of
Medicine in 1956 and hence, MTF is one of the oldest sections of it. In the beginning the
members of MTF had technological, medical or scientific backgrounds and their main interest
was in the fields of research and higher education. In 1971 a subdivision, "The Division of
Engineering in Health Care" was founded to meet the demands, not only from the persons
who were working in clinical engineering at the hospitals and engineers from industry
manufacturing biomedical equipment, but also from the medical doctors working with
biomedical equipment in their everyday life. Since the activities of these two groups within
the main society served the same purpose, the annual meetings 1981 decided that the groups
should join together and establish a mutual society with the present name.
The society started to act in the new form in 1982 and today has about 1000 members. Most
of the members, about 70%, are working with service and maintenance of medical equipment,
but also taking a part in development and research projects, especially in the larger hospitals.
About 10% of the members are employed by universities and therefore involved with
education of graduate students in biomedical engineering. However, even the clinical
engineers at the hospitals give education to nurses and other health care staff in biomedical
1
204
and clinical engineering. Almost all of the members employed by universities work with own
research projects in several fields of biomedical engineering. In Sweden there is a great
number of companies, which are working with biomedical engineering. Some are small and
others larger, but only 14% of the MTF members are employed by these companies. Very
often these members have a past within the clinical engineering departments at the hospitals,
but they might also have been student members.
The goals of MTF are
to support and encourage the scientific development and education within the areas of
interest
to arrange seminars and meetings on current topics. - to work for clinical engineering in
health care, that is well adapted to its purpose and is of high quality
to work for the exchange of experience and co-operation between the members
to work actively for increased competence and educational level of the clinical staff
concerned and for increased safety for the patients and personnel
the society acts actively in standardisation of Medical devices and equipment through
members who are working in several national and international standardisation
committees and it acts as a body to which proposed standards and official reports are
referred for consideration.
3
EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND ACCREDITATION
3.1
Education
There are university degrees in BME on the levels of 120 and 180 ECTS engineering
programmes as well as on the MSc level. Furthermore there are Ph.D.-programmes at the
larger universities. The foundation of all those programmes is traditional engineering
education with more or less courses in medicine and BME. For more details see Appendix 1.
3.2
Courses and training
MTF arranges several post graduate courses during each term. Some of these courses are
recurrent like "Medicine for Engineers" and some are arranged only once, often required by
new laws and regulations or new technologies, but also the members can propose topics for a
course. The members at their hospitals or at the local universities organise most of the
courses. Often the lecturers come from the same organisation, a fact that will hold the costs of
the course low. As an example of recent courses can be mentioned "Respiratory Physiology",
"Ultrasound Technology" and "Legal Consequences of the Responsibility for the Medical
Equipment in Health Care". The next course that will be arranged in April is the above
mentioned "Medicine for Engineers" and already in May there will be arranged a course in
"EMC-Electromagnetic Compatibility of Electromedical Systems". The courses are a very
important source of income for the society.
The Society also organises different national meetings and symposia. One appreciated
meeting has been the "Biomedical Engineering Day", during which special technologies have
been presented and discussed. In the past there have been topics like laser technology,
biomagnetism and thermo therapy. In the beginning of April NUTEK, the Swedish National
2
205
Board for Industrial and Technical Development, arranges a two day meeting on biomedical
engineering research. During these two days several research projects will be presented. The
projects are from areas as biocompatibility, medical image analysis and minimal invasive
medical technology. MTF's programme deals with actual issues in clinical engineering, for
example Quality Assurance (QA), Quality Audit and accreditation of hospital laboratories.
MTF has also arranged a larger meeting in QA a few years ago in order to elucidate the
specific issues of the QA in biomedical and clinical engineering. This meeting can bee seen as
a starting point for the co-operation with the Medical Quality Council. This council was
established in 1992 and its aim is to work with QA in medical practice. However, MTF has its
own Quality Committee, which works at the moment for consensus of how to measure quality
in the field of clinical engineering.
The Annual Meeting of the society is held in Stockholm in late November or in early
December in connection to the Annual conference of the Royal Swedish Society of Medicine.
This conference is a four-day arrangement with oral and poster sessions and the largest
medical fair in Sweden. At the MTF annual meeting the society awards some person who has
achieved distinguished research work in biomedical engineering or medical physics. The
amount of this award, the Erna Ebeling prize, has been slightly more than SEK30000 during
the last few years. In connection to the Annual Meeting a session is arranged with
presentation of scientific papers and technical reports from a variety of biomedical fields.
Following topics have been covered recently: construction of ectomographic gamma camera
system, optical transillumination for mammography with non ionising radiation, X-ray
radiography using laser produced plasma, spectral analysis of heart rate variability, estimation
of leakage flow through heart valves, hyperthermal treatment and decision support in
respiratory treatment. Sometimes even symposia are arranged to cover more thoroughly topics
of interest, for example a symposia with the title "Economic control and clinical engineering for or against a cost effective health care system".
There are also other organisations in Sweden that give courses in the area of BME, e.g.:
3.3
SLY, Swedish organisation/network for BME-companies.

Kanalen MT, gives BME courses.
SEMKO, gives courses and is specialised on MDD and CE-marking
Certification/Accreditation by MTF
There is no actual government approved accreditation from BME professionals in Sweden.

However, the Annual MTF Meeting approved in 1993 a proposal according to which
members have the possibility to apply for Certification in Clinical or Biomedical Engineering
and this process was started in September 1994. The aim of this procedure is to provide for:
1. the patient's demands of controlled and safe medical equipment
2. the health care system's needs of well-defined competence
3. the individual engineer that the health care system makes the best use of his competence.
Each application to become a Certified Clinical or Biomedical Engineer will be assessed by
an Accreditation Panel. This panel will place considerable emphasis on checking that the
candidate has not only the formal education, but also a competence, which is well in
accordance with the aims of this procedure. Last year 115 members applied for certification
3
206
and 75 of them were certified. In the first occasion for 1995 to apply for certification more
than 100 members have send their applications.
4.
4.1
ACTIVITIES IN THE FIELD OF STANDARDISATION AND CONTACTS

WITH AUTHORITIES
HSS, the Swedish Health Care Standards Institution, represents Sweden in ISO and CEN in
matters dealing with standardisation of equipment, material and use of equipment and
material in health care and medical services. HSS has the purpose to look after the field of
standardisation together with Swedish experts to pursue the Swedish interests in the
international standardisation work. A number of technical committees and working groups are
working within HSS for the purpose to work out proposals for Swedish standards and to
review the proposals for international standards. MTF is represented in these committees and
working groups, e.g. in TK62, which is the national counterpart of the IEC TC62. In this way
the society takes part in the European and international standardisation work. MTF is also
included in the group of reviewing organisations so that even a larger number of society
members can judge the proposals. It is not only the HSS, which organises the standardisation
work in Sweden. SEK, the Swedish Electrical Committee, has a working group that works
with the Electromedical equipment. In this group the society is also represented. The society
has good relations to the Ministry of Health and Social Affairs and to the National Board of
Health and Welfare, which makes it possible to discuss important matters of the fields of
activity with key-persons. These authorities use the society as a reviewing organisation when
new laws and ordinances that affect the fields of biomedical and clinical engineering or
medical physics are to be established. In judging accidents or near accidents the National
Board of Health and Welfare often consults the society with its expertise. However, it is
important that this type of events is reported so those colleagues will be informed of them. It
will be discussed within the society how to improve the flow of information and how it can be
made more accessible.
4.2
International activities
The engagement of MTF in international co-operation is formalised through the International
Federation for Medical and Biological Engineering. However, several research institutes have
contacts with other organisations and institutes. In 1967 the society arranged a World
Congress on Biomedical Engineering in Stockholm and applied for the 1997 World Congress.
But at the Kyoto meeting 1991 the application was withdrawn and MTF did offer full cooperation for Nice'97.
MTF has hosted the Nordic Meeting in Biomedical Engineering twice, 1981 and 1993. This
meeting has the status of an IFMBE regional meeting. The 9th Nordic Meeting on Medical
and Biological Engineering, was arranged in June 13 16, 1993 in Lund. 236 participants from
24 different countries attended this meeting. During the three conference days 36 scientific
sessions were held and each day two special lectures were given. The special lectures covered
laser technology, MRI, nuclear medicine, ultrasound and biosensors. In addition two of the
lectures were about the Lund University Hospital and the WHO University in Malm. The
organisers worked very hard to make it possible for the colleagues from the Baltic countries to
attend the conference and they succeeded well. Thus several new and important contacts were
made during the conference. The representatives from the Baltic countries had also a
4
207
possibility to describe for the IFMBE National Secretaries Committee the situation in the field
of biomedical and clinical engineering in their countries. After the Lund meeting a biomedical
engineering society was founded in Estonia and even in Lithuania and Latvia work is done to
establish societies. This positive development in the Baltic countries is reflected by the new
name that was adopted for the Nordic Meeting in Tampere, Finland in 1996 - "The 10th
Nordic Baltic Meeting". The Swedish society is also taking part in this arrangement, both in
the Organising Committee and the Scientific Committee.
208
Appendix 1
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION IN SWEDEN
(Source MEDTECH info 1/2000)
Bachelor of Science in Biomedical Engineering
University/
College
Linkping
Institute
Technology
University
Mlardalen
of College of Bors University
College,
Vsters
Electro-engineer Electro-engineer
Bachelor
of Electrotechnics
in specialising
in specialising
in
Science
in specialising
Biomedical
Biomedical
Biomedical
Engineering,
Engineering
Engineering.
Engineering.
180 ECTS
Advanced
May
be
masters course, supplemented
starts in 2002
with one years
studies
ECTS 22,5
ECTS
Courses
in Comprehensive 15
courses during Medicine
for Biomedical
Biomedical
terms 4-6
Technicians and engineering
in
Engineering
Cell Biology in the third year
the second year.
Comprehensive
courses whereof
15 ECTS are
optional courses
Mid
Sweden
University,
stersund
Electro-engineer
specialising
in
Biomedical
Engineering
Bachelor of Science in Specialised Biomedical Engineering

University/
College
Malm
University
Ume
University
Gllivare
Distance
Education
via
Ume
University
in B.Sc.
in B.Sc.
in
Bachelor of B.Sc.
Engineering
Biomedical
Science
in Medical
Engineering.
Engineering, Visual Studies with
Biomedical
Individual
180 ECTS
Engineering
programme
profile
which started
in 1999
Mlardalen
University
College,
Vsters
Sdertrn
University
College,
Stockholm
Industrial
Economy
specialising in
Biomedical
Engineering
Management
in Biomedical
Engineering,
Biomedical
Engineering
economist.
May
be
supplemented
with
one
Biomedical
Engineering
Orientation
209
years studies
Special
Emphasis on 30
ECTS 30
ECTS Note: This is
programme
X-ray, MRI, Biomedical
Biomedical
not a B.Sc.
including X- radiology etc. Engineering
Engineering, Programme of
ray,
45
ECTS of which 7,5 30
ECTS Engineering.
ultrasound,
Biomedical
ECTS
Business
90
ECTS
MRI
and Engineering
Radiology
Economy
Economy, 48
other imaging of which 22,5
ECTS
technology
ECTS
Biomedical
Radiology
Engineering,
42
ECTS
Applied
Physics
Master of Science in Biomedical Engineering

University/ Linkping
College
Institute of
Technolog
y
Master of
Science in
Engineerin
g,
270
ECTS
Courses in
Biomedical
engineerin
g
Chalmers
University
of
Technolog
y,
Gteborg
Technical
ElectroElectroPhysics and technology technology
Electrospecialising specialising
technology in
in Signals
with
Biomedical and
Biomedical Engineering Systems
Engineering
profile
Minimum
requirement
for
Biomedical
Engineering
profile
is
25,5 ECTS
Royal
Institute of
Technolog
y,
Stockholm
7,5 ECTS
foundation
course
in
Biomedical
Engineering
, 15 ECTS
specialisati
Lund
Ume
Institute of University
Technolog
y
Masters
Programme
of Electrotechnology
specialising
in
Biomedical
Engineering
, starting in
2002
6,75 ECTS 6
ECTS Comprehen Supplement
Medicine
Medicine
sive
ary course
for
for
advanced
for B.Sc. in
Technicians Technicians courses in Engineering
, 7,5 ECTS , 6 ECTS Radiology specialising
Medical
Medical
and
in
Electronics Measureme Medical
Biomedical
7
Technical
Physics
with special
emphasis
on
Biomedical
Engineering
Technical
Physics
with
Medical
Radiation
Physics
profile
University
College of
Bors
210
from
a on
in
broad
optional
selection of areas
3-9 ECTS
courses in
Medical
Technology
nt
Radiation
Techniques Physics
Engineering
.
Comprehen
sive courses
in Medical
Technology
as from the
third year.
Biomedical Engineering in Switzerland

Dieter Meier and Ralph Mller
Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University and ETH Zrich, Switzerland
1. INTRODUCTION
Biomedical Engineering in Switzerland is a scientific and professional discipline
with a wide range of career options. Teaching activities in Switzerland started in 1970
when a new Institute of Biomedical Engineering was integrated at the University of
Zrich and the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH, Technical University). The
integration of Biomedical Engineering at the Faculty of Medicine of the University and
within the Departments of Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Natural
Sciences at ETH was essential for the success of Biomedical Engineering within
Switzerland. Basic and applied research in the field of BME has played an increasingly
important role in Switzerland over the last decades. After the 1970s BME has also been
established at other Swiss universities and universities of applied sciences.
2. THE NATIONAL SOCIETY
The National Society, the Swiss Society of Biomedical Engineering (SSBE), was
founded in 1970 and is, today, well established at the Swiss universities and companies.
One of the goals of the Society is to build a network for education, research,
manufacturing and politics within the background of BME. With the organisation of
regular scientific meetings, all these fields are brought together. Annual scientific prices
stimulate also younger members to play an active role in the Society. One of the long
term plans of the Society are a stronger integration of small and large companies in the
SSBE and to become an important partner with respect to education in the different
universities and universities of applied sciences (UAS, Fachhochschulen) as well as the
various federal and state-based technology institutes. The field of Medical Physics is
separated from the activities of the Society and is represented by another national partner
society (Swiss Society of Radiobiology and Medical Physics). These two societies work
together very closely and have a long-standing tradition of organising common activities
such as yearly meetings and industry visits on a regular basis.
In 2001, SSBE included an active membership of 15 corporate members and 125
individual members. Most of the individual members work at the universities, the
universities of applied sciences, and the affiliated technology institutes. Other members
are engineers and physicians working at hospitals and in biomedical companies.
The Society represents the Swiss biomedical community in the International
Federation for Medical and Biological Engineering (IFMBE) and it is also a member of
other national and international societies such as the European Society for Engineering in
Medicine (ESEM), the International Union for Physical and Engineering Sciences in
Medicine (IUPESM), and the Swiss Academy of Engineering Sciences (SATW).
211
3. EDUCATION, TRAINING AND ACCREDITATION IN SWITZERLAND

3.1. Education
In Switzerland there are currently no degree courses in biomedical engineering at
the university level. Biomedical engineering is typically taught as part of other more
classical engineering disciplines such as electrical and mechanical engineering.
Currently, M.Sc. degrees in electrical and mechanical engineering are awarded with a
major in biomedical engineering. The largest educational programmes in biomedical
engineering can be found at the two Swiss Federal Institutes of Technology (ETH/EPF)
in Zrich and Lausanne where most of Switzerlands engineering degrees at the
university level are decreed. It is expected that in the future and with the introduction of
the Bachelor/Masters degrees at the university level as part of the Bologna declaration
there will also be specific graduate and undergraduate degree courses in biomedical
engineering. Additionally, Ph.D. degrees in biomedical engineering can be obtained from
ETH/EPF as well as the University of Bern Medical School as part of the universities
research programmes. The programme is open to national and international candidates
with a masters degree in engineering, physics, or similar qualification. Since the Ph.D.
programme in Switzerland has a strong research component, the project work can be
performed either directly at ETH/EPF or other accredited universities, affiliated
technology institutes, and various university hospitals as well as biomedical companies
with independent research departments. At the level of the universities of applied
sciences, there are several undergraduate degree courses in engineering with a
specialisation in biomedical engineering available such as the UAS Buchs and
Winterthur.
Additional information on the various degree courses in biomedical engineering in
Switzerland can be found at the following web pages:
http://www.ethz.ch/education/
http://www.epfl.ch/Eformation.html
http://www.ntb.ch/
http://www.zhwin.ch/
3.2. Training
Currently, the Society is not directly involved in continuous training of the
biomedical engineers in Switzerland except for the organisation of meetings and industry
visits for its members. Postgraduate training is also possible at ETH/EPF, where a twoyear course in Medical Physics has been offered since 1994. Besides the aspect of
Medical Physics this postgraduate course also includes tracks on biomedical engineering,
biomechanics, and tissue engineering and has always attracted physicists, engineers and
physicians alike. A postgraduate programme in Medicine, Technology and Management
can be found at the University of Applied Sciences Bern and a programme in Medical
212
Systems Engineering has been developed at the Interstate University of Applied Sciences
of Technology in Buchs.
Additional information on postgraduate training courses in biomedical engineering in
Switzerland can be found at the following web pages:
http://www.biomed.ee.ethz.ch/nds/
http://www.hta-be.bfh.ch/~wwwmed/
http://www.ntb.ch/WB/NDS-NDK/
3.3. Accreditation
As in most European countries, university accreditation in Switzerland is
performed by federal and state authorities. Nevertheless, the implementation of new
degree courses such as a Masters in Biomedical Engineering is currently in the hands of
the universities. With the implementation of a national body of accreditation and quality
control in education, this is likely to change in the future. The Swiss Society of
Biomedical Engineering is actively involved to help instrument new accreditation
procedures as well as new degree courses in Biomedical Engineering as a partner for
university leadership, members of parliament and government administration.
213
214
Biomedical Engineering in the Netherlands

Dick W Slaaf,
Eindhoven University of Technology
1. INTRODUCTION
In the Netherlands, Biomedical Engineering is covering various scientific and
professional disciplines with a variety of career possibilities. The Vereniging voor
Biofysica en Biomedische Technologie [The Netherlands Society for Biophysics and
Biomedical Engineering, URL: www.vvb-bmt.nl] represents scientists originating
from the Exact Sciences working in the biomedical field. At present, Biomedical
Engineering can be studied in the Netherlands either as a bachelor/master programme
at the Eindhoven University of Technology and the University of Twente or as a
specialisation during the master phase after a bachelor degree in an engineering
discipline or physics at several other universities.
The Nederlandse Vereniging voor Klinische Fysica [The Dutch Society for
Medical Physics, URL: www.nvkf.nl] is well established and represents physicists
and engineers that work in health care and are closely involved with clinical patient
care. This society accredits education and training for Medical or Clinical Physics as a
specialisation after a master in Physics or Engineering.
1.1 The development of Biomedical Engineering
In the eighteenth century, the Dutch physician Herman Boerhave pointed out that the
understanding and application of physics was of utmost importance for a medical
doctor. Boerhave was lucky enough to be able to use a thermometer of Fahrenheit. In
this way measurement instruments advanced into the hospital. However, physics also
helped in the development of conceptual models for the understanding of biological
phenomena. In the early part of the twentieth century, when electronic devices were
not yet available, some Dutch researchers performed important work on the human
heart. Willem Einthoven performed fundamental research on the recording of heart
potentials using his invention: the snare Galvanometer. In present times, the
Electrocardiogram (ECG) is a routine application in the clinic. Burger, professor at
the University of Utrecht, perfected many biomedical measurement techniques and
founded the first Department of Medical Physics in the Netherlands.
A broader application of the ideas and techniques of Engineering and the Sciences to
Medicine and Biology developed in the last part of the twentieth century. Biomedical
Engineering has become very important in recent years. All over the world
Biomedical Engineering Education programmes have been and are being developed
either as new [sometimes integrated] programmes, or as part of existing engineering
and physics programmes. Nowadays in the Netherlands, a close collaboration exists
of Biomedical Engineers and Clinical Physicists on the one hand with researchers in
Medicine and Biology on the other, leading to the development of engineering
solutions to biomedical problems. Biomedical Engineering flourishes in a
multidisciplinary environment. A very interesting observation is the fact that in the
Dutch Biomedical Engineering programmes the participation of women and men is
about equal, which differs quite dramatically from the male domination in other
engineering disciplines.
At this very moment, a new position is being created in the field of Medicine: the
Medical Engineer. Education in this new discipline of Medical Engineering (see
below) will start this year at the Eindhoven University of Technology.
2. THE NATIONAL SOCIETIES
In the Netherlands Biomedical Engineers are represented by two different societies:
The Vereniging voor Biofysica en Biomedische Technologie [The Netherlands
Society for Biophysics and Biomedical Engineering] and
The Nederlandse Vereniging voor Klinische Fysica [Dutch Society for
Medical Physics].
2.1
The Netherlands Society for Biophysics and Biomedical Engineering
On February 13, 1932, the Stichting Biofysica [Foundation for Biophysics] was
founded. Aims were to stimulate communication between Biophysicists and to create
possibilities for new research. In 1978 these aims were adopted by the Society for
Biophysics. As of that time, the new Foundation for Biophysics promotes especially
subsidising of research. On March 24, 1999 the name of the Society for Biophysics
was changed into Vereniging voor Biofysica en Biomedische Technologie
[VvBBMT, The Netherlands Society for Biophysics and Biomedical Engineering], in
order to acknowledge the fact that the vast majority of its membership consisted of
Biomedical Engineers. The Society has more than 650 individual members and covers
with this membership the majority of the Dutch professionals in this field. The
VvBBMT is member of the International Union for Pure and Applied Biophysics
(IUPAB), the International Federation for Medical and Biological Engineering
(IFMBE), the European Biophysical Societies Association (EBSA) and the European
Society for Engineering and Medicine (ESEM).
The Society is organised in various divisions and sections:
Organ Physics
Sections:
o Heart and Circulation;
o Lung Function;
o Physics of Respiration.
Cellular and Molecular Physics
Sections:
o Molecular Biophysics;
o Transport and Biomembranes;
o Cell Biophysics;
o Electrophysiology;
o Vital Cell Imaging.
Neuro Physics
Sections:
o Auditory System;
o Movement Control;
o Ophthalmological Physics;
o Visual Informatics.
Technical Biophysics
Sections:
o Biomedical Engineering;
o Biomedical Optics.
215
This covers all major fields of interest. The divisions and sections of the VvBBME
organise scientific meetings in order to stimulate Biophysics within the Netherlands
and meet in a general scientific meeting every second year.
The society has a website: http://www.vvb-bmt.nl
2.2
The Dutch Society for Medical Physics (Nederlandse Vereniging voor
Klinische Fysica, NVKF) was established in 1973. The society has about 350
members with 180 of them officially registered as Medical Physicist (this is about
90% of the Medical Physicists in the Netherlands). The name Medical Physicist is a
protected name and profession, and requires 4 years of postgraduate training. The
society is a member of the European Federation of Organisations for Medical Physics
(EFOMP) as well as the International Organisation for Medical Physics (IOMP).
Medical Physicists are responsible for the standardisation and calibration of the
medical instrumentation, in close co-operation with medical and paramedical
professionals. Furthermore, they are responsible for the accuracy and safety of
physics methods, applied in the hospital for diagnosis and therapy. The medical
physicist, therefore, often has a strong position with respect to radiation safety,
investments in medical equipment and independent quality control. Medical
professionals and hospital management rely heavily upon his or her judgement.
Subjects of the profession can be divided into five areas of interest: General Medical
Physics, Radiation Therapy, Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Audiology.
Publications
The society publishes a quarterly journal in an edition of 700, each issue devoted to a
specific topic of interest. This journal is sent to all members and also to most hospital
boards of directors. The journal offers advertising opportunities to commercial
companies.
A homepage is published on the Internet (http://www.nvkf.nl).
3.
ENGINEERING IN THE BIOMEDICAL FIELD
The introduction of Engineering in the field of Medicine and Biology has lead to a
variety of fields, each with specific requirements.
3.1 Biomedical Engineering
In Biomedical Engineering, problems are approached from various disciplines.
Knowledge about the functioning of the human body, understanding by using
mathematical models and computer simulations, data collection and design of new
techniques and research methods all play an important part in the education. A
Biomedical Engineer closely interacts with engineers of various technical disciplines,
but also with biologists, biochemists and medical specialists. Biomedical Engineering
is a good starting point for further specialisation.
Education in Biomedical Engineering in the Netherlands focuses on research aspects,
but graduates are expected to find jobs in research laboratories, hospitals, biomedical
companies, etc.
3.2 Medical Physics
Medical Physicists play an important role in diagnosis and treatment of patients,
regarding the application of methods from Physics and techniques. The
responsibilities of a Medical Physicist are best explained using the Policy Statement
of the European Federation of Organisations in Medical Physics [EFOMP]: The
roles, responsibilities and status of the Clinical Medical Physicist. A Medical
216
Physicist is a supporting specialist in the hospital. He plays an essential role in

medical care and service. The main responsibility of the Medical Physicist is to ensure
a high level of care in the hospital. Two roles may be discerned: clinical physics
[usually not covered by medical, paramedical or technical specialisations] and
research for and development of new techniques, physical methods, and equipment.
3.3 Medical Engineering
Medical Engineers will become engineers in clinical practice. They will work in
clinical teams and have an independent contribution to diagnosis, intervention,
planning of operations, etc. It concerns those activities where the application of highquality technology is essential. Examples are formation and interaction of medical
images using MRI and CT in radiology, planning of radiation therapy in radiotherapy,
but also solutions for eye and ear problems in ophthalmology and audiology.
The ongoing developments in technology (among others as a result of Biomedical
Engineering) open new venues: Elaborate analyses and simulations will soon precede
many high-quality, high-risk operations in brain, heart and vascular disease,
orthopaedics, etc. Complicated decision supporting tools will be developed and used
to optimise treatment. By acting more predictive in clinical problems, the contribution
of the medical engineer will prove to be indispensable. It is anticipated that medical
engineers will soon perform a number of tasks, now performed by medical doctors
who are not educated to perform these tasks.
4.
EDUCATION AND TRAINING
Engineering Education in the Netherlands occurs at the level of the School of Higher
Vocational Education (HBO) or at the (Technical) Universities. Both tracks start after
a suitable high school training. The level of education of the HBO is that of a
Technician, at the (Technical) Universities it is of Masters level. The schools are
licensed to accredit. This report limits itself to the academic Biomedical Engineering
training.
4.1 Training in Biomedical Engineering
A Biomedical Engineering degree may be obtained through an integrated
bachelor/master education at the Eindhoven University of technology and the
University of Twente. There the whole curriculum integrates the Sciences and
Engineering disciplines from the onset with (cell-) biology and (patho-) physiology.
The bachelor phase includes mathematics, physics, (bio-) mechanics, (bio-)
chemistry, informatics, (bio-) statistics, cell biology, (bio-) molecular engineering,
signal theory, data modelling and processing. In Design Centred Learning the
students acquire the following skills: to analyse, model, experiment, simulate, and
design. Also communicative skills and report writing skills are developed. Several
blocks are devoted to practical engineering and biomedical skills.
In the Master phase, students will specialise in topics as Molecular Bioengineering,
Biomechanics and Tissue Engineering, Biomedical Imaging and Informatics,
Biosignals and Regulation, etc. Courses for these specialisations are provided from a
rather general level to very specialised. The final year is spent in a (research)
laboratory at the University or in institutions that closely collaborate with the
University.
217
Entrance requirement of the educations above is a high school diploma including

Physics and Mathematics at the highest level or the profiles Nature and
Technique or Nature and Health.
At other Universities the Biomedical Engineering phase starts after a bachelor degree
is obtained in Physics or an Engineering discipline. In these cases, biomedical courses
such as (cell-) biology and (patho-) physiology are added in the Master phase.
4.2 (Post graduate) Training and registration of Medical Physicists
In the Netherlands, training and education in Medical Physics is a postgraduate
education controlled by the Dutch Society for Medical Physics. The society has set up
a programme for continuing education and a system for accreditation. Professionals
have to fulfil certain conditions [such as attending refresher courses] in order to
successfully apply for re-registration every five years. The training and education
programme takes 4 years. The training period consists of a general section lasting two
years and another two years for specialised training in a chosen field. This is usually
under the local supervision of a certified medical physicist in a hospital and under the
supervision of the examination committee of the society. The general section can be
divided into eight areas of knowledge, other than radiation hazards and general safety
and risk analysis.
The Dutch Society for Medical Physics also runs a 4-year Medical Physics curriculum
at the Eindhoven University of Technology. After a basic training of 2 years,
including 50% training at an institution for medical care, a 2-year period of practical
experience is acquired at the Medical Physics Department of a hospital.
Entrance requirements for education to Medical Physicist are: Master in Physics or
Technical Physics of a Dutch University or a degree that is considered equivalent by
the examination committee of the Dutch Society for Medical Physics. Applicants have
to be employed for at least 50% by a recognised institution and to work under the
guidance of a recognised instructor.
The following has to be studied: anatomy, physiology, pathology, mathematics,
statistics, physics, electronics, informatics, business economics, management, and
organisation of health care. Part of the required knowledge is of general nature, meant
for a good understanding of medical treatment, some is specialist, meant for direct
application and responsibility for decision making.
4.3
Training in Medical Engineering
This new Engineering discipline is only available at the Eindhoven University of
Technology. The bachelor phase of the curriculum largely coincides with the bachelor
of Biomedical Engineering at the Eindhoven University of Technology. In the Master
phase, the students are educated in one specialty, for instance: (parts of) radiology,
radiotherapy, anaesthesiology, intervention cardiology, etc. This phase has a dual
track; much attention is given to mimic via simulations of practical problems and to
predict the reactions to an intervention.
5.
Engineering Accreditation
In the Netherlands a governmental committee accredits engineering programmes. This
holds for the various Schools of Higher Vocational Education, as well as for the
Universities (of Technology). Each of the Universities is therefore licensed to register
their students as Biomedical Engineer or an equivalent title. Only Medical Physics has
218
219
a separate accreditation track. Here a register of specialists and the quality control of
the education are kept by the society.
APPENDIX 1
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS

INTEGRATED Programmes of Biomedical Engineering including Bachelor and
Master Degree
UNIVERSITY
BACHELOR
SCIENCE
BIOMEDICAL
ENGINEERING
MASTER
SCIENCE
BIOMEDICAL
ENGINEERING
EINDHOVEN
UNIVERSITY
OF
TECHNOLOGY
OF B.SC. IN BIOMEDICAL
IN ENGINEERING; STARTED
IN 1997
UNIVERSITY
TWENTE
OF M.SC. IN BIOMEDICAL
FIRST
IN ENGINEERING;
GRADUATES IN 2002.
SPECIALISATIONS:
MOLECULAR
BIOENGINEERING
Biomechanics and Tissue
Engineering
Biomedical Imaging and
Informatics
Biosignals
and
Bioregulation
M.SC. IN BIOMEDICAL
ENGINEERING; STARTS
IN
2003.
SPECIALISATIONS:
Materials and Tissue

Engineering
Restorations
of
Human Functions
Healthcare
Technology
B.SC. IN BIOMEDICAL
ENGINEERING;
STARTED IN 2001
Bachelor of Science with Specialisation in Biomedical Engineering

UNIVERSITY
BACHELOR
SCIENCE
ENGINEERING
BIOMEDICAL
ENGINEERING
ORIENTATION
UNIVERSITY
OF
GRONINGEN
IN
APPLIED
OF B.SC.
WITH
BME
IN PHYSICS
SPECIALISATION:
STARTED IN 1999
B.Sc. in Life Science and
Biomedical
Technology;
with BME stream; starts in
2002
OF
Master of Science in Biomedical Engineering

UNIVERSITY
MASTER
SCIENCE
BIOMEDICAL
ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY
OF
GRONINGEN
OF M.SC. IN BIOMEDICAL
FIRST
IN ENGINEERING:
GRADUATES IN 2002.
SPECIALISATIONS:
Biomaterials
Medical
Instrumentation
Medical Imaging
220
221
Biomedical Engineering in Ukraine

Prof. Yu. Liakh
Donetsk Medical University
Medical Physics Department.
e-mail: liakh@dsmu.donetsk.ua
The exact term Biomedical Engineering it is not used in Ukraine despite its generally wide
usage and neither universities nor other schools of higher education schools currently prepare
specialists.
However, this does not mean that biomedical engineering research is not performed and
specialists in this area are not trained in Ukraine. As a matter of fact, this is exactly what some
departments of Biological and Medical Faculties of Universities are involved in. Education process
allows students to acquire the knowledge necessary in the area of Biomedical Engineering. This is
supported by the facts that many of our postgraduates successfully work in this area in many world
research laboratories.
Thus, the Master of Science degree takes 6 years for completion and the students are
required to take the following basic courses:
Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Botany, Zoology, Physiology, Microbiology, Genetics,
Biophysics, Biochemistry, Virology, Molecular Biology, Biotechnology, Radiobiology, Cytology
and Immunology.
as well as many specialized courses:
biophysical methods of investigation (molecular spectroscopy, electrical biophysics,
electron microscopy), physical-chemical methods in biology, computer simulation, the base of
theoretical physics, biophysics of photosynthesis, biophysics of excitable cells, the influence of the
physical factors upon the biological objects, the structure and the function of proteins, biophysics of
synapses, the methods of kinetic analyses in biology, biophysics of ion channels, biophysics of
muscles, biophysics of nucleic acids, the base of molecular biology, biophysics of sensor systems,
physical-mathematical modelling in biology, the computerisation of biophysical experiments, the
protein motors and the motility of the cells.
Thus, a successful completion of these specialised and normative courses provides all the necessary
training for successful work in the area of Biomedical Engineering. At the same time I believe that
presently there is a need of the official acknowledgement of this specialty in Ukraine. And there is
hope that in the nearest future we will have corresponding science departments in Ukraine.
As example below are given some courses from Donetsk Medical University.
222
The name of the programme
The name of the unit
Quantity of
hours
25
Obligatory or
voluntary
Obligatory
1.
The educational programme on

discipline
" BIOPHYSICS, COMPUTER
SCIENCE AND MEDICAL
EQUIPMENT " for the students of
maximum medical educational
institutions of education I-IV levels
of accreditation (specialty
" medical business "
"pedonosology").
1. Mathematical processing of
the medical biological data.
38
Obligatory
26
Obligatory
2.
The programme on discipline "

MEDICAL COMPUTER
SCIENCE ".
Statistical methods for

processing medical biological
information.
46
Obligatory
3.

Maximum mathematics " for the
students of maximum
pharmaceutical educational
institutions.
216
Obligatory
4.

Biophysics and physical methods
of research " for the students of
maximum pharmaceutical
educational institutions and
pharmaceutical faculties of
maximum medical educational
institutions of education III-IV
levels of accreditation.
Physical methods of research

of biological systems.
84
Obligatory
5.

Biophysics and medical equipment
" for the students of faculties
education of the medical sisters
and colleges.
1. Physical methods of
research of biological systems.
12
Obligatory
2. The electron medical

equipment.
32
Obligatory
2. Physical methods of
research of medical biological
systems.
3. The electron medical
equipment.
6.

Information technologies in a
formation "
165
Obligatory
7.
The programme on discipline

Metrology and standardisation"
The programme on discipline
Medical cybernetics for the
students 2 courses
The Systemic approach and
systemic analysis " for the students
2 courses.
Medical computer science " for the
post-graduate students and
selectors.
Devices and methods of medical
biological gauging " for the
students 4 courses
54
Obligatory
42
Voluntary
46
Voluntary
52
Obligatory
126
Obligatory
8.
9.
10.
11.
Methods of the analysis of

biological and medical
information.
Accredit
ation
BIOMEDICAL ENGINERING IN THE UNITED KINGDOM

J C Barbenel, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow
1
INTRODUCTION
Biomedical Engineering in the United Kingdom is a widely recognised scientific and

professional discipline with a range of career options. The National Society, the
Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine, is well established and accredits
education and training; it also plays an important role in the registration of those
working within the National Health Service. The Institute is unusual in its
membership because it includes both Biomedical Engineers and Medical Physicists
and, in addition, has both professional and technical members.
1.1
The development of biomedical engineering
In the 17th century, Galileo commented on the design of animals from what would
now be recognised as a biomechanical viewpoint. This seminal idea was
subsequently taken up by a number of workers but Biomedical Engineering, as the
application of the ideas and techniques of Engineering and the Sciences to Medicine
and Biology, developed in the 20th century, expanding rapidly in the 1960s. Part of
the development arose from physicists and engineers applying their knowledge and
skills in recognisably engineering areas but there was also the initiation of clinically
applicable work arising from the collaboration of medical and engineering
researchers. Much of this collaborative work arose from clinical need, identified by
the clinicians, and the development of appropriate engineering solutions by physical
scientists and engineers. Thus, from its very outset, Biomedical Engineering in the
UK had a very strong multi-disciplinary base and was application focussed.
THE NATIONAL SOCIETY
The UK National Society, the Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine

(IPEM) developed from two precursors, both founded in the 1960s, which reflected
the two sources of UK Biomedical Engineering.
The Biological Engineering Society (BES) was initially founded as a forum to bring
together those working in the nascent area of Biomedical Engineering. The
membership encompassed several hundred scientists, engineers and clinicians at both
the professional and technical/technician level. BES was primarily a scientific
society, but it became increasingly active in professional matters as the career
opportunities in Biomedical Engineering developed.
The Institute of Physical Sciences in Medicine (IPSM) was founded as a charitable
company by the Hospital Physics Association (HPA). The joint membership
comprised graduate scientists and students. HPA transferred all its scientific and
publishing activities to IPSM, retaining only its trade union functions.
223
The Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine (www.ipem.org.uk) was formed

in July 1995 when the Institute of Physical Sciences in Medicine and the Biological
Engineering Society merged. In 1997 the Association of Medical Technologists
merged with the Institute. When reading IPEM literature it should be noted that
Clinical Engineering is used to mean Biomedical Engineering.
2.1
Nature of Members
In 2002 the Institute had 2748 members who were engineers and/or physicists, who
were either Professionally qualified or Incorporated or Technical members who had
non-professional qualifications. Membership grades for Medically qualified
applicants have recently been introduced.
Approximately 20% of IPEM members are engineers. The IPEM has an Engineering
Group Board, which has delegated authority from the Institutes Council for
Engineering Council Matters and represents matters specific to the engineering
members of IPEM, particularly relating to the registration of engineers, their
education, training, CPD and accreditation.
2.2
Employment
From their entries in the subscription form the 310 engineers who described their
employment, did so as:
Hospital Trust 219; Community Health Trust 30; Private Hospital 4;
Purchaser/Agency 8; University 46; Industry 3.
The details regarding the main specialities selected by engineers are:
Administration 28; Bioengineering 121; Biomaterials 10; Biomechanics 42;
Bioprocess 2; Clinical Instrumentation 78; Computing & Medical Informatics 40;
Diagnostic Radiology 9; Equipment Management 108; Non-Ionising Radiation 1;
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 2; Nuclear Medicine 1; Physiological Measurement 60;
Radiation Protection 3; Radiotherapy 19; Rehabilitation Engineering 138; Ultrasound
19.
3
EDUCATION, TRAINING AND ACCREDITATION BY THE
NATIONAL BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING SOCIETY
3.1
Education
There are University degree courses in medical or biomedical engineering at both the
undergraduate and the postgraduate level.
3.1.1
Undergraduate Degrees
224
Application for University study within the UK is made via the University and
College Application Services (UCAS). Examination of their web site
(www.ucas.com) suggests that degrees in, or containing a component of, biomedical
or medical engineering are offered by many Universities; these are listed in Appendix
1, which also contains explanatory notes on the UK University educational system.
These are other degrees in specialised areas of biomedical engineering, especially
Biomedical Electronics and Biomedical Materials.
The undergraduate degrees are either the standard Bachelors degrees with honours or
extended undergraduate Masters degrees which are one year longer than the
equivalent Bachelors degree.
3.1.2
Postgraduate Degrees
There is no centralised application procedure for Postgraduate study and information

on such degrees is more fragmentary than for undergraduate degrees. Postgraduate
study in biomedical/medical engineering can be pursued at both the Masters and the
Doctoral level. There are a variety of Masters degrees:
MSc; generally a one year, largely instructional, degree which contains a research
component.
MRes; a one year degree containing less instruction and a greater research
component.
MPhil; is a research degree which be of either one year or two year duration.
The PhD is a research degree, generally of 3 years duration. Direct entry to Doctoral
study is the normal route in the UK where having a Masters degree is not a
prerequisite. Traditionally, research degrees in the UK have contained little or no
instructional component but it is increasingly recognised that an instructional, preresearch component is valuable and it is likely that in the future that all research
degrees will contain some instructional element.
3.1.3
Technologist Qualifications
IPEM has extended its interest to included undergraduate education leading to

Technologist Training programmes and have developed a normative syllabus. This
recognises that technologists enter the profession via a number of different routes, but
seeks to establish vocational degree entry as the route of choice. The UK Department
of Health has been asked to fund this scheme nationally.
3.2
Training
Most biomedical engineers will undergo some training in addition to their education.
Training for those employed by Universities, or similar teaching institutions, and
Industry is usually carried out independently of the National Society. IPEM does,
however, have responsibility for education and training programmes for Medical
Physicists and Clinical Engineers in Health Care.
225
The IPEM training scheme normally lasts for 6 years, being divided into 3 training
periods. During training the trainees are employed as Medical Physicists or Clinical
Engineers within the National Health Service at an appropriate training grade.
Basic training is normally the entry to the profession and is for 2 years. After
obtaining an appropriate first degree, the trainee enters a period of hospital training
and an accredited MSc programme, either taken sequentially or interleaved.
Alternatively the candidate can enter the training scheme after completing an MSc
accredited by IPEM, followed by a training period lasting at least 15 months.
Successful completion of the Basic Training Scheme leads to the award of a Diploma
and the candidate may now progress to the next stage of training.
Advanced training is also of 2 years duration. During this period the trainee will be
expected to achieve a deeper understanding of a more specialised area and be able to
demonstrate progress in their post with increasing work responsibility.
Responsible experience must be demonstrated in the last 2 years of the training
scheme. The trainee undergoes an appropriate assessment after completing the
training scheme and, if successful, is eligible for Corporate Membership of IPEM.
The advanced training and responsible experience are normally combined as a single
4 year Programme of Advanced Training and Responsibility (PATR). Participation in
the IPEM Continuing Professional Development (CPD) Scheme is obligatory for
those undertaking PATR.
Biomedical Engineers may enter the Training Scheme by non- standard routes eg after
obtaining a PhD. For those with a relevant PhD who are employed in the NHS at an
appropriate grade, it is recommended that they register for PATR but that they
undergo some basic training in the 1st year and obtain the Diploma. The remainder of
the PATR programme would then follow during a further 3 years. Those with a nonrelevant PhD may undergo the complete training programme before registering for
PATR.
IPEM have defined an MSc syllabus and the competencies to be developed during the
training period. Details will be found in Training Scheme Prospectus for Medical
Physicists and Clinical Engineers in Health Care; an outline of the syllabus and
competencies as they relate to biomedical engineers will be found in Appendix 2.
3.3
Accreditation of education and training by IPEM
3.3.1
Accreditation of degrees
The IPEM does not accredit Undergraduate degrees, although these may be accredited
by non-Biomedical Engineering organisations (see section 4). The Institute accredits
some MSc degrees (see Appendix 1).
The IPEM accredits MSc degrees by evaluating the degree content in the light of the
syllabus (and its emphasis) specified in the IPEM Training Scheme Prospectus. The
academic staff, their expertise, the infrastructure available within the University and
226
interaction with Health Care deliverers will also be considered. IPEM does not
evaluate the programmes in terms of Academic Quality but assumes that this is the
responsibility of the University.
3.3.2 Organisation and accreditation of training
Training takes place in training centres that have been accredited by IPEM. A training
centre may be one or more departments working as a consortium that meet the
following standards:
The training centre must be able to provide training in at least 6 major

subject areas
There must be at least 20 engineers/clinical scientists working in the
training centre
There must be at least 3 engineering/clinical scientists working in each
major subject area
In each training centre there is a training coordinator who is responsible for the
day- to- day management of the training process, including the appointment of
trainees, agreeing the training plan, monitoring the training process and ensuring
assessments are carried out. Trainees are appointed on an annual basis through a
national appointment process run by the Department of Health. There are
approximately 60 places per annum in medical physics and clinical engineering; c.
10% of these are in clinical engineering.
3.4
The right to practice
The UK Department of Health will require all those who interact with patients, either
directly or indirectly, be registered with the Health Professions Council as Clinical
Scientists. Applicants for registration must show that they have achieved the
competences required after 4 years participation in the IPEM training scheme,
although these may be obtained by alternative, non-IPEM routes. CPD will be a
requirement for continuing registration.
Although the scheme is primarily for those employed with the National Health
Service, others eg those employed in a University may register.
4.1
Organisations in cognate areas
In addition to IPEM there are other organisations involved in aspects of Biomedical

Engineering. These include organisations which are primarily scientific societies in
sub-areas of BME eg Biomaterials, but in terms of professional recognition and
accreditation the important organisations are the Professional Engineering
Institutions. In October 1998 a Memorandum of Understanding was signed between
6 professional institutions founding an umbrella organisation the Association of
Institutions concerned with Medical Engineering (AIME). The constituent members
in addition to IPEM are:
227
The Institution of Chemical Engineers

The Institution of Electrical Engineers
The Institute of Healthcare Engineering and Estate Management
The Institution of Incorporated Engineers
The Institute of Materials
The Institute of Physics
The Institution of Mechanical Engineers
Further details can be found on www.aime.org.uk/

IPEM is also a member of International Organisations for Medical Physics and
Bioengineering, including the European Federation of Organisations for Medical
Physics (EFOMP).
4.2
Engineering accreditation
In the UK suitably qualified and experienced engineers may register with the
Engineering Council as a Chartered Engineer (CEng), Incorporated Engineer (IEng)
or Technician (Eng Tech). Registration requires evidence of appropriate education,
training and responsible experience.
The academic component is accredited under licence by one of the recognised
engineering Institutions. There are, therefore, a number of undergraduate engineering
courses which are accredited but not in respect of their Biomedical Engineering
content. The Engineering Council will, however, recognise Biomedical Engineering
as providing the necessary training and responsible experience for engineering
registration and there are a number of biomedical engineers who have registered on
this basis. It must be noted, however, that registration as a Chartered Engineer is not
a form of Biomedical Engineering accreditation eg it will not satisfy the requirements
for registration as a Clinical Scientist.
The Engineering Council participates in the European Federation of Engineering
Institutions (EFEI) and it is also possible to register as a Euro Eng after registration
with the Engineering Council.
228
APPENDIX 1 - HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UK

A1
Autonomy of the Universities
The degrees or related qualifications offered by Universities are authorised under

Royal Charter or Act of Parliament, or by a special order of the Department of
Education and Employment. Institutions seeking such permission to award degrees
are required to demonstrate that they have a commitment to quality assurance and an
adequate system for safeguarding academic standards. The Government is advised on
these matters by the Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education.
Universities are self governing institutions with full and clear legal responsibility for
the quality and standards of their programmes and awards, which decide for
themselves the title, content and duration of degree programmes, which inevitably
leads to considerable variation.
Some vocational or professional qualifications may be accredited or validated by
professional institutions eg The Institution of Mechanical Engineers, which requires
that the degree contains specified core knowledge and competencies, none of which
are in Biomedical Engineering. Such accreditation refers only to undergraduate
degrees and some of the undergraduate degrees listed below will be accredited but
others are unaccredited.
A1.1
Explanation of duration and the nomenclature
Undergraduate degree duration is listed as the time required to complete the degree by
full time (FT) study; some degrees require an industrial placement period and are
known as Sandwich (SW) Courses and are generally one year longer than full time
study. University education in Scotland is different from the remainder of the United
Kingdom, the most obvious difference being that University courses are one year
longer in Scotland, for equivalent degrees.
Some of the degrees below are listed as with or and. In general, the word with
indicates that the degree contains a major and a minor component, commonly in the
ratio of approximately 2:1. The word and usually suggests that the 2 degree topics
are of equal weight but there are exceptions eg Mechanical and Bio-Medical
Engineering, University of Surrey, in which the Bio-Medical Engineering appears to
be a minor rather than an equal component.
229
A1.2
230
Undergraduate Courses in Biomedical or Medical Engineering
University and Course Title

Medical Engineering
Bath
Birmingham Biomedical Engineering
Duration (y) and Degree

3FT/ 4SW BEng
4FT/5SW MEng
4FT MEng
Bradford
Medical Engineering
3FT/ 4SW BEng

4FT/5SW MEng
Cardiff
Medical Engineering
3FT BEng
4FT MEng
City
Biomedical Engineering & Applied Physics
Imperial, London
Leeds
Mechanical with Medical Engineering
Liverpool
3FT BEng
3FT BSc
3FT BEng
4FT MEng
4FT MEng
Clinical Engineering and Materials Science 3FT BEng
Nottingham Trent
Medical Engineering
3FT/4SW BEng
QMW, London
Medical Engineering
4FT MEng
Sheffield
3FT MEng
Strathclyde
Mechanical Engineering
with Biomedical Engineering
5FT MEng
Surrey
Mechanical & Bio-medical Engineering
4FT/5SW MEng
Teesside
3FT/4SW BSc
Ulster
Bio-medical Engineering
4SW BSc
A1.3
231
MSc Degrees Accredited by IPEM
University
Course Title
Aberdeen
Medical Imaging
City1
Information Engineering (Medical Instrumentation and

Information)
Trinity College, Dublin
Physical Sciences in Medicine
DundeeP
Biomedical Engineering Science

Imperial College, London2 Engineering and Physical Sciences in Medicine

Kings College, London3
Medical Engineering and Physics
Manchester
Biomedical Applications for Physical and Computing

Sciences
Sheffield (M.Med.Sci.)
Medical Physics and Clinical Engineering
Surrey
Provisionally accredited. It is intended that this status will be reviewed.
Course accredited for the BIOCINI specialisation.
Course accredited for the Engineering Track only.
Course accredited for the Engineering and Medical Physics Tracks. Most
combinations of options for the Applied Clinical Sciences Track have also
been approved. For details candidates should apply to The Chair of the
IPEM Education Panel.
APPENDIX 2 IPEM SYLLABUSES AND COMPETENCIES

The IPEM Training Scheme requires that a Trainee acquiring adequate knowledge of
the application of physical sciences and engineering to medicine from an MSc course
which is the basis of the competencies developed during the subsequent training
period.
The design of both education and training is based on the recognition that many
different specialities in a wide variety of biomedical engineering areas may be offered
within the training scheme (as in the profession).
A2.1
MSc Courses
A suitable knowledge base for biomedical engineering is defined by the IPEM as one
which provides a realistic balance between i) breadth of topics giving the trainee an
adequate overall view of the subject and ii) a study in sufficient depths of a coherent
limited set of topics, expected to equip the Trainee with the knowledge necessary to
underpin practical training and future work.
The IPEM syllabus has 3 main levels of knowledge.
Prescribed topics in which Trainees must demonstrate a satisfactory knowledge and
performance in all subjects.
Core topics are intended to form elements which are important in their own right but
also provide the basis for In-depth topics, which form the specialist topics within the
knowledge base.
The list of topics below includes only those that would be appropriate for a
biomedical engineer.
Prescribed Topics
In-depth Topics
Magnetic Resonance
Safety
Ultrasound
Principles of Quality Management
Non-Ionising Radiation
Statistical Methods
Medical Imaging
Image & Signal Processing
Core Topics
Anaesthesia & Respiration Therapy
Medical Imaging
Physiological Measurement
Computer Engineering
Signal Processing
Medical Equipment & Instrumentation
Computing
Rehab Engineering Mobility & Posture
Equipment Management
Rehab Engineering Sensory &
Communication
Medical Electronics
Clinical Biomechanics
Biomechanics
Special Topics
Biomaterials
Audiology
232
Design and Project Management
A2.2
233
Opthamology
Information Management &
Information Systems
Training
The purpose of training is to allow the Biomedical Engineer to undertake a given job
description of work in any appropriate department in the UK or abroad. The Training
is reference to the competencies developed by the trainee.
A2.2.1 Basic Training
During basic training the trainee will spend substantial periods of attachment in
3 Major Subject areas, together with shorter acquaintanceship periods in a number of
other specialities (normally 3) within Biomedical Engineering. It is possible to
replace one Major Area with 2 Minor Areas in which the depth of training is
maintained, but the breadth is reduced.
The competencies include compulsory core elements and choices from a range of
subject areas. Those appropriate for biomedical engineering are listed below.
Core Competencies
Scientific
Clinical
Management
Communication Skills
Quality and Safety
Information Management and Technology
Major Subject Areas and Competencies

Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Ultrasound
Physiological Measurement
Information and Management Technology
Medical Electronics and Instrumentation
Rehabilitation Engineering*
Medical Engineering Design and Development*
Biomechanical Engineering*
*Due to overlap of these subject areas trainees may only select 2 out of these 3 subject
areas.
A2.2.2 PATR
PATR is designed to provide those who have acquired basic competencies with
further training and responsible experience in at least one speciality. In addition the
trainee is expected to extend their core competencies.
Those registered for PATR are also registered by IPEM for their Continuing
Professional Development programme.
234
235
Report from the Yugoslav Society for Biomedical Engineering and Medical Physics
(YUBEMP)
Svetlana Andri and Dejan B. Popovi
Yugoslav Society for Biomedical Engineering and Medical Physics (YUBEMP)

The new Yugoslav Society for Biomedical Engineering and Medical Physics (YUBEMP) was
founded in 1996 as the national society of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The Society continues
the activities in the fields of biomedical engineering and medical physics that were organised for many
years within the former Yugoslav Society for Medical & Biological Engineering, founded in 1984.
Mission statement. The YUBEMP main goals are the following: 1) encourage and promulgate the
scientific work and technology developments in the fields of activity of its members, 2) follow the
development and support the application of biomedical engineering and medical physics methods in
Yugoslavia, 3) participate in education, training, and accreditation programmes, 4) disseminate
professional and scientific information through publications and meetings, 5) provide organised
consulting in the fields of activities, 6) publish or participate in publishing professional scientific and
technical publications in the fields of Biomedical Engineering (BME) and Medical Physics (MP), 7)
organise or participate in national and international conferences, 8) follow the development and
collaborate with partners on national and international levels, 9) participate in works of relevant
governmental organisations promoting the initiation for national law regulatives, standards and
recommendations related to the development and application of methods of BME and MP, and 10)
collaborate with similar national and international organisations and associations.
It is expected that YUBEMP will greatly contribute to the formation of new and better educational
programmes at undergraduate and graduate levels in the near future following the European policies
with special emphasis on accreditation.
History. The first organised activity in the field of Biomedical Engineering took place within the
Yugoslav Society for Electronics, Telecommunication, Automatics and Nuclear Sciences (ETAN) that
started with many activities in the early fifties. ETAN organised many meetings, courses, and special
236
events that brought together the most prominent scientists from East and West during the era of the
cold war. ETAN was closely linked to the appropriate organisations around the world. The
Commission for Biomedical Engineering was formed within the Yugoslav Society for ETAN, and then
it evolved into the Yugoslav Society for Biomedical Engineering in 1984. At that time there was a
separate Yugoslav Society for Medical Physics due to the evolution of the work in nuclear medicine,
radiology, radiation protection etc. The young YUBEMB is surrounded by all the problems that are
related to economy and politics during the last decade of the twentieth century on the Balkans.
Education in Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering in Yugoslavia

Education of Medical Physicists in Yugoslavia could be divided into three levels with different
categories. The undergraduate programmes (level I) at several universities include many courses that
provide the needed background for a specialised education in medical physics and biomedical
engineering.
Medical Physics. The four or five years undergraduate education in Yugoslavia is still very
traditional with a strong emphasis on basic sciences that comprises at least four high level courses in
mathematics and general physics as well as several specialised courses in physics (atomic physics,
nuclear physics, physics of solid state, physical electronics of gases and solids, quantum mechanics,
statistical physics, etc). This programme ends with a Bachelor's degree (BS). At the University of Novi
Sad, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Institute for Physics, in addition there are courses in Medical Physics
in the last year of the BS programme that started in 1997. At the University of Belgrade, Faculty of
Natural Sciences (Physical Chemistry or Physics) there are several subjects that are dealing with
modern medical physics. At the University of Belgrade, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Department
for Nuclear Physics, there are several subjects in medical physics and techniques during the last two
(out of five) years of the BS programme.
Biomedical Engineering. The Faculty of Mechanical Engineering is organising a two-year elective

programme with emphasis on biomaterials and molecular issues. These subjects correspond to 30
credits. The Faculty of Engineering, University of Novi Sad, started in 2000 with elective courses in
Biomedical Instrumentation and Biomedical Measurements in addition to the specialist course in
Control of Complex and Biological Systems. These subjects correspond to 16 credits.
237
The Faculty of Mechanical Engineering in Kragujevac has several courses in biomechanics

especially related to cardiovascular and urinary systems. The University of Kragujevac is starting the
multidisciplinary graduate programme in Biomechanics.
The Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Belgrade, organised earlier a five-semester
specialisation that follows the five-semester long general education (BS programme equivalent to 135
credits). The students are offered the following specialised courses: Medical Physics, Biomaterials,
Biomechanics,
Biomedical
Instrumentation,
Biomedical
Measurements,
Medical
Imaging,
Reconstruction of Medical Images, Nuclear Medical Instrumentation, Radiation Measurements and

Protection, Telemedicine, Information Technologies in Medicine. The equivalent of the courses is 45
credits. These courses are part of the general education that includes sensors and actuators, data
acquisition systems, statistics, signal processing at various levels and a very high-level education in
electrical engineering.
The Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Belgrade, is now organising undergraduate education in
English that has been designed following the Bologna declaration. The new undergraduate programme
in Biomedical Engineering at the Faculty of EE, Belgrade, follows the harmonisation trend in Europe.
The requirements for a degree of BSEE at the Biomedical Engineering Division are 39 courses
with a total of 122 credits including a final project accepted and defended in public. The 39 courses
required for a degree include the first three semesters joint courses for all students at the Faculty for
Electrical Engineering (49 credit units). Students choose between courses (34a, 34b), and (39a, 39b).
All A courses are mandatory. Five B courses can be replaced with selected courses from other
divisions based on the written approval from the BME division supervisor. Students lab and
theoretical work are constantly evaluated throughout each semester. There is a final written
examination in each course at the end of each semester.
Grade points are allocated as follows: 1) 10 per cent of the final grade points for the home works;
2) 20 per cent of the final grade points for the mid semester test; 3) 20 per cent of the final grade points
for the second test; and 4) 50 per cent of the final grade points for the final examinations held at the
end of each semester.
A student is considered to have passed a course if the grade point is not less than 60 per cent. The
following grade points are adopted: 4.00 (90-100 marks), 3.50 (85-89 marks), 3.00 (80-85 marks), 2.50
(75-80 marks), 2.00 (70-75 marks), 1.50 (65-70 marks), 1.00 (60-65 marks), 0.00 (less than 60 marks).
238
The graduation assessments are as follows: Distinction: with grade point average (GPA) 3.60-4.00;
Very good: 2.80-3.59 GPA; Good: 2.00- 2.79 GPA; Satisfactory: 1.50-1.99 GPA.
The first three semesters are the same for all students and comprise general engineering education
with emphasis on mathematics, physics and electrical engineering basic courses. The plan for the 5 last
semesters dedicated to BME is the following: Semester 4: Electronics II, Object Oriented
Programming, Basic Human Anatomy & Physiology, Basic Biophysics, Principles of Communication;
Semester 5: Modelling and Simulation of Biophysical Systems, Biomechanics, Sensors and Actuators
in Biomedicine, Biomedical Instrumentation; Semester 6: Digital Signal Processing, Medical
Information Systems and Internet, Programming Languages II, Real Time Computer Systems, Medical
Nuclear Engineering; Semester 7: Control Systems in Biomedicine, Data Acquisition in Clinical
Engineering, Soft Computing, Statistics in Biomedical Engineering; and Semester 8: Medical Imaging
Systems and Analysis, Telemedicine, Intelligent Decision Making Systems, Final project.
POSTGRAFDUATE EDUCATION Level II
Medical Physics. Postgraduate education has two directions: 3-year postgraduate studies with
Master's degree, and 3-year specialist studies with hospital training leading to the specialist degree.
Postgraduate studies, organised jointly by the Faculty of Physics and the Faculty of Medicine of
the University of Novi Sad, were established in 1995. The programme consists of lectures, seminars,
practical and tutorial work followed by practical training in hospitals under the supervision of
experienced MPs. The curricula include Physics of the Human Organism, Physiology and Cell
Biology; Informatics, Medical Statistics, Modelling, Medical Instrumentation, Radioisotopes in
Medicine, Radiation Diagnostic and Therapy Physics, Basic Course in Radiotherapy and
Radiobiology. All undergraduate students coming from different faculties of natural sciences are
allowed to enter the programme. Students are mostly physicists (BS), medical doctors (M.D.), and to
some degree engineers (BS). Students choose between the following electives: Magnetic Resonance
Imaging, Medical Optics, Ultrasound in Medicine, Pharmacology, Lasers in Medicine, and Monte
Carlo Simulation. In spite of the attractive programme only a small number of participants have
passed through the course until now.
The Centre for Multidisciplinary Studies of the University of Belgrade established a programme in
postgraduate studies in Biomedical and Clinical Engineering (CBE) in 1977, and revised the
programme in 1993. Although not explicit in name, it covers many aspects of MP through the courses
of Ionising Radiation in Medicine, Biomedical Signal Processing, Basic Nuclear Medicine, Artificial
239
Intelligence in Medicine, Laser Medical Techniques and Radiation Protection. The special courses in
Biomedical Engineering with written seminars provide the students the opportunity to learn more
about special topics in the field directly related to their M.Sc. thesis. This programme is now
undergoing major changes that follow the European trends of harmonisation.
At the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Belgrade, a specialisation programme in
Radiology and Physical Therapy (2 years) has been organised. Also, within the M.Sc. degree studies in
Radiology, courses in General and Specialised Radiology, Physical Therapy, Radio-Pathology, and
Radio-Toxicology have been included.
The specialist programme in Medical Nuclear Physics is officially recognised and certified by the
Ministry of Health of the Republic Serbia.
Medical physicists employed in hospitals or in institutions for health care and radiation protection
must pass a six weeks basic course during the first year of employment. The course is organised by the
Centre for Permanent Education at the Institute of Nuclear Sciences "Vinca", with the general subject
"Radio Nuclide Application". An examination is organised to grade the success during the special
course.
Biomedical Engineering. Graduate education in Biomedical Engineering, that is also included at

the Faculties of Electrical Engineering and Mechanical Engineering, is part of other programmes; there
is no special curriculum for biomedical engineering. The University of Belgrade is organising
multidisciplinary studies through the Centre for Multidisciplinary Studies. The 2-year master
programme and 3-year PhD programmes in biomedical engineering have the following plan.
Course requirements for the 2 years MS degree
Semester
I
II
III IV
1 Principles of Biomedical Instrumentation and Measurements 15

2 Mandatory course A
15
3 Elective course B
4 Elective course C
5 Elective course B
6 Elective course C
7 MS Examination
15
8 MS Thesis
15 30
Credits per semester
30 30 30 30
240
Course requirements for the 3 years PhD degree

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Principles of Biomedical Instrumentation and Measurements

Mandatory course A
Elective course B
Elective course C
Elective course B
Elective course C
Elective course B
Elective course C
PhD Examination
PhD Thesis
Credits per semester
I
15
II
Semester
III
IV
VI
30
30
30
30
15
9
6
9
6
30
30
9
6
5
10
30
20
10
30
Mandatory courses A
A1. Basic anatomy and physiology (for students with the BS degree in technical sciences) 1. Basic
principle of living tissue: The cell. Embryology and characteristics of specific cells (neural cell, muscle
cell, bone cell, etc). Basic process at the cell membrane. Synapse. Anatomical and physiological
connections of cells in the organism. 2. The heart. Functional organisation of the circulatory system.
Principles of haematology. Functional analysis of the respiratory system. Functional organisation of the
digestive tract. 3. Functional organisation of the skeletal system. Bones and joints. Organisation and
functional systems in the central and peripheral nervous system. Organisation and functional
specificity of musculo-tendonal systems. The role of connective tissues. 4. Vegetative nervous system.
5. Regulation of the cardio-vascular system. Regulation of breathing. Regulation of the gastrointestinal
system. Regulation of the urinary system. Senses
A2. Principles of biomedical engineering (for students with the BS degree in life sciences) 1.
Principles and phenomena in biomedical systems at the macro and micro levels. Integral principles of
momentum, mass, and energy - application in biomedical engineering. 2. Momentum transfer and its
application in biomedical systems. Mechanisms of the momentum transfer in one-phase systems.
Momentum transfer in dispersive systems. 3. Mass transfer in biomedical systems. 3. Mass transfer by
diffusion. Mass transfer by convection. Transport of nutrients to the tissues. Transport of active
substance to the cell. Transfer of mass supported by biochemical reactions. Enzymatic disintegration of
the active substance. Cell membrane transport (passive and active). Analogies of mechanical systems.
Biothermodynamics of cell growth. 4. Mathematical methods frequently used in biomedical
engineering. 5. Components of biomedical engineering for measurements with special emphasis on
computer aided systems.
241
List of courses B: Tissue engineering, Biomechanics, Biological systems and radiation, Modelling
of biophysical processes, Biophysics, Nanotechnology in medicine, Molecular machines,
Biocybernetics, Acquisition systems and methods in electrophysiology, Medical image processing
techniques, Information technologies in medicine, Telemedicine
List of courses C: Biomaterials, Sensors for biomedical instrumentation, Biothermodynamics,
PET, SPECT, Gamma camera in medicine, Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), Ultrasound in
medicine, Instrumentation and methods in clinical engineering, Clinical electrophysiology selected
topics, Movement rehabilitation systems and methods, Magnetic and electrical stimulation, Neural
prostheses, Advanced medical signal processing selected topics, Artificial intelligence in medicine,
Neurocomputing, Soft-computing, Genetic engineering, Genetic algorithms, New surgical methods
selected topics, Prosthetics and orthotics.
There is an initiative to establish collaboration with European partners following the Bologna
declaration and to promote education in Health Science and Technology (HST). This new HST
curriculum will be for students of Engineering and Life Sciences of several universities, Belgrade,
Podgorica and Novi Sad from FRY, and the University of Sarajevo from BIH. It will include the
following core courses: 1) Instrumentation and Measurements, 2) Medical Imaging Systems, 3)
Modelling of Biophysical Systems, 4) Medical Informatics, 5) Bio-statistics and Stochastic Systems, 6)
Biomedical Networking and Health Care Information Systems. The basis for teaching will be very
likely the University of Belgrade. The whole curriculum, as well as the particular syllabi will be project
based. The curriculum will follow the ECTS rules. The European harmonisation of the new curriculum
will be maximised: EU partners will provide the necessary know-how and experience for the transfer
of the European credit system. The EU dimension of the programme will allow the flow of students
and young investigators from FRY and BIH to Europe, especially because of the very high standards
established many years ago at the FRY universities. TEMPUS funding facilitates this initiative within
the project named InCo-Health, which stands for Information and Communication in Health
Technologies.
POSTGRADUATE EDUCATION Level III

Level III leads to the Ph.D. degree. The PhD degree is offered at the Universities of Novi Sad and
Belgrade at different faculties to students with a master degree in the corresponding field. The main
part is the doctoral thesis which has to be an independent, original contribution to science that has been
242
recognised by peers (published in the peer-reviewed journals). There are no courses that are offered at
the PhD level, but the typical project lasts for at least three years and it follows the seven years of
undergraduate and graduate courses that are equivalent to the course content given in most other
European countries.

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BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING

Copyright 2005 BIOMEDEA

BIOMEDEA Project Coordinator:

Biomedical Engineering in Sweden

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

Biomedical Engineering Education in Europe - Comments on the

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

Biomedical Engineering in Austria

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

Higher Education Biomedical Engineering Programmes in Austria (June 2002)

Fundamentals (40 SStd = 60 ECTS)

2nd segment: Biomedical Engineering (26 SStd = 39 ECTS)

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

2. Biomedical Engineering at Vienna University of Technology (TUW)

Fundamentals (60 ECTS)

2nd segment: Mechanical Engineering + Advanced Fundamentals (120 ECTS)

The students can choose among 8 specialisations (Energy Engineering;

Classification (Discussion paper, Addendum 2, Table 1.1, Page 23, 06.06.01):

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

3. Biomedical Engineering at University of Vienna /General Hospital of Vienna

4. Biomedical Engineering at the University of Graz

5. Biomedical Engineering at the University of Innsbruck

6. Biomedical Engineering at the University for Health Informatics and Technology

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

Master of Science (M.Sc.) in Medical Informatics (ECTS Points):

Medicine and Health Care

In addition, a Ph.D. programme in Medical Informatics is offered.

Accreditation (of BME) in Austria

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

trends. In a parallel development, the significance of computing and robotics in medicine is

Fields of Innovation and Development in BMT in Austria

Austrian Options in BMT

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

Biomedical Engineering in Belgium anno 2002

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

Summary Activities Report 2001

biomaterials (14 posters)

biomechanics (18 posters)

medical information technology (21 posters)

A database was updated on interested contact persons and members

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Postgraduate Education

year study (120 ECTS credits)

Catholic University Leuven, KULeuven

Free University Brussel, VUB

year study (120 ECTS credits)

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

BME Master Education

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

Universit Libre de Bruxelles, ULB

1. "Spcialisation INGENIERIE: ORGANES ARTIFICIELS ET IMPLANTS,

BME Education PhD Degree

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts

Biomedical Engineering in Bulgaria

1. The Bulgarian Society of Biomedical Physics and Engineering

BME Education in Europe - Status Reorts