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1.1

Physics and physical

measurement

The realm of physics

Assessment statements
1.1.1 State and compare quantities to the nearest order of magnitude.
1.1.2 State the ranges of magnitude of distances, masses and times that
occur in the universe, from the smallest to the largest.
1.1.3 State ratios of quantities as different orders of magnitude.
1.1.4 Estimate approximate values of everyday quantities to one or two
signicant gures and/or to the nearest order of magnitude.

Range of magnitudes of quantities in our

universe
Physics seeks to explain the universe itself, from the very large to the very
small. At the large end, the size of the visible universe is thought to be around
1025 m, and the age of the universe some 1018 s. The total mass of the universe is
estimated to be 1050 kg.

How do we know all this is true?

What if there is more than one
universe?

A planet was recently discovered in

the constellation Libra (about 20 light
years from Earth) that has all the right
conditions to support alien life. This
artists impression shows us how it
might look.

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Physics and physical measurement

Some physicists think that there are

still undiscovered particles whose
size is around the Planck length.

What are the reasons for there

being a lower limit for length?
Why should there be a lower limit
for time?

The diameter of an atom is about 1010 m, and of a nucleus 1015 m. The smallest
particles may be the quarks, probably less than 1018 m in size, but there is a much
smaller fundamental unit of length, called the Planck length, which is around 1035 m.
There are good reasons for believing that this is a lower limit for length, and we
accept the speed of light in a vacuum to be an upper limit for speed (3 108 ms1).
This enables us to calculate an approximate theoretical lower limit for time:
distance
time _______
speed
35

10 m 1043 s.
________
108 ms1
Figure 1.1 The exact position of
electrons in an atom is uncertain; we
can only say where there is a high
probability of nding them.

Rest mass is the mass of a particle

when at rest; the mass increases if
the particle moves fast enough.

If the quarks are truly fundamental, then their mass would give us a lower limit.
Quarks hide themselves inside protons and neutrons so it is not easy to measure
them. Our best guess is that the mass of the lightest quark, called the up quark, is
around 1030 kg, and this is also the approximate rest mass of the electron.

Production and decay of bottom quarks.

There are six types of quarks called up,
down, charm, strange, top and bottom.

If we can split an atom why cant

we split an electron?

You need to be able to state ratios of quantities as differences of orders of magnitude.

For example, the approximate ratio of the diameter of an atom to its nucleus is:
1010 m 105
_______
1015 m
105 is known as a difference of ve orders of magnitude.
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This is not a small ratio; it means that if the atom were as big as a football pitch,
then the nucleus would be about the size of a pea on the centre circle. This implies
that most of the atoms of all matter consist of entirely empty space.

If most of the atom is empty space

why does stu feel so solid?

Another example is that the ratio of the rest mass of the proton to the rest mass of
the electron is of the order:
1.67 1027 kg
_____________
2 103
9.11 1031 kg
You should be able to do these estimations without using a calculator.
Exercise
1 The diameter of a proton is of the order of magnitude of
A 1012 m.
B 1015 m.
C 1018 m

1021 m.

You also need to be able to estimate approximate values of everyday quantities to

one or two signicant gures.
For example, estimate the answers to the following:
How high is a two-storey house in metres?
What is the diameter of the pupil of your eye?
How many times does your heart beat in an hour when you are relaxed?
What is the weight of an apple in newtons?
What is the mass of the air in your bedroom?
What pressure do you exert on the ground when standing on one foot?
There is help with these estimates at the end of the chapter.

1.2

Measurement and uncertainties

Assessment statements
1.2.1
State the fundamental units in the SI system.
1.2.2
Distinguish between fundamental and derived units and give
examples of derived units.
1.2.3
Convert between different units of quantities.
1.2.4
State units in the accepted SI format.
1.2.5
State values in scientic notation and in multiples of units with
appropriate prexes.
1.2.6
Describe and give examples of random and systematic errors.
1.2.7
Distinguish between precision and accuracy.
1.2.8
Explain how the effects of random errors may be reduced.
1.2.9
Calculate quantities and results of calculations to the appropriate
number of signicant gures.
1.2.10 State uncertainties as absolute, fractional and percentage uncertainties.
1.2.11 Determine the uncertainties in results.
1.2.12 Identify uncertainties as error bars in graphs.
1.2.13 State random uncertainty as an uncertainty range () and represent it
graphically as an error bar.
1.2.14 Determine the uncertainties in the slope and intercepts of a straight
line graph.

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Physics and physical measurement

Some people think the foot was

based on, or dened by, the length
of the foot of an English king, but it
can be traced back to the ancient
Egyptians.

The system of units we now call SI

was originally developed on the
orders of King Louis XVI of France.
The unit for length was dened
in terms of the distance from the
equator to the pole; this distance
was divided into 10 000 equal parts
and these were called kilometres.
The unit for mass was dened in
terms of pure water at a certain
temperature; one litre (or 1000 cm3)
has a mass of exactly one kilogram.
Put another way, 1 cm3 of water
has a mass of exactly 1 gram.
The units of time go back to the
ancients, and the second was
simply accepted as a fraction
of a solar day. The base unit for
electricity, the ampere, is dened
in terms of the force between two
current-carrying wires and the unit
for temperature, the kelvin, comes
from an earlier scale developed by
a Swedish man called Celsius.

The SI system of fundamental and derived units

If you want to measure something, you have to use a unit. For example, it is useless
to say that a persons mass is 10, 60, 140 or 600 if we do not know whether it is
measured in kilograms or some other unit such as stones or pounds. In the old
days, units were rather random; your mass might be measured in stones, but your
height would not be measured in sticks, but in feet.
Soon after the French Revolution, the International System of units was developed.
They are called the SI units because SI stands for Systme International.
There are seven base, or fundamental, SI units and they are listed in the table
below.
Name

Symbol

Concept

metre or meter

length

kilogram

kg

mass

second

second

ampere

electric current

kelvin

temperature

mole

mol

amount of matter

candela

cd

intensity of light

Mechanics is the study of matter, motion, forces and energy. With combinations
of the rst three base units (metre, kilogram and second), we can develop all the
other units of mechanics.
mass kg m3
density _______
volume
distance m s1
speed _______
time
As the concepts become more complex, we give them new units. The derived SI
units you will need to know are as follows:

Name

Symbol

Concept

Broken down into

base SI units

newton

force or weight

kg m s2

joule

energy or work

kg m2 s2

watt

power

kg m2 s3

pascal

Pa

pressure

kg m1 s2

hertz

Hz

frequency

s1

coulomb

electric charge

As

volt

potential difference

kg m2 s3 A1

ohm

resistance

kg m2 s3 A2

tesla

magnetic eld strength

kg s2 A1

weber

Wb

magnetic ux

kg m2 s2 A1

becquerel

Bq

radioactivity

s1

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Worked examples
1 Give units for the following expressed as (i) the derived unit (ii) base SI units:
(a) force

Examiners hint:
force mass acceleration.

(b) kinetic energy.

2 Check if these equations work by substituting units into them.
(a) power work/time or energy/time

Examiners hint:
kinetic energy _12 mv2

(b) power force velocity

Solutions
1 (a) (i) N

(ii) kg (m s2) or kg m s2

(b) (i) J

(ii) kg (m s1)2 or kg m2 s2

2 (a) W : J/s or W : (kg m2 s2)/s or W : kg m2 s3

(b) W : N (m s1) or W : (kg m s2) (m s1) or W : kg m2 s3

Exercises
2 Which one of the following units is a unit of energy?
A eV
B W s1
C W m1

D N m s1

3 Which one of the following lists a derived unit and a fundamental unit?
A

ampere

second

coulomb

kilogram

coulomb

newton

metre

kilogram

In addition to the above, there are also a few important units that are not
technically SI, including:
Name

Symbol

Concept

litre

volume

minute, hour, year, etc.

min, h, y, etc. time

kilowatt-hour

kWh

energy

electronvolt

eV

energy

degrees celsius

temperature

decibel

dB

loudness

unied atomic mass unit

mass of nucleon

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Physics and physical measurement

Worked example
Convert these units to SI:.
(a) year
(b) C

(c) kWh

(d) eV

Solution
(a) 1 year 1 365 days 24 hours 60 minutes 60 seconds
Examiners hint: The size of one
degree Celsius is the same as one Kelvin
the dierence is where they start, or the
zero point. The conversion involves adding
or subtracting 273. Since absolute zero or
0 K is equal to 273 C, temperature in
C temperature in K 273.
Examiners hint: To change kilowatthours to joules involves using the
equation:
energy power time.
1 kW 1000 W
and 1 hour 60 60 seconds.
Examiners hint: The electronvolt
is dened as the energy gained by an
electron accelerated through a potential
dierence of one volt. So the electronvolt
is equal to the charge on an electron
multiplied by one volt.

3.15 107 s
(b) Here are some common conversions:
0 K 273 C
273 K 0 C
300 K 27 C
373 K 100 C
(c) 1 kWh (energy) 1000 W (power) 3600 s (time)
3 600 000 J
3.6 106 J
(d) electrical energy electric charge potential difference
1 eV 1.6 1019 C 1 V
1.6 1019 J

The SI units can be modied by the use of prexes such as milli as in millimetre
(mm) and kilo as in kilometre (km). The number conversions on the prexes are
always the same; milli always means one thousandth or 103 and kilo always means
one thousand or 103.
These are the most common SI prexes:
Prex

Abbreviation

Value

tera

1012

giga

109

mega

106

kilo

103

centi

102

milli

103

micro

106

nano

109

pico

1012

femto

1015

Exercises
4 Change 2 360 000 J to scientic notation and to M J.
5

A popular radio station has a frequency of 1 090 000 Hz. Change this to scientic notation and to MHz.

6 The average wavelength of white light is 5.0 107 m. What would this be in nanometres?
7 The time taken for light to cross a room is about 1 108 seconds. Change this into
microseconds.
6

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Uncertainty and error in measurement

Even when we try to measure things very accurately, it is never possible to be
absolutely certain that the measurement is perfect.
The errors that occur in measurement can be divided into two types, random and
systematic. If readings of a measurement are above and below the true value with
equal probability, then the errors are random. Usually random errors are caused
by the person making the measurement; for example, the error due to a persons
reaction time is a random error.

What conditions would be

necessary to enable something to
be measured with total accuracy?

Systematic errors are due to the system or apparatus being used. Systematic errors
can often be detected by repeating the measurement using a different method
or different apparatus and comparing the results. A zero offset, an instrument
not reading exactly zero at the beginning of the experiment, is an example of a
systematic error. You will learn more about errors as you do your practical work in
the laboratory.
Random errors can be reduced by repeating the measurement many times and
taking the average, but this process will not affect systematic errors. When you
write up your practical work you need to discuss the errors that have occurred in
the experiment. For example: What difference did friction and air resistance make?
How accurate were the measurements of length, mass and time? Were the errors
random or systematic?
Another distinction in measuring things is between precision and accuracy.
Imagine a game of darts where a person has three attempts to hit the bulls-eye.
If all three darts hit the double twenty, then it was a precise attempt, but not
accurate. If the three darts are evenly spaced just outside and around the bulls-eye,
then the throw was accurate, but not precise enough. If the darts all miss the board
entirely then the throw was neither precise nor accurate. Only if all three darts hit
the bulls-eye can the throws be described as both precise and accurate!

5 20 1 1
8
12

5 20 1 1
8
12
9
11 14

5 20 1 1
8

accurate,
not precise

5 20 1 1
8

9
11 14

10

10

11 14

3 17

13

13

15

16

3 17

19

16

19

10

12

15

15

16

precise,
not accurate

neither precise
nor accurate

15

9
11 14

10

3 17

13

13

16

12

19

Figure 1.2 All the players try to hit

the bulls eye with their three darts, but
only the last result is both precise and
accurate.

19

3 17

both accurate
and precise

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Physics and physical measurement

It is the same with measurements; they can be precise, accurate, neither or both. If
there have been a large number of measurements made of a particular quantity, we
can show these four possibilities on graphs like this:
Figure 1.3 Here is another way of
looking at the dierence between
precision and accuracy, showing the
distribution of a large number of
measurements of the same quantity
around the correct value of the
quantity.

precise but
not accurate

accurate but
not precise

number of
readings

number of
readings

true value of
measured quantity

true value

neither accurate
nor precise

accurate and precise

number of
readings
If you are describing a person
you have just met to your best
friend, which is more important
accuracy, precision or some other
quality?

number of
readings

true value

true value

Signicant gures
When measuring something, in addition to a unit, it is important to think about
the number of signicant gures or digits we are going to use.
For example, when measuring the width and length of a piece of A4 paper with a
30 cm ruler, what sort of results would be sensible?
Measurements (cm)

Number of
signicant gures

Sensible?

yes

maybe

no

21 30 1
21.0 29.7 0.1
21.03 29.68 0.01

With a 30 cm ruler it is not possible to guarantee a measurement of 0.01 cm or

0.1 mm so these numbers are not signicant.
This is what the above measurements of width would tell us:
Measurements (cm)

Number of
signicant gures

Value probably
between (cm)

21 1

2022

21.0 0.1

20.921.1

21.03 0.01

21.0221.04

The number of signicant gures in any answer or result should not be more than
that of the least precise value that has been used in the calculation.
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Worked example
Calculate the area of a piece of A4 paper, dimensions 21 cm 29.7 cm. Give your
answer to the appropriate number of signicant gures.
Examiners hint: The least precise
input value, 21 cm, only has 2 signicant
gures.

Solution
21 29.7 623.7

Examiners hint: Because we are

using scientic notation, there is no
doubt that we are giving the area to 2
signicant gures.

Area 620 cm2

6.2 102 cm2

Exercise
8 When a voltage V of 12.2 V is applied to a DC motor, the current I in the motor is 0.20 A. Which
one of the following is the output power VI of the motor given to the correct appropriate
number of signicant digits?
A. 2 W

B. 2.4 W

C. 2.40 W

D. 2.44 W

Uncertainties in calculated results

If we use a stopwatch to measure the time taken for a ball to fall a short distance,
there will inevitably be errors or uncertainties due to reaction time. For example, if
the measured time is 1.0 s, then the uncertainty could reasonably be 0.1 s. Here
the uncertainty, or plus or minus value, is called an absolute uncertainty. Absolute
uncertainties have a magnitude, or size, and a unit as appropriate.
There are two other ways we could show this uncertainty, either as a fraction or as
1
a percentage. As a fraction, an uncertainty of 0.1 s in 1.0 s would be __
10 and as a
percentage it would be 10%.
These uncertainties increase if the measurements are combined in calculations or
through equations. In an experiment to nd the acceleration due to gravity, the
errors measuring both time and distance would inuence the nal result.
If the measurements are to be combined by addition or subtraction, then the
easiest way is to add absolute uncertainties. If the measurements are to be
combined using multiplication, division or by using powers like x2, then the best
method is to add percentage uncertainties. If there is a square root relationship,
then the percentage uncertainty is halved.

Uncertainties in graphs
When you hand in your lab reports, you must always show uncertainty values
at the top of your data tables as a sensible value. On your graphs, these are
represented as error bars. The error bars must be drawn so that their length on
the scale of the graph is the same as the uncertainty in the data table. Error bars
can be on either or both axes, depending on how accurate the measurements are.
The best-t line must pass through all the error bars. If it does not pass through
a point, then that point is called an outlier and this should be discussed in the
evaluation of the experiment.
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Physics and physical measurement

Figure 1.4 Error bars can

be on the x-axis only,
y-axis only or on both
axes, as shown here.

Motion showing a body travelling at a steady speed

y
8.0

7.0

6.0

outlier
5.0
distance
(m) 0.1
4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

1.0

1.3

2.0
time (s) 0.2

3.0

Vectors and scalars

Assessment statements
1.3.1 Distinguish between vector and scalar quantities, and give examples of
each.
1.3.2 Determine the sum or difference of two vectors by a graphical method.
1.3.3 Resolve vectors into perpendicular components along chosen axes.

Scalars are measurements that have size, or magnitude. A scalar almost always
needs a unit. Vectors have magnitude and also have a direction. For example, a
Boeing 747 can y at a speed of 885 kmh1 or 246 ms1. This is the speed and is a
scalar quantity. If the plane ies from London to New York at 246 ms1 then this
is called its velocity and is a vector, because it tells us the direction. Clearly, ying
from London to New York is not the same as ying from New York to London;
the speed can be the same but the velocity is different. Direction can be crucially
important.
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Here is another example of the difference between a vector and a scalar. Suppose
you walk three metres to the east and then four metres towards the north.
The distance you have travelled is seven metres but your displacement, the distance
between where you started and where you ended up, is only ve metres. Because
displacement is a vector, we also need to say that the ve metres had been moved
in a certain direction north of east.

5m

4 m north

Here are some common examples:

Scalar

Vector

Distance

Displacement

Speed

Velocity

Temperature

Acceleration

Mass

Weight

All types of energy

All forces

Work

Momentum

Pressure

All eld strengths

3 m east
distance walked 7 m
displacement 5 m (north of east)
Figure 1.5 Distance is a scalar, and
in this case, the distance travelled is
3 m 4 m 7 m. Displacement is a
vector, and here it is the hypotenuse of
the triangle (5 m).

A vector is usually represented by a bold italicized symbol, for example F for force.
Exercises
9 Which one of the following is a scalar quantity?
A Pressure
B Impulse
C Magnetic eld strength
D Weight
10 Which one of the following is a vector quantity?
A Electric power
B Electrical resistance
C Electric eld
D Electric potential dierence

Free body diagrams

(a) Book resting on a table:

(b) Car travelling at constant velocity to the left:

normal forces

normal or
supporting force

weight normal forces

driving force resistive forces

driving force
of engine

resistive forces

weight
weight normal force

weight

(c) Aeroplane in level ight accelerating to the right:

Figure 1.6 Free-body diagrams show

all the forces acting on the body. The
arrows should be drawn to represent
both the size and direction of the forces
and should always be labelled.

lift
drag of air

thrust of jets

weight

weight lift
thrust drag

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Physics and physical measurement

Figure 1.7 When the vectors are

parallel, the resultant is found by simple
addition or subtraction.

If two or more forces are acting at the same point in space, you need to be able to
calculate the resultant, or total effective force, of the combination. The resultant is
the single force that has the same effect as the combination.
(a)

2N

3N

2N

(b)

resultant 1 N to left

(c)

resultant 5 N to right

3N
3N

3N

6N
resultant zero

If they are not parallel, the easiest way to determine the resultant is by the
parallelogram law. This says that the resultant of two vectors acting at a point is
given by the diagonal of the parallelogram they form.
6N

Figure 1.8 We can use a graphical

method to nd the resultant accurately.

resultant

60
magnitude of resultant 14 N

10 N

Exercise
Examiners hint: You can do this is
by scale drawing using graph paper.

11 The diagram below shows a boat that is about to cross a river in a direction perpendicular to the
bank at a speed of 0.8 ms1. The current ows at 0.6 ms1 in the direction shown.

bank
0.6 ms1

0.8 ms1
boat
bank

The magnitude of the displacement of the boat 5 seconds after leaving the bank is
A 3 m.

B 4 m.

C 5 m.

D 7 m.

You also need to be able to resolve, or split, vectors into components or parts. A
component of a vector shows the effect in a particular direction. Usually we resolve
vectors into an x-component and a y-component.

Worked example
A force of 20 N pulls a box on a bench at an angle of 60 to the horizontal. What is
the magnitude of the force F parallel to the bench?
y-component

B
20 N

A 60
C
12

x-component (F)

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Figure 1.9 Resolving into

components is the opposite process
to adding vectors and nding the
resultant.

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Solution
The string will tend to pull the box along the bench but it will also tend to pull it
upwards.
adjacent
F
cosine 60 __________ ___
hypotenuse 20

Examiners hint: In the right-angled

triangle ABC, the x-component (F) is
adjacent to the 60 angle while the 20 N
force is the hypotenuse.

F 20 N cos 60 10 N

Exercise
12 A force of 35 N pulls a brick on a level surface at an angle of 40 to the horizontal. The frictional
force opposing the motion is 6.8N. What is the resultant force F parallel to the bench?

Examiners hint: Here is an example

of how not to answer a basic question:
Find x.

Here it is

3 cm

4 cm

Practice questions

1 Which one of the following contains three fundamental units?

A
B
C
D

Metre
Second
Kilogram
Kelvin

Kilogram
Ampere
Ampere
Coulomb

Coulomb
Newton
Kelvin
Second

2 The resistive force F acting on a sphere of radius r moving at speed v through a liquid is
given by

F cvr
where c is a constant. Which of the following is a correct unit for c?
A
B
C
D

N
N s1
N m2 s1
N m2 s

3 Which of the following is not a unit of energy?

A
B
C
D

Ws
W s1
k Wh
k g m2 s2

4 The power P dissipated in a resistor R in which there is a current I is given by

P I 2R
The uncertainty in the value of the resistance is 10% and the uncertainty in the value
of the current is 3%. The best estimate for the uncertainty of the power dissipated is
A
B
C
D

6%
9%
6%
19%

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Physics and physical measurement

Here are some ideas to help you with the estimates on page 3:
1 How high is a two oor house in metres?
First we could think about how high a normal room is. When you stand up
how far is your head from the ceiling? Most adults are between 1.5 m and 2.0 m
tall, so the height of a room must be above 2.0 m and probably below 2.5 m.
If we multiply by two and add in some more for the oors and the roof then a
sensible value could be 7 or 8 m.
2 What is the diameter of the pupil of your eye?
This would change with the brightness of the light, but even if it were really
dark it is unlikely to be above half a centimetre or 5.0 mm. In bright sunshine
maybe it could go down to 1.0 mm so a good estimate would be between these
two diameters.
3 How many times does your heart beat in an hour when you are relaxed?
You can easily measure your pulse in a minute. When you are relaxed it will
most probably be between 60 and 80 beats per minute. To get a value for an
hour we must multiply by 60, and this gives a number between 3600 and 4800.
As an order of magnitude or ball park gure this would be 103.
4 What is the weight of an apple in newtons?
Apples come in different sizes but if you buy a kilogram how many do you get?
If the number is somewhere between 5 and 15 that would give an average mass
for each apple of around 100g which translates to a weight of approximately 1
N.
5 What is the mass of the air in your bedroom?
If air is that heavy then why dont
we feel it?

How does the pressure exerted

by one foot compare to blood
pressure and atmospheric
pressure?
What would happen to an
astronaut in space if their space suit
suddenly ripped open?

To estimate this you need to know the approximate density of air, which is
1.3 kg m3. Then you need an estimate of the volume of your bedroom, for
example 4 m 3 m 2.5 m, which would give 30 m3.
Then mass density volume would give around 40 kg; maybe more than
expected.
6 What pressure do you exert on the ground standing on one foot?
force . The force would be
For this we would use the equation pressure _____
area
your weight; if your mass is 60 kg then your weight would be 600 N. If we take
average values for the length and width of your foot as 30 cm and 10 cm, change
them to 0.3 m and 0.1 m, and multiply, then the area is 0.03 m2. Dividing 600 N
by 0.03 m2 gives an answer of 20 000 Pa.
You need to practise these kinds of estimations without a calculator.

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UNCORRECTED PROOF COPY