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Module 01 Notes
Module 01 Notes
1.
MODULE 1 (MATHEMATICS).................................................................1-2
1.1
INTRODUCTION.........................................................................1-2
1.2
ARITHMETIC..............................................................................1-2
1.3
Number Systems.........................................................................1-2
1.3.1 The Decimal system........................................................1-2
1.3.2 The Binary System..........................................................1-3
1.3.3 Whole Numbers...............................................................1-4
1.3.4 Addition............................................................................1-4
1.3.5 Subtraction......................................................................1-4
1.3.6 Multiplication....................................................................1-5
1.3.7 Division............................................................................1-6
1.3.8 Directed Numbers (Signed Numbers)..............................1-7
1.3.9 Adding Directed Numbers................................................1-7
1.3.10 Subtracting Directed Numbers.......................................1-7
1.3.11 Multiplying Directed Numbers........................................1-8
1.3.12 Dividing Directed Numbers............................................1-8
1.3.13 Common Fractions........................................................1-9
1.3.14 Reducing Fractions........................................................1-10
1.3.15 Lowest Common Denominator......................................1-11
1.3.16 Adding Common Fractions............................................1-11
1.3.17 Subtracting Common Fractions.....................................1-12
1.3.18 Mixed Numbers..............................................................1-12
1.3.19 Adding Mixed Numbers.................................................1-12
1.3.20 Subtracting mixed numbers...........................................1-14
1.3.21 Multiplying Fractions......................................................1-14
1.3.22 Simplify Fractions for Multiplication................................1-15
1.3.23 Dividing Fractions..........................................................1-15
1.3.24 Decimals........................................................................1-16
1.3.25 Adding Decimals............................................................1-16
1.3.26 Subtracting Decimals.....................................................1-17
1.3.27 Multiplying Decimals......................................................1-17
1.3.28 Dividing Decimals..........................................................1-18
1.4
Converting Decimals to Fractions................................................1-19
1.4.1 Rounding Decimals..........................................................1-19
1.4.2 Factors.............................................................................1-20
1.4.3 Highest Common Factor..................................................1-21
1.4.4 Percentage......................................................................1-22
1.5
Ratio and Proportion....................................................................1-23
1.6
Powers and Roots.......................................................................1-24
1.7
Averages.....................................................................................1-25
1.8
Weights and Measures................................................................1-25
1.9
ALGEBRA...................................................................................1-26
1.9.1 Equations.........................................................................1-27
1.9.2 Algebraic Rules...............................................................1-27
1.9.3 Solving For A Variable......................................................1-28
1.9.4 Order Of Operation..........................................................1-30
1.9.5 Complex Equations..........................................................1-31
1.10 GEOMETRY................................................................................1-32
1.10.1 Calculating Area.............................................................1-32
1.10.2 The Rectangle...............................................................1-32
1.10.3 The Square....................................................................1-33
1.10.4 The Triangle...................................................................1-33
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Module 1.
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1.
1.1
MODULE 1 (MATHEMATICS)
INTRODUCTION
1.2
ARITHMETIC
Arithmetic is the basic language of all mathematics and uses real, non-negative
numbers. These are sometimes known as counting numbers. Only four
operations are used, addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Whilst
these operations are well known to you, a review of the terms and operations
used will make learning the more difficult mathematical concepts easier.
1.3
NUMBER SYSTEMS
Numbers are a large part of everyone's life, and you are constantly bombarded
with figures. Yet little attention is paid to the basic structure of the of the
numbering system. In daily life, most people typically use a base ten or decimal
system. However, another numbering system that is used in computer
calculations is the base two or binary system.
The decimal system is based on ten whole numbers, often called integers, from
zero to nine. Above the number nine, the digits are reused in various
combinations to represent larger numbers. This is accomplished by arranging
the numbers in columns based on a multiple of ten. With the use of a minus (-)
sign, numbers smaller than zero are indicated.
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To describe quantities that fall between whole numbers, fractions are used.
Common or Vulgar fractions are used when the space between two integers is
divided into equal segments, such as quarters. When the space between
integers is divided into ten segments, decimal fractions are typically used.
Decimal
Number
Binary Numbers
Binary
Output
128
64
32
16
10
11
100
101
110
Binary Numbers
Fig. 1
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While integers are useful in communicating a given quantity, you must be able to
manipulate them to discover their full power. There are four fundamental
mathematical operations with which you must be familiar. They are addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division.
1.3.4 ADDITION
The process of finding the total of two or more numbers is called addition. This
operation is indicated by the plus (+) symbol. When numbers are combined by
addition, the result is called the sum.
When adding whole numbers whose total is more than nine, it is necessary to
arrange the numbers in columns so that the last digit of each number is in the
same column. The units column contains the values zero to nine, the tens
column contains multiples of ten, up to ninety and the hundreds column consists
of multiples of hundred.
Example:
Hundreds Tens Units
7
(+)
To check addition problems, add the figures again in the same manner, or in
reverse order from bottom to top. It makes no difference in what sequence the
numbers are combined.
1.3.5 SUBTRACTION
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Example:
Hundreds Tens Units
7
(-)
1.3.6 MULTIPLICATION
Example:
3
4
12
4
(x)
(x)
12
Like addition and subtraction, when multiplying large numbers it is important they
be aligned vertically. Regardless of the number of digits in the multiplicand or
multiplier, the multiplicand should be written on top and the multiplier beneath it.
When multiplying numbers greater than nine, multiply each digit in the
multiplicand by each digit in the multiplier. Once all multiplicands are used as a
multiplier, the products of each multiplication operation are added to arrive at a
total product.
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Example:
532
Multiplicand
24 (x)
2128
Multiplier
First partial product
10640
12768
1.3.7 DIVISION
Example:
52
8)416
40
(-)
16
16 (-)
0
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To check a division problem for accuracy, multiply the quotient by the divisor and
add the remainder (if any). If the operation is carried out properly, the result
equals the dividend.
If zero is used as a starting point, all numbers larger than zero have a positive
value, and all those smaller than zero have a negative value. This is illustrated
by constructing a number line (refer Fig. 2)
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
+1
+2
+3
+4
+5
Number Line
Fig. 2
THE SUM OF POSITIVE NUMBERS IS POSITIVE
THE SUM OF NEGATIVE NUMBERS IS NEGATIVE
When adding two or more numbers with the same sign, ignore the sign and find
the sum of the values and then place the common sign in front of the answer. In
other words, adding two or more positive numbers always results in a positive
sum, whereas adding two or more negative numbers results in a negative sum.
When adding a positive and a negative number, find the difference between the
two numbers and apply the sign (+ or -) of the larger number. So adding a
negative number is the same as subtracting a positive number. The result of
adding or subtracting signed numbers is called the algebraic sum of those
numbers.
ADD 25 +(-15)
25
25
+(- 15)
- 15
10
10
When subtracting numbers with different signs, change the operation sign to a
plus and change the sign of the subtrahend. Once this is done, proceed as you
do in addition. For example, +3 - - 4 is the same as +3 + + 4. It makes no
difference if the subtrahend is larger than the minuend, since the operation is
done as though the two quantities are added. Example: Subtract 48 from
216.
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Step 1:
Step 2:
12
6 x (-2)
- 12
(- 6) x (- 2) =
12
(- 6) x (2)
- 12
Page 8
12 (-3)
-4
(-12) (-3) =
(- 12) 3
-4
9/24
A fractions value also remains the same, if both numerator, and denominator are
divided by the same number. This type of operation allows you to simplify, or
reduce, large fractions to their smallest terms.
Example:
21875
3/9 3/3
1/3
875
25
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100000
875
25
4000
25
4000
=
25
35
160
35
160
7
32
45
Step 2.
3
9
3
9
3
3
1
3
When neither the numerator nor the denominator can be divided evenly, the
fraction has been reduced to its lowest terms.
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You cannot add or subtract common fractions without first converting all of the
denominators into identical units. This process is known as finding the lowest
common denominator (LCD). For example, the quickest way to find the lowest
common denominator for 1/3 and 1/2 is to multiply the two denominators (3 x 2 =
6). To determine the numerators, multiply the numerator by the same number
used to obtain the LCD.
Example:
1
3
1
2
x
2
6
3
6
As mentioned earlier, you cannot add common fractions without first determining
the least common denominator. However, once this is done, you only need to
add the numerators to arrive at a sum. This answer is then reduced to its lowest
terms.
Example:
Add
12
Step 1.
12
1
12
1
3
Step 2.
12
4
12
4
12
4
12
or
12
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3
4
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24
Step 2.
8
6
24
24
24
or
24
1
12
Mixed numbers contain both whole numbers and proper fractions. Before adding
or subtracting mixed numbers, you must convert them to improper fractions. To
convert a mixed number to an improper fraction, multiply the whole number by
the denominator and add the product to the numerator. The sum of these two
numbers becomes the numerator.
Example:
Convert 3 to an improper fraction.
3 =
(4 x 3) + 3 =
4
15
4
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accomplished, determine the LCD and add in the same manner as with proper
fractions.
When adding improper fractions, the sum is usually another improper fraction.
When faced with an improper fraction in an answer, you should convert it back to
a mixed number. To do this, divide the numerator by the denominator to
determine the whole number. If there is a remainder, leave it in fractional form.
Example:
Step 1.
(2 x 3) + 2 =
3
3 =
(3 x 4) + 1 =
4
5 =
13
4
(5 x 2) + 1 =
2
Step 2.
11
2
12
Step 3.
39
12
66
12
137
12
11 5
12
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To subtract a mixed number from another mixed number or proper fraction, begin
by converting the mixed number to an improper fraction. Once converted, find
the LCD and perform the subtraction. To complete the problem, convert the
resulting improper fraction into a mixed number.
Example:
Step 1.
(5 x 3) + 2 =
3
2 1/6 =
(2 x 6) + 1 =
6
Step 2.
17
13
6
Step 3.
13
21
6
3 3/6 or
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Step 1.
32
Step 2.
16
160
4096
32
4096
32
128
It was mentioned earlier that the value of a fraction does not change when you
perform the same operation (multiplication or division) on both the numerator and
denominator. You can use this principle to simplify the multiplication of fractions.
Example: 8/32 x 5/8 x 4/16 is equivalent to:
8 x 5 x 4
32 x 8 x 16
Notice that there is an 8 in the numerator and denominator. Since these are
equivalent values, they can be removed from the equation. Furthermore, the 16
in the denominator is divisible by the 4 in the numerator. Therefore, when both
are divided by 4, the 4 in the numerator reduces to 1 and the 16 reduces to 4.
This makes the multiplication appear as this:
1
32
1
4
5
128
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Step 1.
3
becomes
4
x
Step 2.
4
1
3
8
4
1
2 2/3
1.3.24 DECIMALS
Working with fractions is typically time consuming and complex. One way you
can eliminate fractions in complex equations is by replacing them with decimal
fractions or decimals. A common fraction is converted to a decimal fraction by
dividing the numerator by the denominator. For example, is converted to a
decimal by dividing the 3 by the 4. The decimal equivalent of is 0.75.
Improper fractions are converted to decimals in the same manner. However,
whole numbers appear to the left of the decimal point.
In a decimal, each digit represents a multiple of ten. The first digit represents
tenths, the second hundredths and the third thousandths.
Example:
0.5
The addition of decimals is done in the same manner as the addition of whole
numbers, so care must be taken to correctly align the decimal points vertically.
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Example:
Step 1.
(+)
31.417
Once everything is added, the decimal point is placed directly below the other
decimal points.
Like adding, subtracting decimals is done in the same manner as with whole
numbers. Again, it is important that you keep the decimal points aligned.
Example:
If you have 325.25 kilograms of ballast on an aircraft and you remove 30.75
kilograms, how much ballast remains?
325.25
30.75
(-)
294.50 kilograms
When multiplying decimals ignore the decimal points and multiply the resulting
whole numbers. Once the product is calculated, count the number of digits to the
right of the decimal point in both the multiplier and the multiplicand. This number
represents the number of places from the right, that the decimal point is placed in
the product.
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Example:
26.757
0.32
3 decimal places
(x)
2 decimal places
53514
802710
856224
Count 5 decimal places from the right in the answer, this gives: 8.56224
When dividing decimals, the operation is carried out in the same manner as
division of whole numbers. To ensure accurate placement of the decimal point in
the quotient, two rules apply:
When the divisor is a whole number, the decimal point in the quotient aligns
vertically with the decimal in the dividend when doing long division.
When the divisor is a decimal fraction, it should first be converted to a whole
number by moving the decimal point to the right. However, when the decimal in
the divisor is moved, the decimal in the dividend must also move in the same
direction and the same number of spaces.
Example:
Step 1.
Step 2.
Step 3.
Divide.
372.6 27
=
13.8
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1.4
Although decimals are typically easier to work with, there are times when the use
of a fraction is more practical. For example, when measuring something, most
scales are in fractional increments. For this reason it is important that you know
how to convert a decimal number into a fraction. For the decimal 0.125 we write
125/1000 and say one hundred and twenty five thousandths. This fraction is
then reduced to its lowest terms, which in this case is 1/8.
Example: Convert 0.625 to a common fraction.
Step 1.
Rewrite as a fraction.
0.625=
625
1000
Step 2.
25
1000
25
25
40
5
8
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figures becomes 3.2 and 0.456 to two significant figures, becomes 0.46. Note
also that in this case zeros do not count as significant figures.
1.4.2 FACTORS
We know for example that 2 x 6 = 12, so we say that 2 and 6 are factors of 12.
The numbers 1, 3, 4 and 12 are also factors of 12 because these numbers can
be made into a multiplication, which produces the sum of 12.
This may seem obvious, but it will sometimes be useful to factorise, i.e.
determine the factors of a given number, or more commonly, find the factors of an
algebraic expression.
Example
Find the possible factors of 60. (In other words, find the integers, which divide
into 60).
They are: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30 and 60
Prime Numbers
A prime number is a number whose only factors are 1 and itself.
Example
List the prime numbers between 1 and 30.
They are: 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23 and 29.
It is sometimes useful to express the factors of a given number in terms of prime
numbers.
Using the factors of 60 again, taking 4 and 15 as 2 factors. 4 x 15 = 60, but 4 has
factors of 2 and 2, and 15 has factors of 5 and 3. Hence the number 60 can be
expressed as 2 x 2 x 3 x 5 which are all factors of 60.
Note that we have now factorised the number 60 in terms of prime numbers.
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Suppose that we take 3 numbers, 1764, 2100 and 2940. The factors of each
number, in terms of prime numbers are:
The High Common Factor of these three numbers will be:
2 x 2 x 3 x 7 = 84
2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 7 x 7 = 1764
2 x 2 x 3 x 5 x 5 x 7 = 2100
2 x 2 x 3 x 5 x 7 x 7 = 2940
This is the greatest number which is a factor of all three number, i.e. the Highest
Common Factor and is found by multiplying together all the factors which are
common in each of the individual numbers.
Lowest Common Factor
Consider the same three numbers, 1764, 2100 and 2940 and their factors.
2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 7 x 7 = 1764
2 x 2 x 3 x 5 x 5 x 7 = 2100
2 x 2 x 3 x 5 x 7 x 7 = 2940
The Lowest Common Multiple of these three numbers will be:
2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 5 x 5 x 7 x 7 = 44100
This is the lowest number of which each of the three numbers are factors. It is
comprised of the least number of factors, which are found in all three numbers.
1764 x 25 = 44100
2100 x 21 = 44100
2940 x 15 = 44100
It is found by multiplying together each prime number and repeated if necessary,
which appears in any of the three number considered here
2 x 2 (in all) x 3 x 3 (in 1764) x 5 x 5 (in 2100) x 7 x 7 (in 1764 and 2940)
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2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 5 x 5 x 7 x 7 = 44100
1.4.4 PERCENTAGE
125 =
0.68 x
100 =
68% power.
Another way that percentages are used to determine a number when only a
portion of the number is known. For example, if 4180 rpm is 38% of the
maximum speed, what is the maximum speed ? To determine this, you must
divide the known quantity, 4180 rpm, by the decimal equivalent of the
percentage.
Example:
4180
0.38 =
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1.5
2
3
Engine Speed
Propeller Speed
2700
Vp
3 Vp =
5400
Vp
5400
3
Vp
1800 rpm
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This same proportion may also be expressed as 3:2 = 2700: V p. The first and the
last terms of the proportion are called the extremes. The second and third terms
are called the means. In any proportion, the product of the extremes is equal to
the product of the means. In this example, multiply the extremes to get 3 V p and
multiply the means to get 2 x 2700 or 5400 rpm.
1.6
=
3
1
2x2x2
1
8
Any number, except zero, that is raised to the zero power equals 1. When a
number is written without an exponent, the exponent value is assumed to be 1.
Furthermore, if the exponent does not have a positive or negative sign preceding
it, the exponent is assumed to be positive.
The root of a number is that value which, when multiplied by itself a certain
number of times, produces that number. For example, 4 is a root of 16 because
when multiplied by itself the product is 16. However, 4 is also a root of 64
because 4 x 4 x 4 = 64. The symbol used to indicate a root is the radical sign
(x) placed over the number. If only the radical sign appears over a number, it
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indicates you are to extract the square root of the number under the sign. The
square root of a number is the root of that number, which when multiplied by
itself, equals that number. When asked to extract a root other than a square root,
an index number is placed outside the radical sign. For example, the cube root of
64 is expressed as:
3
1.7
64
AVERAGES
Many times you will need to find an average, (or mean) of two or more numbers.
This is simply carried out by adding up the numbers for which the average is
required and dividing the total by the number of figures being averaged.
Example:
Find the average of the following numbers:
Step 1.
24 + 6 + 74 + 16
Step 2.
1.8
30.
A wide number of different weights and measures are used during the
maintenance of aircraft. The ones that come to mind first are probably fuel
capacities, tyre pressures, temperatures and speeds.
The purpose of these notes is to make you aware of the different systems used
and some of the more simple conversions to transpose from one system to
another.
The commonest system in use in aviation today is the Systeme Internationale
(SI). This system is based on multiples of 10 and has been accepted widely, with
the exceptions of the USA. It consists of a standard set of units for length
(metre), mass (kilogram), time (second), temperature (Kelvin), current (ampere)
and luminous intensity (candela). There are several other units which, whilst not
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being part of the basic SI ones above, are in common use and still use the metric
system for calculations.
An older system that is used mainly in the USA is the Imperial System, which
uses a mixture of old units such as feet and inches for length, pounds for weight,
gallons for capacity and Fahrenheit for temperature.
You will occasionally meet a mixture of systems, which will require conversion
from one to another. A good example is the amount of fuel put into an aircrafts
tanks. This can be measured in gallons (Imperial or American), pounds
(Imperial), kilograms (SI) or litres (Metric).
Changing units of one quantity to units of another requires a conversion factor
which, when applied to the first units, will give the answer in the other units. For
example, the conversion factor for changing Imperial gallons to litres is to multiply
by 4.546
Example 1:
Convert 25 gallons to litres.
25 x 4.546 = 113.65 litres.
Example 2:
Convert 1500 miles to kilometres, using the conversion factor of 1.6094
1500 x 1.6094 = 2413.9 kilometres.
1.9
ALGEBRA
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1.9.1 EQUATIONS
There are some basic rules you must use to simplify and solve algebraic
equations, such as fractions. When working with fractions, the numerator and
denominator can be changed without changing the fractions value as long as you
do the same operation to both. This is often useful in reducing or combining
fractions.
This same principle is also used to simplify fractions and cancel out units such as
litres and kilometres. For example
60 km/h
h =
Since hour is in each element, it cancels out. Furthermore, since the 60 in the
numerator is divisible by the 2 in the denominator, both figures are reduced.
Once completed, all that remains is
30 km
or
30 km
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Example:
Step 1.
100 rev/min
Step 2.
minute
100 rev/min
Therefore x
minute
50 revolutions
50 revolutions.
16
30
16
14
16
30
16
Most of the algebra carried out in everyday life requires you to solve for a
variable.
For example, suppose you want to determine your cars fuel
consumption. With a full tank, you drive 700 kilometres (km), then added 35
litres (l) of fuel. What was the fuel consumption in kilometres per litre (km/l)?
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kilometres driven =
700
litres used
20 km/l
35
Now suppose you are planning a journey, and want to know how far you drive
could without stopping for fuel. The manual says the fuel tank has a capacity of
50 litres. Using the same formula used to calculate the km/l the problem reads:
20 km/l
kilometres
50 litres
50 litres
x km
50 litres
50 litres
Both the 50s cancel out on the right hand side of the equation and the label
litres cancels out on the left. Carry out the multiplication to find x.
20 km
50
1000 =
x kilometres
x kilometres
-2
or
-6 -4 + 8 = -2
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When solving complex equations, the only way you can arrive at the correct
answer is if you follow the correct order of operations. For example, when
solving the equation 4 x 3 + 2 x 5, it is possible to arrive at several different
answers by carrying out the mathematical operations in different orders.
You could, for example, multiply before you add, add before you multiply or work
the equation from left to right. Only ONE of these results in the correct answer.
The proper order for performing mathematical operations is as follows:
Brackets:
Indices:
Division:
Multiplication:
Addition:
Subtraction:
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72 + 126
16
198
16
198
4
Finally complete the division which gives the final answer of,
x
49.5
In the previous example, you will notice that you finished up with a fraction. This
division was not carried out after the multiplication but at the end. When an
equation is presented in the form of a fraction, complete ALL operations in the
numerator and denominator before you reduce the fraction.
The same is true for operations within a square root sign. The operations must
be carried out within the square root sign, in the correct order before extracting
the root.
If you perform mathematical operations in the correct order, calculations typically
go smoother and you obtain the right answer. The importance of correct order
becomes clear when you begin performing more complex equations.
The algebraic rules presented in this section are useful for answering test
questions. They also allow you to use the complex formulas frequently found in
the study of electricity and weight and balance calculations. Work out the
following equation.
x
2.246 + (- 0.47)2
5.0445 + 0.2209
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5.2654
2.2946
While it may seem complex, a problem of this type is fairly simple to solve when
you observe the basic rules of signed numbers and follow the correct order of
operations.
1.10
GEOMETRY
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LxW
Width
4 x 1.5
1.5 m
6m2
Length 4 m
Fig. 3 Rectangle
A square is a symmetrical plane figure in which all four sides are of equal length.
The same formula used for a rectangle is used to find the area of a square.
However, since all sides of a square are of equal length, the formula is
sometimes expressed as the square of the sides.
A
L2
or
W2
point where the sides of the triangle meet. The altitude of the triangle is the
height of the vertex above the base.
If a triangle is set in a rectangle and the triangles base and height are equal to
two of the rectangles sides, the area of the triangle is exactly half that of the
rectangle. So the formula for calculating the area of a triangle is one half of the
base times the height.
A
bh
Example:
Find the area of a triangle whose base is 6 metres and height 15 metres.
Step 1.
Step 2.
( x 6) x 15
30
45 m2
45
90
60
40
90
Scalene
45
70
Isosceles
70
Acute
60
110
60
60
60
Equilateral
60
Obtuse
Types of Triangles
Fig. 4
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The parallelogram like the rectangle, has opposite sides that are parallel and
equal in length (refer Fig. 5). The corner angles of a parallelogram are some
measurement other than 90. The area of a parallelogram is calculated by
multiplying the length by the height (A = L x H). The height is measured
perpendicular to the length, in the same way the altitude of a triangle is
determined.
AREA = L x H
L
Parallelogram
Fig. 5
The Trapezium
The trapezium is a four-sided figure that has ONE set of parallel sides (refer
Fig.6). If you lay two of these side by side so the top and bottom sides form
straight lines, a parallelogram is formed with a base that is the combined length
of the trapeziums parallel sides.
The area of
case equals
trapezium is
one half the
formula:
b1
b2
Trapezium
Fig. 6
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A circle (refer Fig. 7) is a closed figure bounded by a single curved line. Every
point on the line forming a circle is an equal distance from the centre. The
distance from the centre to the line forming the circle is called the radius, and the
distance around the circle is known as the circumference.
The diameter of a circle is represented by a line that touches two points on the
circumference and passes through the circles centre. The circumference has a
definite relationship with the diameter. This relationship is represented by the
Greek letter Pi (), and is equal to 3.1416 to four decimal places. The ratio of the
circumference to the diameter of a circle is always and regardless of the size of
the circle, is constant.
The circumference of a circle is found by multiplying by the diameter. The area
is calculated by multiplying by the square of the radius.
A circle has a diameter of 100 millimetres (mm), determine the circumference (C)
and area (A).
C
3.1416 x 100
314.16 mm
r2
3.1416 x 2500
7854 mm 2
3.1416 x 50 2
Circumference
Radius
Diameter
Circle
Fig. 7
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Solids are objects that have three dimensions, length, width and height. Having
the ability to calculate volume enables you to determine the capacity of a fuel
tank or reservoir, calculate the capacity of a cargo area or work out the volume of
a cylinder. Volumes are calculated in cubic units such as cubic metres. Volumes
are easily converted to other terms, such as litres. For example, a cubic metre
contains 1000 litres of liquid and a cubic foot contains 6.229 gallons of liquid.
Volume of a Rectangular Prism
The volume of a rectangular solid is found by multiplying the length, width and
height. When calculating volume, it is important that all measurements are in like
terms.
W
L
Volume Calculation of a Rectangular Prism
Fig. 8
L
25 mm
20 mm
15 mm
LxWxH
25 x 20 x 15
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7500 mm 3
A cube is a solid with all sides equal. So to find the volume of a cube, multiply
one side by three times. If one side of a cube is 3 metres, determine its volume?
V
LxLxL
L3
LxLxL
3x3x3
L
27 m
A cylinder is a solid with circular ends and parallel sides. Its volume is found by
multiplying the area of one end by the height of the cylinder. The formula is
expressed as
V=r2H
As an engineer, you can use this formula to calculate piston displacement. This
is defined as the volume of air displaced by a piston as it moves from Bottom
Dead Centre, (BDC), to Top Dead Centre, (TDC).
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For example, one cylinder of a four-cylinder aircraft engine has a bore (diameter)
of 10 cm and the piston has a stroke of 15 cm. What is the displacement of the
cylinder?
D
Bore =
10 cm
Stroke
r2H
3.1416 x 5 x 5 x 15
15 cm
1.10.10
VOLUME OF A SPHERE
A sphere is any round body having a surface on which all points are an equal
distance from the centre. A useful fact is that a sphere has the greatest volume
for its surface area and is used in aircraft systems for hydraulic accumulators and
liquid oxygen converters.
The volume of a sphere is determined by multiplying the cube of the radius by a
factor, of 4/3 of , or 4.1887 to four decimal places. To find the volume of a
sphere that has a radius of 100 mm. cube the radius and multiply the resultant by
4/3 .
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Example:
4/3 r 3
=
4 188 790.1mm 3
41.887 m 3
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1.11
Charts and Graphs are pictorial representations of data. They enable you to
quickly visualise certain relationships, complete complex calculations and predict
trends. Furthermore, charts allow you to see the rate and magnitude of changes.
Information is presented graphically in many different forms. Graphs are often
found in the form of bar charts, pictographs, broken line graphs (or continuous
curve graphs) and the circular or pie chart. Another type of graph that you will
meet in aircraft maintenance is the nomogram. (Refer Fig. 11)
Bar Graph
Pictograph
9
8
9
9
0
0
Pie Chart
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layout is described as Cartesian (refer Fig. 13) and usually has the two axes,
labelled x and y which intersect at the zero point.
Ordinate
y axis
(+)
Quadrant 2
Quadrant 1
(-,+)
x axis
(+,+)
(-)
(+)
(-,-)
(+,-)
Quadrant 3
Quadrant 4
(-)
Abscissa
Cartesian Co-ordinate Graph
Fig. 13
You will find many graphs also produce a straight line, which may, or may not
pass through the origin. A graph of this type is formed when load is plotted
against extension for an elastic material subjected to a tensile test (refer Fig.
14).
Extension
a
Load
Extension b
Stretched Material
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For such a graph, it is evident that the load value is directly proportional to the
extension that the load produces.
Example:
Load
Extension
Load
Constant x Extension
Load / Extension =
Constant
The value of this constant can easily be obtained, simply by selecting a value of
load (y) and dividing it by its corresponding extension (x). This is equivalent to
determining the slope of the graph, given the symbol m.
y/x
or
mx
This relationship alters slightly if the straight-line graph fails to pass through the
origin. A graph (refer Fig. 15) of electrical resistance (ohms) plotted against
temperature variation (C) shows this.
Resistance () in ohms
a
c
b
0 Temperature (T) in C
Straight Line Graph
Fig. 15
In the preceding graph, the resistance is no longer directly proportional to the
temperature. The gradient (m) now has to be calculated by considering two
points on the graph, a distance b apart on the x-axis (C) and a apart on the yaxis (ohms). Therefore a/b = m.
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-3
-2
-1
Parabolic Graph
Fig. 16
5
4
3
2
1
-2
-1
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-2
Pressure (P)
Compressed
Gas
Uncompressed
Volume (V)
Gas
Cylinder Compressing a Gas
Hyperbola Graph
Fig. 17
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Alternating voltages and currents are often represented by sine and cosine
waves. These are the result of plotting the path of a rotating output along a
straight axis (refer Fig. 18).
The only difference between them is that the sine wave always has its zero value
at the start and completion of each rotation. The cosine wave however, begins
and finishes its rotation with the output at its maximum value.
0/360
1
0.5
90
270
90
180
270
360
-0.5
180
Sine Wave
Cosine Wave
Sine and Cosine Wave Graphs
Fig. 18
1.11.2 NOMOGRAMS
The need to show how two or more variables affect a value is common in the
maintenance of aircraft. Nomograms also known as an alignment chart, are a
special type of graph that enables you to solve complex problems involving more
than one variable.
Most nomogram charts contain a great deal of information and require the use of
scales on three sides of the chart, as well as diagonal lines. In fact, some charts
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contain so much information, that it can be very important for you to carefully
read the instructions before using the chart and to show care when reading
information from the chart itself.
Illustrated below is a graph of three variables, distance, speed and time. If any
two of the three variables are known, the approximate value of the third can be
quickly determined.
In the example the dotted line indicates a known speed and time, the resulting
distance can be extracted from the graph at the point where these two dashed
lines meet. A speed of 375 knots for 2.5 hours would result in a distance of
approximately 950 nautical miles.
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
500
400
40
350
35
300
30
Speed
250
25
in
200
20
Knots
150
15
100
10
50
5
0
0
1
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Time in Hours
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