Mechanics

Physics 151

Lecture 3
Lagranges Equations
(Goldstein Chapter 1)

Hamiltons Principle
(Chapter 2)

What We Did Last Time

!

Discussed multi-particle systems

!

Introduced constraints
!

Internal and external forces

! Laws of action and reaction
Generalized coordinates

Introduced Lagranges Equations

!

... and didnt do the derivation

" Lets pick it up and start from there

Todays Goals
!

Derive Lagranges Eqn from Newtons Eqn

!
!

Use DAlemberts principle

There will be a few assumptions
! Will make them clear as we go

Introduce Hamiltons Principle

!

!
!

Equivalent to Lagranges Equations

! Which in turn is equivalent to Newtons Equations
Does not depend on coordinates by construction
Derivation in the next lecture

Lagranges Equations
d L

dt q! j

L
=0

q j

Recipe
Kinetic energy

L(q, q! , t ) T V

Potential energy
Lagrangian

Express L = T V in terms of generalized coordinates

{q j } , their time-derivatives {q! j }, and time t
!
!

The potential V = V(q, t) must exist

i.e. all forces must be conservative

Virtual Displacement
!

Consider a system with constraints r1 = r1 (q1 , q2 ,..., qn , t )

r = r (q , q ,..., q , t )
2 2 1 2
! Ordinary coordinates ri (i = 1...N)
n

"
! Generalized coordinates qj (j = 1...n)
rN = rN (q1 , q2 ,..., qn , t )
! Imagine moving all the particles
slightly ri ri + ri q j q j + q j
!

Virtual displacement
Note that ri must satisfy the constraints
ri
ri =
qj
j q j
3N coordinates
not independent

n coordinates
independent

DAlemberts Principle
!

From Newtons Equation of Motion

Fi = p! i

Fi p! i = 0

Part of the force Fi must be due to constraints

Fi = Fi( a ) + fi

applied force
!

constraint force

Applied force is known Fi( a ) = Fi( a ) (r1 , r2 ,..., ri ,..., rN , t )

Constraint force fi (usually) does no work

Movement is perpendicular to the force fi ri = 0

! Exception: friction
!

Now multiply Fi( a ) + fi p! i = 0 by ri and sum over i

DAlemberts Principle
(F

(a)
i

p! i ) ri = 0

constraint force is out of the game.

You can forget (a)

!
!

Force of constraints dropped out because fi ri = 0

Called DAlemberts Principle (1743)

Now we switch from ri to qj

ri
1st term = Fi
q j = Q j q j
i
j q j
j
!
!

Unit of Qj not always [force]

Qj qj is always [work]

ri
Q j Fi
q j
i

Generalized force

DAlemberts Principle
2nd term = p! i ri = p! i
i

ri
d vi2 vi2
A bit of work can show !r!i

!
q j
dt q j 2 q j 2

d T
=
q!
dt
j
j
!

ri
ri
!!
q j = mi ri
qj
q j
q j
i, j

T

q j
q j

DAlemberts Principle becomes

d T
j dt q!
j

T
Q j q j = 0

q j

mvi2
T
2
i

Lagranges Equations
d T
j dt q!
j
!

T
Q j q j = 0

q j

Generalized coordinates qj are independent

d T

dt q! j

These are free

T
= Qj

q j

Almost there!

Assume forces are conservative Fi = iV

ri
ri
V
= iV
=
Q j Fi
q j
q j
q j
i
i

Throw this
back in

Lagranges Equations
d T

dt q! j
!

(T V )
=0

q j

Assume that V does not depend on q! j

Finally

d L

dt q! j

L
=0

q j

V
=0
q! j

L = T (q j , q! j , t ) V (q j , t )

Done!

Assumptions We Made
!

Constraints are holonomic

!

We always assume this

Constraint forces do no work

!

ri = ri ( q1 , q2 ,..., qn , t )

fi ri = 0

Forget frictions

Applied forces are conservative

Fi = iV

Lagranges Eqn. itself is OK if V depends explicitly on t

V
!
=0
! Potential V does not depend on q j
q! j
!

Will review the last assumption later

Example: Time-Dependent
!

Transformation functions may depend on t

!
!

Generalized coordinate system may move

E.g. coordinate system fixed to the Earth

An example

ri = ri ( q j , t )

spring constant K
natural length l
mass m on a rail
l+r

angular velocity

Example: Time-Dependent
!

x = (l + r ) cos t
Transformation functions:
y = (l + r ) sin t
m
m
Kinetic energy T = { x! 2 + y! 2 } = {r! 2 + (l + r ) 2 2 }
2
2

K 2
Potential energy V = r
2
m 2
K 2
2 2
L = {r! + (l + r ) } r
2
2

d L L
2
!!
Lagranges Equation

mr
m

(l + r ) + Kr = 0

dt r! r

Example: Time-Dependent
d L L
2
!!

mr
m

(l + r ) + Kr = 0

dt r! r
2

m
l

2
mr!! + ( K m ) r
=0
2
K m

!
!

K m 2
m

If K > m2, a harmonic oscillator with =

! Center of oscillation is shifted by
If K < m2, moves away exponentially
If K = m2, velocity is constant
! Centripetal force balances with the spring force

Note on Arbitrarity
!

Lagrangian is not unique for a given system

!

If a Lagrangian L describes a system

dF (q, t )
L = L +
works as well for any function F
dt
One can prove
d dF dF
dF F
F
!

=
0
=
q+
using
!

dt q dt q dt
dt q
t

Assumptions We Made
!

Constraints are holonomic

!

We always assume this

Constraint forces do no work

!

ri = ri ( q1 , q2 ,..., qn , t )

fi ri = 0

Forget frictions

Applied forces are conservative

Fi = iV

Lagranges Eqn. itself is OK if V depends explicitly on t

V
!
=0
! Potential V does not depend on q j
q! j
!

Lets review the last assumption

Velocity-Dependent Potential
V
V
= 0 so that
! We assumed Q j =
and
q! j
q j
This had to be 0
d T T
d (T V ) (T V )
= Qj
=0

q j
dt q! j q j
dt q! j
!

We could do the same if we had

U d U
Qj =
+
q j dt q! j

U = U (q j , q! j , t )

L = T (q j , q! j , t ) U (q j , q! j , t )

Generalized,
or velocitydependent
potential

EM Force on Particle
!

Lorentz force on a charged particle

F = q[E + ( v B)]
!

Velocity-dependent.
Cant find a usual
potential V

E and B fields are given by

A
E =
Physics 15b
B = A
t
Force is v-dependent " Need a v-dependent potential
U = q qA v works check

1 2
! Lagrangian is L = mv q + qA v
2

Monogenic System
!

If all forces in a system are derived from a generalized

potential,
U d U
its called a monogenic system
Qj =
+

!
!

dt q! j

A monogenic system is conservative only if U = U (q)

!

U is a function of q, q! , t
Lorentz force is monogenic

q j

U U
=
=0
Or
q!
t

Lagranges Equation works on a monogenic system

Hamiltons Principle
!

We derived Lagranges Eqn from Newtons Eqn using

a differential principle
!

DAlemberts principle uses infinitesimal displacements

Its possible to do it with an integral principle

Hamiltons Principle

Configuration Space
!

Generalized coordinates q1,...,qn fully describe the

systems configuration at any moment
configuration
Imagine an n-dimensional space
!

Each point in this space (q1,...,qn)

corresponds to one configuration of the system
Time evolution of the system " A curve in the
configuration space
real space

configuration space

space

Action Integral
!
!

A system is moving as q j = q j (t ) j = 1...n

Lagrangian is L(q, q! , t ) = L(q(t ), q! (t ), t )
integrate
!
!

t2

I = Ldt
t1

Action, or action integral

Action I depends on the entire path from t1 to t2

Choice of coordinates qj does not matter
! Action is invariant under coordinate transformation

Hamiltons Principle
The action integral of a physical system is stationary
for the actual path
!

This is equivalent to Lagranges Equations

!

We will prove this

We will also define stationary

Three equivalent formulations

!
!
!

Newtons Eqn depends explicitly on x-y-z coordinates

Lagranges Eqn is same for any generalized coordinates
Hamiltons Principle refers to no coordinates
! Everything is in the action integral
Hamiltons Principle is more fundamental

probably...

Stationary
!

Consider two paths that are close to each other

Difference is infinitesimal

t2

Stationary means that the

difference of the action integrals is
zero to the 1st order of q(t)
t2

t2

t1

t1

I = L(q + q, q! + q! , t )dt L(q, q! , t )dt = 0

Almost same as saying minimum

!

q(t )

Similar to first derivative = 0

configuration space

It could as well be maximum

q (t ) + q (t )
t1

q(t1 ) = q(t2 ) = 0

Infinitesimal Path Difference

!

Whats q(t)?
!
!
!

configuration space

t2

Its arbitrary sort of

It has to be zero at t1 and t2
Its well-behaving
Dont worry

q(t )

too much
Continuous, non-singular,
continuous 1st and 2nd derivatives
!

q (t ) + q (t )
t1

Have to shrink it to zero

!

Trick: write it as q(t ) = (t )

! is a parameter, which well make " 0
! (t) is an arbitrary well-behaving function (t1 ) = (t2 ) = 0

Hamilton " Lagrange

!

To derive Lagranges Eqns from Hamiltons Principle

t2

t2

t1

t1

I = L(q + q, q! + q! , t )dt L(q, q! , t )dt = 0

!

t2

Define I ( ) t L(q (t ) + (t ), q! (t ) + ! (t ), t )dt

1

d
=0

I is then lim [ I ( ) I (0)]

I
We must show that
= 0 leads to Lagranges Eqns
=0

A bit of work. Will do it on Thursday

Summary
!

Derived Lagranges Eqn from Newtons Eqn

!

Assumptions we made:
!
!
!

Using DAlemberts Principle Differential approach

Constraints are holonomic " Generalized coordinates
Forces of constraints do no work " No frictions
Other forces are monogenic " Generalized potential

Introduced Hamiltons Principle

!
!
!

U d U
Qj =
+
q j dt q! j

Integral approach
Defined the action integral and stationary
Derivation in the next lecture