Miscellaneous Segmental and Prosodic Features

INTRODUCTION
The following material intends to provide the prospective teacher of English with drills
about issues considered relevant for the development of their pronunciation.
A Phonetics teacher who does pronunciation practice does not always find in textbooks
the exercise he/she needs to correct the problems studied. Neither does he/she find drills
that focus on problems idiosyncratic of speakers of particular languages. For example,
inserting an ‘e’ before clusters with ‘s’ (sk, st, sp) is a mistake commonly made by
Spanish speakers. So is replacing the vowel /ә/ in weak syllables by the vowel(s) that
appear in the spelling. This material, therefore, aims at helping in these kinds of
problems.
Prosodic drills like the ones we include here: Rhythmical Modification, Accentuation of
Phrasal verbs and Exception to the Last Lexical Item Rule, are also quite scarce in
applied Phonetics books. In fact, they are the most scarce of all.
The sequence of the contents does not follow any specific order because it is not
relevant. The idea is to facilitate the teacher’s work by means of a pool of drills he/she
can resort to at the moment he/she needs it. The idea is also to store in only one manual
useful material that otherwise would remain in photocopies that, when not thrown away,
are mislaid. To facilitate the teacher’s work is, therefore, the main aim of this manual.
This manual is not meant to drill all the items that could be taught in Phonetics courses.
It drills those items that constitute the basis of our Phonetics programme and that are
usually found in other programmes as well. The idea is neither to burden the student
with all the possible rules that there are; it’s only to provide the theoretical facts
necessary to contextualize the items drilled.
Finally, we find it convenient to point out that several of the texts in the practice
material have been literally copied from the sources consulted.
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1.0 THE PRONUNCIATION OF /s/ AT THE BEGINNING OF WORDS
Spanish speakers pronounce an intrusive /e/ before the /s/ when it occurs in initial
position preceding a consonant. For example, in: street, smile, spy, sky, skate, student,
snail, sport.
Exercise 1.1
Practice these sentences. Listen and repeat.
1- There will be snow and storms in the United States.

2- In spring, students have steamed snails for lunch.
3- He speaks slowly and with a slight Scottish accent.
4- Charles studies statistics at school.
5- Paul sneezes and snores when he sleeps.
6- Something stinks in this small stadium.
7- The boy scouts screamed and stared at the stars.
Exercise 1.2
Practice s+C at the beginning of words in the following dialogues. Listen and
repeat.
Dialogue 1
A: What do your children do, Spartacus?
B: Stella studies statistics. Spencer spends his time staring at the stars, and Stephen
studies Spanish and Scottish dances.
Dialogue 2
A: Is this the right person for the job, Stannard?
B: I’m not sure, but as far as I’m concerned, she is smart, smiling and spontaneous.
Good qualities for a model.
A: I find her somewhat strange, though. And too skinny. We need someone slender, but
not that slim!
B: Well, well. She is definitely not your favourite candidate.
Dialogue 3
A: Your name, please?
B: Spencer Sttot
A: And what do you do?
B: I’m a school teacher.
A: Where do you work?
B: At a railway station
A: What are your main interests?
B: Skiing, skating and skydiving.
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2.0 ASPIRATION
One particular characteristic of the English language is the aspiration of the three
plosive consonants: ‘p, t, k’
Aspiration can be described as the noise produced when the air that is pent up behind
the obstacle formed by the articulators, is suddenly released. This puff of air may have
different degrees of sonority, though. In other words, these three plosives may be
affected by different degrees of aspiration, aspiration which may be classified as strong,
weak or absent only by using our ears.
The rules traditionally established for aspiration are basically the following:
a) p, t, k are strongly aspirated in strongly stressed syllables before a vowel and before
l, r, w, j.
b) They have little or no aspiration in weakly stressed syllables.
c) They lose aspiration when preceded by ‘s’.
Reality shows, however, that these general rules require some adjustment, mainly when
these consonants are found in weak syllables or when preceded by ‘s’. Let’s have a
close look at these three consonants, case by case.
The different degrees of aspiration will be indicated in the following ways: ‘ʰ’ for strong
aspiration; ‘ʰ-‘ for weak aspiration; and no diacritic for absence of aspiration.
2.1 CONSONANT /t/
2.1.0 IN STRONG SYLLABLES

Strong aspiration in strongly stressed syllables
-before a vowel: Tʰony, tʰalking, atʰtack, altʰernative
-before /j/: tʰuna, opportʰunity
-before’r’: betʰray, atʰtract, tʰrauma
-in cluster ‘str’: extʰreme, extʰraordinary, stʰrike, destrʰoy
Note: It is important to point out that t cannot be aspirated when followed by l, as its
lateral release does not allow it.
Weak aspiration in strongly stressed syllables

-in cluster ‘st’: stʰ-ick, stʰ-ay, stʰ-omach, stʰ-atic, stʰ-atus
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2.1.1 IN WEAK SYLLABLES
Strong aspiration in weak syllables
Aspiration can be heavy in weak syllables:

-in context: VtV (vowel ‘t’ vowel), e.g. citʰy, metʰer, latʰer, parʰty, fortʰy, betʰter
-after a consonant like n, f, l, m, k, p: twent ʰy, contʰact, wintʰer, disappointʰing, aftʰer,
altʰer, temptʰing, practʰice, victʰim, sectʰor, helicoptʰer.
-after ‘s’ in: arrestʰed, protestʰor, disastʰer, fantʰasʰtic
-in cluster ‘str’: pastʰry, exʰtra
Weak or no aspiration in weak syllables
-‘t’ followed by schwa: Saturday, butterfly

-in ‘tr’ followed by /ә/: controversial, contrary
- in ‘st’: stagnation
2.2 CONSONANT /k/

-before a vowel: cʰongress, ocʰcasion, cʰapital, cʰommunist, ocʰcur

-before ‘w’: qʰuestion, qʰuite, qʰueen, acqʰuire
-before ‘l’: cʰlient, encʰlose, incʰline, seclʰude
-before ‘r’: cʰream, cʰrying, cʰritical, incʰrease, recʰruit, Ukʰraine
Weak or no aspiration in strongly stressed syllables
- in ‘skV’: sky, score, escape, ski

Strong aspiration in weak syllables
-in VkV (vowel ‘k’ vowel): Rockʰy, workʰer, Mexicʰo, pockʰet, Tokʰyo
-in cluster ‘kr’: secʰret, democrʰats, incrʰease
-in cluster ‘kl’: quickʰly, cycʰling,
-in cluster ‘skr’: Sanskʰrit, ice-cʰream
Pay attention to the strong aspiration in: thankʰ you

No aspiration in weak syllables
-in ‘k’ followed by /ә/: focus, thinker, Incas
Note: In this context the aspiration is neutralized by the schwa.
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2.3 CONSONANT /p/

-before a vowel: pʰower, pʰear, pʰublic, apʰpear, repʰair, impʰose, apʰpeal

-before’l’: pʰlacard, apʰply, repʰlace, apʰplaud
-before ‘r’: pʰrice, pʰray, pʰredator, impʰress, depʰress
Note: The combination /pw/ is rare in English. The only example we found is Puerto
Rico.

Aspiration of ‘p’ in weak syllables
Note: ‘p’ is the most affected by reduction of aspiration in weak syllables. Compared
with ‘t’ and ‘k’, ‘p’ can be heavily aspirated in very few contexts.
No aspiration or little aspiration in weak syllables

-after ‘m’ when the following vowel is not a schwa: impʰ-act, Olympʰ-ic, impʰ-ort,
impʰ-ut
-in: airpʰ-ort
No aspiration:
-when ə follows p: opposition, opportunity, leopard, developing, preparation, purpose

-after‘m’ and before ə: campus
-in cluster ‘sp’: aspirated, inspiration
-in cluster ‘pr’: culprit, compromise
-in cluster ‘pl’: complement, implement
-in cluster ‘p’ + syllabic ‘l’: simple, example
3.0 FEATURES OF CONNECTED SPEECH
In the natural, casual speech flow, sounds may suffer modificactions. When this
happens, their articulation is not the same as when they are said in isolation. For
example, when put together in words and sentences, sounds influence one another in a
constant process of co-articulation. It means that sounds take articulatory characteristics
that belong to their neighbouring sounds. A process like this is called assimilation.
Another feature of connected speech is elision. It means that a sound may simply
disappear in the pronunciation of a word. Linking -r and intrusive -r are also of
frequent occurrence in the speech flow.
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3.1 Assimilation
The cases of assimilation mostly described by phonetics specialists are those that affect
consonants, and among them are those that affect alveolar sounds. They may happen at
word internal level or at word boundary level. The combinations that we will practice
here are:
d + j becomes dʒ in: and you /ænʤu/ during /'ʤʊәrIŋ/

t + j becomes tʃ in: at you /ætʃu/ Christian /'krIstʃәn/
s + j becomes ʃj in: this year /ðIʃjз:/
s + ʃ becomes ʃʃ in: this shoe /ðIʃʃu:/ horseshoe /'hɔ:ʃʃu:/
z + j becomes ʒj in: in those years /Inðәʊʒjз:z/ 
Exercise 3.1.1
Practice the following exercises paying special attention to the assimilation in the
underlined parts.
1- What would you like to eat?

2- What kind of education would you like to have?
3- Could you tell me which were the best years of your life?
4- David was younger than his wife.
5- Pat yearned to have the best yatch in the world.
6- I trust you because you seem honest.
7- I’ll let you know when I’m travelling.
8- Bob fed your cattle during all those years of poverty.
9- I miss you when you are not here.
10- This young lady promised you last year to impress you with her paintings.
Exercise 3.1.2
Underline the section affected by assimilation and provide the corresponding
phonetic transcription.
1- This is your best book.

2- Of course she was at the party.
3- Miss Young says she is your friend.
4- Russ shares his shoes with his sister.
5- I asked you to go out and you said yes.
Exercise 3.1.3
Practice the assimilations underlined in the following dialogues.
Dialogue 1
A: I’ve missed you so much. Where have you been?

B: I rented the best yatch in the world and spent the best years of my life on it.
A: Why didn’t you send me a card?
A: Oh, because you know how forgetful I am.
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Dialogue 2
A: Did you feed my cat while I was out? You promised you would.
B: Of course I did. As you know, I always keep my promises.
Dialogue 3
A: What would you like to study in next year’s literature course?

B: A Shakespeare play.
A: Very good; which would you like?
B: ‘Hamlet.’
2.2 Elision
Elision affects vowels and consonants alike. Among vowels, /ә/, /I/ and /ʊ/ in
unstressed position are the most affected by elision.
In prefixes
potatoe /pʰteItәʊ/, perhaps /pʰhæps/ , parade /pʰreId/, police /pʰl i:s/ and correct
/kʰrekt/
In suffixes
/-tn/ certain /-tnC/ importance /-dnC/ guidance /-ʤn/ religion
/-snC/ absence /-ʃn/ caution /-ʃnC/ impatience /-tl/ hospital
/-ʒn/ allusion /-rnC / appearance /-dn/ garden /-ʃl/ commercial
/-vn/ govern /-dsn/ medicine /-fl/ beautiful
Exercise 3.2.1
Read this text carefully and elide the vowels underlined.
Because things aren’t often as we want them, because we imagine they could be
different, we attempt to make our lives different. We are always building new worlds
for ourselves. Motivated by this desire for a better life, people go to work where there
are television commercials, rapid transport, central heating and CD players. All human
enterprises, such as science and religion, come about through human need, in our
awareness of the inadequacies in ourselves and in our world. We try to reform the world
with science. We try to make it more reasonable and less frightening with religion.
Exercise 3.2.2
Read this text and underline the vowels that can be elided in the following text.
This kaleidoscope of unique species is known as biological diversity. It has been

described as the ‘Earth’s life insurance’ because it enables nature to fulfill different
functions, and to meet different challenges, in a continually different environment.
A rich biological diversity is important to our own survival. We rely, directly or

indirectly, on the many different characteristics of plants and animals for our food,
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building materials, medicines and other necessities of life.
Exercise 3.2.3
Circle the vowels that can be elided in the following text.
The question for people who believe in an all-knowing (omniscient), all-loving

(benevolent), and all-powerful (omnipotent) God, is how can this evil exist in a world
that He supposedly created? This problem has been called the problem of evil or the
problem of suffering. It raises serious questions about the nature and existence of the
traditional God of Christianity. Dealing with this problem has been a major concern of
Western thinkers and ordinary Christians for hundreds of years. Some thinkers have
tried to answer the problem of evil. Here are seven of their ideas.
3.3 Linking -r
In the British RP accent the final ‘r’ in the spelling of a word is not pronounced, but
when the next word begins with a vowel, it is. For example: ‘better English’ /'betә ‿r‿
ÌŋglIʃ/, ‘far away’ /'fa:‿ r‿ ә`weI/. In ‘more and more’ /'mɔ: ‿ r‿ әn `mɔ:/, the final letter
of ‘more’ is not an ‘r’, but as the letter ‘e’ is mute, the sound /r/ acts as the final sound.
Exercise 3.3.1
Read this text paying special attention to the linking-r. Then use a liaison symbol
( ‿ ) to indicate where it occurs.
As human beings we are aware of our own existence. We know that we exist. We know
that there is something about us that relates to the world. We are aware of certain things
about ourselves, our personality, our thinking, our movements and our emotions. We
know that we are involved in the world. We also know, although perhaps don’t think
about it very often, that our involvement with the world will one day end and that we
will die. Nobody gets out of life alive.
3.4 The intrusive-r
Many times, for analogy with the ‘linking-r’, the native speakers pronounce a linking-r
where there is none. It happens when the final sound of a word is /ә/ and the next word
also begins with /ә/ or some other vowels. Example: an idea of mine /әn aI'dIә ‿ r‿ әv
`maIn/, a sofa and a chair. /ә 'sәʊfә ‿r ‿әn ә `tʃeә/.
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Note: The intrusive -r is not generally approved of by most phoneticians. Evidence
shows, however, that this feature usually functions as a vowel separator in almost every
context which permeates a wide range of speaking registers and social classes.
Exercise 3.4.1
Read the exercises paying special attention to the intrusive-r in brackets. Listen
and repeat.
Context: /ә/ + /ә/
1- The American idea (r) of the future is limited.

2- The cinema (r) appeared at the end of the 18th century.
3- Africa (r) and Latin America (r) are in permanent upheavals.
4- The area (r) of Panama (r) and Colombia have a tropical climate.
5- I’m tolerant but only up to (r) a point.
6- Emma (r) applied for a job as a camera (r) assistant.
7- Vodka (r) and tonics, please.
There are other contexts in which Anglophone speakers would usually feature
intrusive -r. Examples:
1- Context: /ә/ + /I/
When Joanna (r) is here.
2- Context: /u:/ + /ә/
All he knew (r) about Africa.

What are you going to do (r) about it?
3- Context: /u:/ + /I/

I would do (r) it again.
4- Context: /u / + /ә/
Shall we be seeing you (r) again?
5- Context: /u / + /I/
I was able to (r) escape and survive.
6- Context: /ɔ:/ + /ә/
I saw (r) a film today, oh boy.
7- Context: /ɔ:/ + /I/
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The law (r) is the law.
I saw (r) it on TV.
8- Context: /I/ + /ɒ /
Another military (r) operation
9- Context: /aI / + /ɒ /
We turn our eye (r) on Africa.
10- Context: /ә/ + /ɔ:/
Obama (r) also came to the summit.
11- Context: /ә/ + /ɔI/
They produce tuna (r) oil
12- Context /Iә/ + /aI/

Syria (r) I think
13- Context: /Iә/ + /eә/
In the Korea (r) area
14- Context: /ɔ:/ + /a:/
The law (r) after
15- Context: Before a pause
I don’t want to go to Florida (r)…or anywhere else.

She’s coming up from Florida (r), isn’t she?
16- Context: /ә/ + /aI /

Ghana, (r) I think.
17- Context: /әʊ/ + /I/
Mexico (r) investigated

4.0 THE PRONUNCIATION OF UNSTRESSED BEGINNINGS
Weak beginnings are usually pronounced with the vowels /ә/ or /I/.
a- pronounced /ә/, in: about, abstain, aware, attempt, attain, attack

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o- pronounced /ә/, in: obscure, occur, official, obey, omit, oppress
e- pronounced /I/, in: effect, enormous, election, ecology, eclipse, employ, example,
extremely, enclosure, enjoy
Some unstressed beginnings, however, may have a strong vowel. Here are some
cases.
ambassador, ambiguous, ambition, ambivalent, ambrosia, amphibian, amnesia,

Antartica, antagonist, antiquity, anxiety, arcade, armada, artiste, artistic, articulation,
arthritis, October
The following untressed beginnings in the words below can be pronounced with
vowels /ә/ or /I/
be- become, before, begin, behalf, behave, behind, believe, belong, below, between
de- decay, deceit, deceive, decide, declare, decline
pre- prefer, precise, predation, predominance, predict, prepare
re- refuse, reject, relapse, reluctant, remain, remark
se- seclude, security, sedation, seditious, seduce, select
The following unstressed beginnings are pronounced with vowel /ә/
col- collapse, collaborate,collect, collision, colloquial, collude

com- combustion, command, commision, compare, compassion, compression
con- concern, conclude, concise, condemn, condense, continue,
cor- correct, corrode,corruption
pro- project, procedure, propose
su- succeed, successful, surround
Exercise 4.1.
Read this text paying special attention to the underlined unstressed beginnings.
Many Christians and humanists believe that the links between crime and poverty are not
given enough publicity. They argue that if they were, it would become obvious that
solving the crime problem would mean closing the gap between rich and poor. Western
society encourages people to think of themselves as successful if they possess the
trappings of wealth, e.g. big car, big house, holidays, the latest technology- stereos,
CD’s, videos, etc. Yet the same society prevents everyone from legally achieving this
level of consumption by creating economic structures in which millions of people are
unemployed or in low-paid jobs.
Exercise 4.2
Circle the prefixes or beginnings where the vowel is pronounced /ә/ or /I/.
Text A
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As human beings we are aware of our own existence. We know that we exist, we know
about ourselves: our personality, our thinking, our movement and our emotions. We
know that we are envolved in the world; we also know, although perhaps don’t think
will die.
Text B
To many people the way that our society shunts men and women into old people’s
homes and geriatric hospitals illustrates a lack of compassion for the elderly. It seems
that in a Western, materialistic society, if people become economically obsolete they are
valueless. Yet it is so easy to forget that we all grow old, if we are lucky, and that old
people have a wealth of life experience and can teach us much about living. Too often
they are seen as ‘old dears’, too old to work, too old to learn anything new, too old to
have a good time, too old to enjoy sex, too old to do anything except wait to die. Old
age is not fashionable. We only have to look at advertisements to see that the good life
means being young.
5.0 THE PRONUNCIATION OF UNSTRESSED ENDINGS OR SUFFIXES.
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Exercise 5.1
Many weak endings or suffixes are pronounced with the vowel /ә/ or /I/. Listen and
repeat.
-ACE is pronounced /-Is/, in: furnace, menace, necklace, palace, preface, terrace
-ACY is pronounced /-әsi /, in: conspiracy, literacy, piracy
-AGE is pronounced /- Iʤ/, in: carriage, cottage, courage, luggage, marriage, patronage,
sausage
-AIN, -EN are pronounced /-In, -әn, -n/, in: bargain, Britain, captain, certain, curtain,
mountain, villain, fasten, broken, driven, given
-AL is pronounced /-әl/, in: magical, musical, surgical, survival, animal, approval
-AN is pronounced /-әn/, in: German, Norman, Truman, human
-ANCE, -ENCE is pronounced /-әns/, in: importance, remittance, resistance,

difference, existence, reference
-ANT, -ENT are pronounced /-әnt/, in: abundant, accountant, applicant, assistant,
constant, significant, ornament, permanent, president
-ARD is pronounced /-әd/, in: awkward, orchard, standard, steward
-ARY-, ERY, -ORY are pronounced /-әri /, in: dictionary, planetary, reactionary,
bakery, cookery, fishery, pottery, history, ivory, territory, victory
-CIAL, -SIAL, -TIAL are pronounced /-ʃәl, -ʃl / facial, official, special, controversial,
martial
-CIAN is pronounced /-ʃәn, -ʃn/, in: malician, musician, optician, pediatrician,

phonetician, physician
-DOM is pronounced /-dәm/, in: boredom, freedom, kingdom
-EM, -OM, -UM are pronounced /-әm/, in: problem, atom, bottom, custom, maximum,
museum
-ER, -OR are pronounced /-ә/, in: driver, maker, reader, debtor, conveyor, translator
-FUL (adjective) is pronounced /-fәl, -fl/, in: graceful, harmful, peaceful, plentiful,
powerful, useful
-MENT is pronounced /-mәnt/, in: commitment, development, employment,
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government
-C+OL is pronounced /-әl/, in: symbol, pistol,
-C+ON is pronounced /-әn/, in: treason, liaison, reason
-OUS is pronounced /-әs/, in: anxious, conscious, dangerous, enormous, precious,

pretentious
-C+SION, -SSION are pronounced /-ʃәn, -ʃn /, in: pension, tension, version,
expression, mission, oppression
-V+SION is pronounced /-ʒәn, -ʒn/, in: allusion, confusion, explosion, illusion,

occasion, vision
-SOME is pronounced /-sәm/, in: meddlesome, quarrelsome, troublesome
-C+SURE is pronounced /-ʃә/, in: pressure,
-V+SURE is pronounced /ʒә/, in: leisure, measure, treasure
-TION is pronounced /-ʃәn, -ʃn/, in: caution, caption, connection, conviction, emotion,
lotion,
-TURE is pronounced /-tʃә/, in: culture, feature, furniture, future, literature, nature
-WARD is pronounced /-wәd/, in: backward, downward, forward, upward
-WORTH is pronounced /-wәө/, in: daysworth, poundsworth
Exercise 5.2
Read this text paying special attention to the underlined unstressed endings and
suffixes.
As far as we humans know, there are certain qualities we possess that make us different
from the rest of the animal kingdom. We are aware of ourselves as seemingly separate
beings.We have the ability to remember our past, to imagine the future, to recognize
objects and understand the meaning of symbols. We are able to reason and we attempt
to understand the world. We have imagination as self-conscious beings.
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Exercise 5.3
Circle the unstressed endings and suffixes in the texts below.
Text A
If you don’t think sex before marriage is wrong, what about illegitimate babies?
Happiness and love and security are specially vital, because babies will grow into
unique, valuable individual people. Babies are created by their parents. This is why
moral decisions involving sex may be difficult, in case an unplanned pregnancy should
result. Efficient methods of contraception have made it possible for people to explore
life deeply with another person without necessarily being tied to them for ever. Babies
should only be started when you are sure you can give them a loving and secure
upbringing.
Text B
Is sex education important?
Indeed it is. Children’s questions should be answered honestly all the time, and
particularly those about sex, since it can be a very wonderful part of our lives.
Nowadays biased ideas about sex are directed at school leavers from many sources – but
decisions involving sex should be made (as should decisions not involving sex) from a
standpoint of factual knowledge, and not in the darkness of ignorance. Therefore
humanists think you should learn about your own bodies and about sex, love,
pregnancy, contraception, abortion, venereal disease and psychology.
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6.0 THE PRONUNCIATION OF POSTFLEXIONS
6.1 THE PRONUNCIATION OF ‘-ed’ IN THE PAST TENSE AND PAST PARTICIPLE
OF REGULAR VERBS
The rules of the pronunciation of ‘-ed’ are:
a) ‘-ed’ is pronounced /d/ after voiced sounds /b, g, d, v, ð, l, m, n, ŋ, z, ʒ, ʤ/ and

vowel sounds, e.g. moved /mu:vd/, called /kɔ:ld/, stayed /steId/, seemed /si:md/
b) ‘-ed’ is pronounced /t/ after voiceless sounds /p, k, f, ө, s, ʃ, tʃ/, e.g. stopped /stɒpt/,
cooked /kʊkt/, laughed /la:ft/, missed /mIst/, watched /wɒtʃt/
c) ‘-ed’ is pronounced /Id/ after /t/ and /d/, e.g. wanted /'wɒntId/, rested /'restId/,
added /'ædId/, loaded /'lәʊdId/
Note:
In adjectives, the ‘-ed’ is pronounced /Id/, like in: aged /'eIʤId/, beloved /bI'lʌvId/,
blessed /'blesId/, crooked /'krʊkId/, cursed /'kз:sId/, jagged /'ʤægId/, learned /'lз:nId/,
ragged /'rægId /, rugged /'rʌgId/, sacred /'seIkrId/, wicked /'wIkId/, wretched./'retʃId/
Exercise 6.1.1
Read the following exercises paying special attention to the pronunciation of the
underlined post-flexion ‘-ed’. Listen and repeat.
1- A large black beetle seized her and carried her up into a tree, but when her friends
laughed at her, the beetle carried her down a flowery meadow.
2- Summer passed again, and Thumberlina stood and looked at the blue sky for the last
time but then, a voice from above called her: “Come with me”. It was the voice she had
saved.
3- At midnight the door opened and IN danced two little men. They were dressed in
rags, but cheerfully sat down and began to dance. Before dawn, they stepped out into
the street.
4- The courtiers were amazed, but they invited her to the palace that evening, as the
Emperor had ordered. The whole court gathered that evening.
5- As the ducklings grew, they loved to waddle in the barnyard, shaking their feathers.
But the ugly duckling dreaded the barnyard birds. They pecked at him and called him
names.
6- The little men agreed that she deserved no less. Carefully they helped the Prince to
lift the coffin. But as they did so, the piece of apple caught in Snow White’s throat was
dislodged. She sat up and smiled at the Prince.
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7- With her magic powers, she banished the frightened girl to a desert far away. Then
she crouched near the window and waited.
8- While the poor girl cried herself to sleep, the little men worked at the spinning wheel.
Before dawn, he had vanished as soon as he had arrived.
9- The crowd loved this amazing display and cheered until the Roman Governor should
be released.
Adjectives with ‘-ed’

Exercise 6.1.2
Listen and repeat.
10- A wicked man broke into a neighbour’s house and beat an aged man and a boy aged
ten.
11- Lots of people still lead a wretched existence in the slums.
12- The Speech Acts theory was proposed by a very learned man.
13- The wicked and the crooked are responsible for the wretched life of many people.
17
6.2 THE PRONUNCIATION OF ‘s’ AS GRAMMATICAL ACCIDENT
The rules of the pronunciation of’s’ in the third person singular, plural of nouns
and genitive case.
a) ‘s’ is pronounced /s/ after voiceless sounds /p, k, t, f, ө/, e.g.

taps /tæps/, cooks /kʊks/, cats /kæts/, laughs /la:fs/, Smith’s /smIөs/
b) ‘s’ is pronounced /z/ after voiced sounds /b, g, d, v, ð, l, m, n, ŋ/ and vowel sounds
e.g. girls /gз:lz/, comes /kʌmz/, Emma’s /èmәz/
c) ‘s’ is pronounced /Iz/ after the sibilants / s, z, ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, ʤ/, e.g.

misses /`mIsIz/, pleases /`pli:zIz/, bushes /`bʊʃIz/, garages /`gæra:ʒIz/,
catches /`kætʃIz/, bridges /`brIʤIz/
Exercise 6.2.1
Transcribe the pronunciation of the inflected ‘s’ in the following words.
ashes worlds imagines desires John’s George’s works

maps things attempts players Sam’s Pat’s washes
watches roses names projects wishes proofs misses
Exercise 6.2.2
Read these sentences paying special attention to the pronunciation of the ‘s’.
1- The population explosion raises moral problems but also creates huge challenges to
human beings.
2- I use two food switches, speak and produce graphs for maths, physics and other
subjects.
3- Our skies, seas, wild life and rivers have become poisoned by masses of human
wastes.
4- James’s, John’s, Pat’s and Lewis’s wives are getting together at Prince Andrew’s
castle.
5- As a refugee Peter lives in one of the world’s poorest countries. He suffers from
hunger and disease and hardships that he resists with resignation.
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7.0 THE ROLE OF SUFFIXES IN THE STRESS PATTERN
OF
LEXICAL ITEMS
Suffixes may behave in three different ways:
a) They may displace the primary stress to the syllable before when attached to the root
of the word. These suffixes are referred to as ‘strong’ suffixes, eg:
-eous `courage cou`rageous
-ial `proverb pro`verbial
-ic `climate cli`matic
-ion `perfect per`fection
-ious ìnjure in`jurious
-ity àble a`bility
-ive `reflex re`flexive
b) They do not produce changes in the stress pattern of the word to which they suffix.
These suffixes are ‘weak’ or ‘stress neutral’, and they are the most numerous. eg:
-ful beauty beautiful
-al theatric theatrical
-less need needless
(See chapter 5.0).
c) They may attract the primary stress to themselves, e.g. refe`ree, dis`quette.
Examples of strong suffixes

Exercise 7.1
Listen and repeat.
Suffix -ic displaces the stress to the preceding syllable. Listen and repeat.
me`chanic, ro`mantic, dram`matic, 'diplo`matic, 'eco`nomic, 'mathe`matics, em`phatic
pho`netics, mag`netic, 'scien`tific
Exceptions:
`lunatic, `catholic, àrabic, `heretic, `rhetoric, `politics, àrsenic, a`rithmetics
Suffix -ic in sentences

1- He was authentically prophetic in politics.
2- They were considered as heretics by the catholics.
3- The article was systematically scientific.
4- He is the methodically mathematically and mechanical type.
5- The lunatic was made to ingest arsenic as punishment for his political views.
19
Suffix -ity displaces the stress to the preceding syllable. Listen and repeat.
so`ciety, an`xiety, hu`mility, 'infi`delity, mo`rality, ti`midity, 'uni`versity, co`mmunity,
pu`blicity
Suffix -ity in sentences

1- I have doubts about the suitability of their publicity in the vicinity.
2- The continuity of prosperity is a necessity for the community.
3- He showed the similarities between vulgarity and immorality in our society.
4- There was no opportunity for the community to show any curiosity.
5- There are no similarities between subjectivity and objectivity.
Examples of weak suffixes

Weak suffixes do not affect the stress of the words to which they are attached.
Listen and repeat.
Suffix -ism
a`mericanism, `magnetism, pa`ternalism, `cannibalism, `formalism, 'indi`vidualism,
'inter`nationalism
Suffix -ism in sentences

1- His catholicism and apostolicism were rather fanatical.
2- I wonder whether it was lyricism or romanticism.
3- His systematic use of anglicism is symptomatic of his didacticism.
4- The classicism of the classicists was theoretically rejected by the romanticists, the
followers of romanticism.
Suffix -ify
`justify, in`tensify, àmplify, `modify, i`dentify, di`versify, `magnify, `certify, `purify,
`specify
Suffix -ify in sentences

1- I want to simplify and exemplify the problem.
2- Scientists always classify and exemplify all the samples.
3- The actor who personifies the ghost horrified the large audience.
4- Don’t magnify a conduct that once identified may be modified.
Suffix –ate. –‘ate’ offers different possibilities of stress placement and two different
pronunciations.
a) It attracts the stress towards itself in two-syllable verbs. Pronounced /-eIt/. Listen
and repeat.
creàte, dic`tate, mi`grate, do`nate, lo`cate, re`late
b) It displaces the stress to the preceding syllable in two-syllable non-verbs. Pronounced

/-әt/ or /-It/. Listen and repeat.
20
`senate, `private, `palate, `climate, `pirate
Exceptions: de`bate, or`nate, in`nate
c) It displaces the stress to two syllables before ‘-ate’ in more than two-syllable verbs
and non-verbs. Listen and repeat.
òbstinate, `segregate, dis`criminate, in`toxicate
Suffix -ate in verbs- Pronounced /-eIt/. Listen and repeat.
`tolerate, ìndicate, òperate, ìmitate, con`gratulate, do`mesticate, ac`cumulate,

in`vestigate, `moderate, com`municate, col`laborate, re`frigerate, ad`ministrate
Suffix -ate in non-verbs. Pronounced /-әt/ or / -It/. Listen and repeat.
`chocolate, `candidate, `passionate, èstimate, ap`propriate, àdequate, `graduate,

`moderate
Suffix -ate in sentences

1- The narrator donated his article to the senators.
2- The dictators migrated after narrating his story to “The Spectator”.
3- The pirate’s private life was debated at the Senate.
4- She graduated as indicated and as I anticipated.
5- This illustrates how the agitators were annihilated and the speculators humiliated by
the ventilators.
6- The intoxicated alligator gesticulated at the escalator.
7- The translators said the senator was an exhilarating orator.
Suffix -ative does not shift the stress pattern of the word to which it is attached.
Listen and repeat.
`talkative, `relative, `tentative, i`maginative, `decorative, com`municative,
ad`ministrative, `legislative, in`formative
Exceptions:
de`monstrative, in`dicative, al`ternative, cor`relative, 'inter`rogative, pre`dicative
Suffix -ative in sentences

1- Generative grammars illustrate the iteratively creative power of language.
2- Everything was subordinated to corporative and legislative decisions.
3- His accumulative administrative mistakes were iteratively subject to legislative
decisions.
21
4- Demonstrative adjectives, interrogative sentences and predicative sentences were all
considered within the grammatical contents.
Suffix -acy does not shift the stress pattern of the word to which it is attached.
Listen and repeat.
àccuracy, `delicacy, àdequacy, `privacy, òbstinacy, `literacy, ìntimacy, con`federacy
Suffix -acy in sentences

1- Was it ultimately a matter of delicacy, indelicacy or intimacy?
2- Her obstinacy and delicacy were unfortunate.
3- The episcopate legitimately thought celibacy was appropriate.
4- His inaccuracy and inadequacy were irritating.
5- The delegate immediately said it was inadequate to mention conspiracy in a debate
about the confederacy.
Suffix -able: ‘-able’ may behave in three different ways:
a) It may be stress neutral. Listen and repeat.
`fashionable, `venerable, `separable, `miserable, `reasonable, `perishable, `penetrable,

con`siderable, a`bominable, 'unfor`givable, `separable, `justifiable, a`dorable.
b) It may displace the primary stress to two syllables before. Listen and repeat.
(re`pair) `reparable, (com`pare) `comparable, (pre`fer) `preferable, (ad`mire) àdmirable
c) It may attract the stress towards itself when preceded by a prefix. Listen and repeat.
unàble, disàble, enàble
Suffix -able in sentences

1- Whether he was educable or even domesticable is debatable.
2- The venerable old man looked miserable and justifiably irritable.
3- The losses were innumerable, but the contributions of perishable goods were
invaluable.
4- The strength of the adorable girl was admirable and incomparable.
5- His indomitable character was unbearable, and his manners unforgivable.
P.S.
The suffix -ion is also strong: it attracts the primary stress to the preceding
syllable.
Examples: in`tention, con`nection, con`viction, 'inter`ruption, 'super`stition, i'nitiàtion,
Examples of suffixes carrying primary stress themselves
Exercise 7.2
22
Listen and repeat
Suffix -ain
'ascer`tain, 'enter`tain
Suffix -ee
'employèe, e'vacuèe, 'guaran`tee, 'grantèe, payèe, 'refugèe
Suffix -eer
'auctionèer, 'mountai`neer, 'pio`neer, 'volun`teer,
Suffix -ette
'cigarètte, 'kitchenètte, 'launderètte, 'statuètte,
Suffix -ese
Chi`nese, 'Japanèse, 'journalèse. 'Leba`nese
Suffix -esque
bur`lesque, 'picturèsque, 'statuèsque,
Suffix -ique
u`nique, tech`nique, phy`sique
Suffix -ade
'barri`cade, blockàde, decàde, 'esca`pade, 'lemo`nade, 'orangeàde,
Exercise 7.3
Suffixes carrying primary stress themselves in sentences. Listen and repeat the
sentences below.
1- It was hard to find volunteers to entertain the Croatian refugees.

2- This technique is unique for those who really care about their physique.
3- This landscape is really picturesque.
4- Some of the employees would like to learn Chinese and Japanese.
5- It’s clear that James was a pioneer as a mountaineer here.
6- The Lebanese refugees drank lemonade and orangeade and smoked cigarettes in the
kitchenette.
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8.0 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY STRESS
In most cases, words of four syllables or more usually carry two stresses: the primary
stress on the third or fourth syllables (from left to right) and a secondary stress on the
first or second syllable (from left to right). In words with two stresses, the primary stress
of the original word becomes the secondary stress in the derived word. Examples:
pro`nounce - pro'nunciàtion; im`press - im'pressio`nistic; ùniverse - 'uni`versity
Exercise 8.1
Read the following words. Listen and repeat.
'represen`tation - 'misunder`standing - 'funda`mentalism - dis'crimi`nation -

de'fore`station - 'sociali`zation - 'christiànity - 'hetero`sexual - 'organi`zation -
im'petuòsity - 'transportàtion - re'sponsi`bility - 'guaran`tee - 'refe`ree - 'popu`larity
i'magi`nation.
Exercise 8.2
Tick the words that have two stresses.
discriminating, communication, atmosphere, concentration, monastery, particularly,

entertainment, intercourse, underdeveloped, materialistic, reinforced, stereotyping,
cooperate, unforgivable, organizing, handicapped, confidential, embarrassment,
relationship, unfaithfulness.
Exercise 8.3
Accent the following words paying special attention to primary and secondary
stress.
implication, territory, elementary, conspiracy, magical, entertaining, popularity

continuity, separable, imaginable, incredible, inferiority, speculate
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9.0 THE STRESS PATTERNS OF COMPOUND WORDS
Compound words may be single-stressed (`...............) or double-stressed ('........`........)
Exercise 9.1
Single-stressed compound words
Most single-stressed compound words are nouns. Listen and repeat.
`baby-sitter, `dishwasher, `Christmas card, `book shop, `watermelon, `current account,

`schoolboy, `headache, `tin-opener, `ballet-dancer, `tennis-ball, `seafood, `taxi-driver,
i`dentity card, `newspaper
Exercise 9.2
Double-stressed compound words
Many double-stressed compound words are adjectives. Listen and repeat.
'good-`looking, 'easy-`going, 'bad-`tempered, 'home-`made, 'stone `cold,

'absent-`minded, 'second-`hand, 'old-`fashioned, 'well-de`veloped, 'left-`handed,
'tight-`fisted, 'shallow-`rooted, 'brand-`new, 'deep-`laid, 'standòffish
Exercise 9.3
Tick the compounds that have two stresses
counterproductive, fireman, toothache, self-reliant, overcrowded, second-hand,

scapegoat, school-teacher, well-paid, railway-station, stamp-collector, multinational,
radio-speaker, open-minded, self-made, washing machine, widespread, screwdriver,
cleanshaven, hyperactive, video game
Exercise 9.4
25
Read these sentences paying special attention to the stress pattern of the compound
words.
1- The grandchildren remarked that their grandparents were not only easy-going but
also open-minded, not to mention high-spirited.
2- The headaches of the ballet dancer were well-known by the doctors, who admitted
that this bad-tempered woman was also tight-fisted.
3- The boarding school has a swimming pool on the ground floor of the building,
especially built for the schoolboys.
4- Madam Piaf, a hard-working woman, who was also good-hearted, wore clothes
that were hand-made and old-fashioned as well.
10.0 PRONUNCIATION AFFECTED BY SHIFT OF STRESS
Except in a few cases, like 'comment-to `comment; con'trol-to con`trol, whose stress
pattern is the same for both nouns and verbs, in most of the cases a shift of stress goes
together with vowel modifications. Listen and repeat.
NOUNS VERBS
àccent /`æks(ә)nt/, /`æksent/ to ac`cent /әk`sent/, /æk`sent/

`conflict /`kɒnflIkt/ to con`flict /kәn`flIkt/
`contest /`kɒntest/ to con`test /kәn`test/
`contract /`kɒntrækt/ to con`tract /kәn`trækt/
`contrast /`kɒntra:st/ to con`trast /kәn`tra:st/
`convert /`kɒnvз:t/ to con`vert /kәn`v з:t/
`convict /`kɒnvIkt/ to con`vict /kәn`vIkt/
èxtract /èkstrækt/ to ex`tract /Iks`trækt/
ìncrease /Ìnkri:s/ to in`crease /In`kri:s/ /Iŋ`kri:s/
òbject /`ɒbʤIkt/, /`ɒbʤekt/ to ob`ject /әb`ʤekt/
`permit /`pз:mIt/ to per`mit /pә`mIt/
`present /`prez(ә)nt/ to pre`sent /prI`zent/
`produce /`prɒdju:s/ to pro`duce /prә`dju:s/
`progress /`prәʊgres/ to pro`gress /prәʊ`gres/, /prә`gres/
`project /`prɒʤekt/ to pro`ject /prәʊ`ʤekt/, /prә`ʤekt/
`protest /`prәʊtest/ to pro`test /prәʊ`test/, /prә`test/, /`prәʊtest/
`rebel /`reb(ә)l/ to re`bel /rI`bel/
`record /`rekɔ:d/ to re`cord /rI`kɔ:d/
26
`subject /`sʌbʤIkt/ , /`sʌbʤekt/ to sub`ject /sәb`ʤekt/, /sʌb`ʤekt/
/`sʌbʤIkt/
The transcriptions show that many of the weak endings in these nouns contain a strong
vowel, not following the tendency of weak syllables, which usually take /ә/. Notice also
how in these verbs there are cases where the weak beginnings have an alternative
pronunciation with strong vowel.
11.0 GRADATION
Gradation is the processs of phonemic changes by which strong vowels are weakened,
and vowels or consonant sounds are elided. This phonemic phenomenon affects an
important number of structural words in English.
This group of structural words (most pronouns, adjectival words, monosyllabic

conjuctions, monosyllabic prepositions and primary and modal auxiliary verbs) can be
pronounced in two different ways, weak or strong, according to its position in the
sentence and contexts of emphasis or contrast, that is to say, we use a weak form when
the word is unaccented and a strong form when we wish to highlight it.
Most weak-form words have either schwa /ә/ or short // and/or elision of a vowel or a
consonant.
1. Pronouns
word weak strong

me /mi/ /mi:/
you /ju/ / jә / /ju:/
he /hi/ /i/ /hi:/
she /ʃi/ /ʃi:/
him /Im/ /hIm/
her /ә/ /hә/ /hЗ:/
we /wi/ /wi:/
us /әs/ /s/ /ʌs/
them /ðәm/ /әm/ /ðem /
27
Exercise 11.1
Listen to the difference and repeat.
A: Can you tell me who has made that silly mistake? (me is weak)
B: Don’t ask me, ask her. (contrastive, so me is strong)
A: Will you go to the Phonetics Seminar? (you is weak)

B: Yes, will you go too? (emphatic, so you is strong)
A: Is she still at the office? (she is weak)

B: Who?
A: The chief.
B: No, everybody else is still working, but she has left. (contrastive, so she is strong)
A: He gave up drinking. (he is weak)

B: That’s what he told you (emphatic, so he is strong)
A: Look – it’s her! (emphatic, so her is strong)
B: Who?
A: Peter’s fiancée
B: Where? I can’t see her. (her is weak)
A: Do you happen to know that man?

B: Him? No, I’m not acquainted with him. (first him emphatic, so it is strong; second
him is weak)
A: Listen, I’m afraid we’re against that proposal. (we is weak)

B: What do you mean, ‘we’? I’m in favour of it. (emphatic, so we is strong)
A: Katherine told us the meeting had been called off. (us is weak)
B: But she didn’t tell us. (contrastive us, so it is strong)
Please ask them to get in touch with us. (them is weak, us is weak)
Don’t blame us, blame them. (us and them are contrastive so they are strong)
I think it’s up to them. (emphatic them, so it is strong)
Exercise 11.2
Listen to the following utterances and mark the underlined words w (weak) or
s (strong). The first one has been done for you.
1. Could you tell us a little bit about yourself?

w w
2. My mother wanted me to have a Spanish name.
3. Please, tell her to call him back later.
28
4. You’d better leave them alone.
5. This land belongs to us.
6. They joined us.
7. Sorry but, it’s not for me to say.
8. Will it be you, or me?
9. It was you that broke it.
10. The gift is for him, not for her.
11. I’m not interested in what he says, it’s her I’m listening to.
12. Most of our friends have tickets for the concert.What about us? Shall we go, too?
13. I’ve been shopping with Annick. She asked me to help her choose a wedding dress.
14. You should see her, Daniel. She looks gorgeous.
2. Adjectival Words (articles, possessive adjectives and some)
word weak strong

a /ә/ /eI/
an /әn/ /æn/
the /ðә/ /ði/ /ði:/
your /jә/ /jɔ:/
his /Iz/ /hIz/
her /hә/ /hЗ:/
their /ðә/ /ðeә/
some /sәm/ /sm/ /sʌm/
Rules: 1. - a /ә/ is used before consonant sounds and semi-vowels.

- an /әn/ is used before vowel sounds.
e.g. An /әn/ apple a /ә/ day keeps the doctor away.
2. - the /ðә/ is only used before consonant sounds and semi-vowels.
- the /ði/ is used before vowel sounds.
- the /ði:/ is used for emphasis or contrast.
e.g. To the /ðә/ north of the /ðә/ country.
She’s the /ði/ apple of his eye.
This is the /ði:/ place to eat. (emphasis)
This is not a solution, but the /ði:/ solution. (contrast)
3. - some /sәm/, /sm/ is used before an uncountable noun when it means ‘an
unspecified amount of’.
e.g. Have some /sәm/ more wine.
- before a noun in the plural, meaning ‘an unspecified number of.’
29
e.g. I picked some /sәm/ strawberries.
- some /sʌm/ is used when contrasted with the other(s).
e.g. Some /sʌm/ senators voted against the motion.
- before a countable noun meaning ‘an unknown individual.’
e.g. I think some /sʌm/ animal killed him.
- in final position.
e.g. Mary’s got some /sʌm/.
Exercise 11.3
Listen to the following utterances and mark the underlined words w (weak) or
s (strong).
1. Is that your father? - Yes, that’s the day he joined the army.
2. I work from eight thirty in the morning until about seven in the evening.
3. They’re having their honeymoon in an exotic location.
4. At that time London was the place to be.
5. There was an old man with a moustache.
6. Would you like some milk in your coffee?
7. All these students are good, but some work harder than others.
8. He broke his right arm skiing.
9. Mary loves her job.
10. I saw some cranberries and I ate some.
3. Conjunctions and Prepositions
word weak strong

and /әn/ /n/ /ænd/
but /bәt/ /bʌt/
as /әz/ /æz/
than /ðәn/ /ðæn/
that /ðәt/ /ðæt/
at /әt/ /æt/
for /fә/ /fɔ:/
from /frәm/ /frɒm/
of /әv/ /ɒv/
to /tә/ /tu/ /tʊ/ /tu:/
30
Rules: 1. - and /әn/ is generally used after vowel sounds.
e.g. They are together day and /әn/ night.
- and /n/ is generally used after /t, d/ and all fricative sounds /s, z, ʃ, ʒ, ө, ð,
f, v/
e.g. I usually eat bread and /n/ butter for breakfast.
Fish and /n/ chips for us, please.
2. - to /tә/ is used before a consonant sound.
e.g. Try to /tә/ keep abreast of the times.
- to /tu/ is used before vowel sounds.
e.g. Let’s get something to /tu/ eat.
Note: In final position, these prepositions take the strong form.
e.g. Who did you give the money to /tu:/?
Where are you from /frɒm/?
Sheila wanted to know what he was afraid of /ɒv/.
Exercise 11.4
Listen to the following utterances and transcribe the underlined words
1. Katy and Tom lived a long way from each other, so Katy had to fly to America to
meet Tom.
2. Women tend to be more sensitive than men.
3. Men tend not to be as faithful in relationships as women.
4. But was there any wine? – Nothing but wine.
5. They spent their money on an expensive honeymoon in some exotic location.
6. I cooked lunch. And I made some cakes.
7- A policeman asked me where I came from and what I was waiting for.
8. Is this the train to Bristol or from Bristol?
9. What are you afraid of? – I’m not afraid of anything.
10. I think that that’s the best thing we can do for you.
Exercise 11.5
Practice the following dialogues paying special attention to weak and strong forms.
1. A: How long are you here for?

B: Just for a fortnight, at the most.
31
2. A: What are you looking at now?
B: We’re looking at ways of increasing productivity.
3. A: What is your mother suffering from?

B: From diabetes, I’m afraid.
4. A: What did her sister die of?

B: I’m not sure. Of a heart attack, I think.
5. A: Who of them are you thinking of?

B: I’m thinking of neither of them.
6. A: So you finally wrote a book. Where did you get the idea from?
B: From my experiences as a tourist in Indonesia.
A: Which Publisher did you go to?
B: To Oxford University Press, of course.
4. Primary and modal auxiliary verbs and ‘there’
word Weak strong

am /m/ /әm/ /æm/
is /s/ /z/ /Iz/
are /ә/ /a:/
was /wәz/ /wɒz/
were /wә/ /wЗ:/
have /hәv/ /әv/ /v/ /hæv/
has /hәz/ /әz/ /z/ /hæz/
had /hәd/ /әd/ /d/ /hæd/
do /dә/ /du/ /du:/
does /dәz/ /dʌz/
shall /ʃәl/ /ʃl/ /ʃæl/
should /ʃәd/ /ʃʊd/
will /l/ /әl/ /wIl/
would /wәd/ /әd/ /d/ /wʊd/
can /kәn/ /kæn/
could /kәd/ /kʊd/
must /mәst/ /mʌst/
there /ðә/ 32
/ðeә/
Rules: 1. - is /z/ is used after vowel sounds, and after voiced consonants except the
sibilants /s, z, ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, ʤ/. Not used after a pause.
e.g. This is /Iz/ yours and that one is /z/ mine.
2. - have /hәv/ is used only after a pause.
e.g. Have /hәv/ you seen her lately?
- have /v/ is used is used after vowel sounds.
e.g. We’ve /v/ been waiting here for half an hour.
- have /әv/ is used after consonant sounds.
e.g. Her parents might have /әv/ wanted her to marry Sean.
3. - has /hәz/ is used only after a pause.
e.g. Has /hәz/ he been there?
- has /z/ is used after vowel sounds and after voiced consonants, except
the sibilants. Not used after a pause.
e.g. John has /z/ accepted, but Sheila has /z/ refused.
- has /әz/ is only used after the sibililants
e.g. George has /әz/ been to London twice this year.
4. - had /hәd/ is used only after a pause.
e.g. Had /hәd/ he gone when you arrived?
- had /d/ is used after vowel sounds.
e.g. We had /d/ read that book before.
- had /әd/ is used in all other contexts.
e.g. His house had /әd/ been broken into.
5. - do /dә/ is used before consonant sounds.

e.g.: What do /dә/ they look like?
- do /du/ is used before vowel sounds.
e.g.: Why do /du/ I have to do that?
6. - will /l/ is not used after a pause. After /l/ it becomes /әl/.
e.g. Tom will /l/ ask and Jill will /әl/ answer.
7. - must takes a strong form /mʌst/ before unstressed ‘have’.
e.g. Celia must have /mʌst әv/ been a very good student.
This same rule applies to could /kʊd/, should /ʃʊd/ and would /wʊd/.
e.g. It could have /kʊd әv/ been much better than the last one.
We should have /ʃʊd әv/ bought the newest edition of that dictionary.
I would have /wʊd әv /come if I had known.
8. -There /ðeә/ is weak /ðә/ only when it is used existentially, but if it is used
as an adverb of place, it is strong
e.g. See you there. /ðeә/ (adverb of place, so it is strong).
There’s /ðәz/ a bottle of wine in the cupboard. (weak form).
Exercise 11.6
Listen to the following utterances and transcribe the underlined words.
1. How long have you been there?

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2. Where were you born?
3. She’s my best friend. Have you ever met her?
4. Would you like to go out for a coffee? - Good idea. Where shall we go?
5. Let’s go shopping for food, shall we?
6. Was it love at first sight? – I think it was.
7. I’m afraid not. I couldn’t have predicted what happened but something put me off
straight away.
8. Oh, that’s strange. I must have made a mistake.
9. It’s expensive living in Bristol. – Of course it is.
10. Is there anything I can do for you, sir?
11. There’s nothing to be afraid of?
12. Can you do it by yourself? - I don’t know if I can.
13- Can he help us get the bank loan? - I don’t know if he can or he can’t.
14- It would have been very nice if they could have taken part in our celebration.
15. Ok, I must go now. – Must you go so soon?

Miscellaneoua Exercises
Exercise 11.7
Listen and circle all the letters corresponding to /ә/ sounds.
1. There’s a cat on the mat
2. A cup of coffee, please.
3. I don’t have time for a nap during the day.
4. She must have been very busy.
5. I wish I had been there to help her.
6. When shall we go?
7. It takes four hours to get from here to Cambridge.
8. The book that she bought was more expensive than his.
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9. He’s as good as his dad at playing cards.
10. It’s good but expensive.
Written Exercises
Exercise 11.8
In the following dialogue, underline the weak forms and circle the strong forms.
Also provide the phonetic transcriptions for them.
(R = Rose; M = Meg)
R: What do you think of Jake?
M: He’s all right.
R: You don’t like him, do you?
M: Well, he wasn’t exactly friendly.
R: Oh, he’s just a bit shy, that’s all.
M: Shy? You must be joking. Five minutes after meeting me he asked me to buy him a
drink! That’s not what I call shy!
R: Oh, that was a bit cheeky, but he’s broke.
M: Huh. I’m not particularly well-off myself and I’m trying to save up for a holiday.
R: All right, all right. I’ll pay you back. He’s not bad-looking, though, is he?
M: No, I suppose not – but he knows it. I think he’s really big-headed and stupid.
R: You’re just jelous.
M: No, I’m not. I don’t want him. He’s mean, big-headed and stupid.
R: What do you mean stupid? You’re not exactly Miss Einstein yourself.
M: Shut up!
R: No, you shut up!
M: Mom!
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12.0 SENTENCE ACCENT
Just as the learner must know which syllable to stress in a word, he must also know
which words to stress in the speech flow of the target language.
On studying sentence accent we’ll need to be familiar with several important notions.
1- In this material, accent and stress will be used with the same meaning.
2- Accentuation is a strategy the speaker uses to attract the listener’s attention onto
those parts of the utterance he considers important.
3- Accentuation is contrastive. The position of the accent will determine the meaning
that the utterance is intended to convey. The meaning is also conditioned by the
situation and context in which it occurs. Example:
We put the case in the hall may be stressed:
We 'put the 'case in the `hall.
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`We put the case in the hall.
We `put the case in the hall.
4- Nuclear accent/stress. It is identified, phonetically, with the syllable starting the last
pitch movement in an intonation group, and functionally, with the syllable that marks
the beginning of the most meaningful portion of the utterance. The most meaningful
information tends to occur at the end of an intonation group, normally, on the last
lexical item, and because the voice moves up and down, the symbols used to represent
the nuclear accent are:
/ ` \ / /΄ ̗ / ˇ ̬ / ̂ ̭ /
The nuclear accent/stress is also known as primary accent/stress. For practical reasons,
however, all the stresses in an utterance that are not primary, will be considered as
secondary here.
5- Sentence accent may be explained in terms of content words versus structural

words.
There are different schools of thought that account for those words in an utterance that
most qualify to carry stress or to attract the nuclear accent. One of them is the
traditional school, which explains sentence stress and nucleus placement on the basis
of the division of words into lexical items (or content) and structural words (or
grammatical). According to this theory, content words (nouns, adjectives, main verbs,
and adverbs) tend to be accented, being nouns the most accentable of all. This group
also includes demonstrative, possessive and interrogative pronouns. Structural words
tend not to be accented. They include prepositions like for, at, to, with, of, from;
monosyllabic conjunctions like: and, but, that; personal pronouns and articles;
modals; possessive adjectives. Among the content words, nouns are more accentable
than adjectives, verbs and adverbs.
5.1 The following utterances illustrate accentability of content words versus structural
words.
'Make a 'nice `cake

I 'ate the to'mato and some `lettuce.
Your i'deas will 'probably 'change as you 'get òlder.
'Adam and 'Eve 'lived in the 'Garden of Èden.
He was 'killed in an 'accident in `Sweden.
I 'haven’t 'eaten 'mutton for `months.
'Last 'month we 'listened to a 'concert from `Britain.
The examples above also show, through nuclear accent, that the most important
information in an utterance tends to occur at the end.
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5.2 We’ve said before that accentuation is contrastive. This implies that the content-
versus structural words rule can be broken for purposes of contrast or emphasis.
Examples:
You were 'driving `fast.

You `were driving fast.
You must `go now.

You `must go now.
This is the 'book to `read.

This is `the book to read
You have 'made a `mess of it.

You `have made a mess of it.
5.3 When an explicit contrast is expressed, the elements that are in opposition attract the
stress, leaving the repeated elements unaccented. Examples:
I 'didn’t 'say Oxford ˇStreet, I said Oxford `Road.

He 'plays both 'popular music and `classical music.
Did 'he divorce ̗ her, or did 'she divorce ̖ him.
5.4 In general, repetitions and synonyms are left unaccented. Examples:
A: 'What’s your `name? B: `Mills, `Gordon Mills.
A: You 'haven’t 'made that `phone call. B: I `know I haven’t.
I 'hate the ̗ Institute, and the people con`nected with the Institute.
A: 'Shall we 'take a de'tour to a'void the ̗ traffic jam downtown?

B: I `hate diversions.
A: 'Would you 'like a ̗ hamburger?

B. ˇSorry but I 'don’t `fancy fast food.
A: 'Do you 'have 'dogs and 'cats in your ̗ house? B: I `hate animals.
A: 'What do you 'think about my ̖̖ kids? B: They’re ̖̖ wonderful children.
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5.5 The words ‘street’ and ‘gate’ remain unaccented in names. Examples:
'Oxford Street, Balma'ceda Street

'Bishopsgate, 'Deansgate
12.1 EXCEPTIONS TO THE LAST LEXICAL ITEM RULE
In a high percentage, the nuclear (or primary) accent tends to fall on the last lexical item
of an utterance when the meaning is neutral, that is to say, when there is no contrast or
emphasis. There are cases, however, in which the meaning continues being neutral, but
the nuclear accent falls on some word before, constituting exception to the last lexical
item rule.
Exercise 12.1.1
Event sentences and announcements expressing misfortune. Listen and repeat.
The `water’s running.

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The `baby’s crying.
The `kettle’s boiling.
There’s a `bus coming
My `head aches
The `car broke down
There is an àccident in the street.
The `milkman’s coming.
There is a `cat on my bed.
Your `taxi’s waiting.
There is a mis`take in this letter.
The `phone’s ringing.
The `chimney’s falling down.
My `jewels have disappeared.
In announcements with subject plus passive verb. Listen and repeat.
The `Governor’s been kidnapped.

`Classes have been cancelled.
The missing `link has been found.
The `jewels have been stolen.
The `school was taken.
Wh-questions ending with a verb. Listen and repeat.
How’s the `homework going?

Where does most of our `fruit go to?
Whose um`brella have I taken?
What `brand do you buy?
How much `sugar do you add?
Whose ad`vice did you follow?
What `colour do you like?
What `places will you visit?
Which `bus will you take?
What `seeds did you use?
Final relative clauses. Listen and repeat.

Have you got a spare `tape recorder I could borrow for an hour or two?
(Showing a jewelry catalogue) Can you see a `necklace here you’d like?
Have you got an old maga`zine you wouldn’t mind giving away?
Where’s that `book you borrowed?
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What about that `story you were telling me?
Where’s that `shirt I gave you?
I found the `book I wanted.
Let’s have that `book you suggested.
What about that `dress you bought?
This is the `man I was telling you about.
Nouns plus infinitive. Listen and repeat.
I have a `plane to catch.

I have a lot of `work to do.
I have some `pictures to show you.
Final adverbials. Listen and repeat.
She’ll suc`ceed, probably.

I saw `John yesterday.
There are no`buses here.
I’m doing `French this year.
I saw `Nora last night.
We had some `rain some days ago.
Taxis are too ex`pensive here.
It stops across the `street there.
Here comes a `bus now.
Indirect questions. Listen and repeat.
I wonder how many àlbums Sinatra’s recorded.

You can’t imagine how much èffort Mark put into it.
I wonder how long the `video lasts.
Do you know how many `people are coming to the party?
Is it possible to find out what mis`takes he made?
I wonder when my àunt is going to visit me.
Let’s ask him why the `plane has taken so long to arrive.
Exercise 12.2
In the framework of exceptions to the LLI rule, circle the words where the nuclear
accent should fall.
1- How do you like the new maid you’ve hired?

2- What book have you been reading?
3- My brother has been very busy lately.
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4- What seeds have you planted?
5- Everything came out fine fortunately
6- Where does your cousin live?
7- Here’s the dog I promised to give you.
8- I don’t think that’s the right thing to do.
9- I don’t know what the answer is.
10- Don’t forget to bring that book you offered me.
11- You don’t have classes today.
12- The train has derailed!
13.0 RHYTHMICAL MODIFICATION
Sentence accent can also be explained in terms of rhythmical modification. Because

the English language doesn’t like very much to have two or more strong stresses closely
together, the native speaker resorts to rhythmical modification, which is a strategy used
by the speaker to avoid having more than two strong stresses in succession. When this
happens, stresses can be dropped or shifted.
1. When there are three content words together, the one in the middle tends to lose
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its stress if it has less than three syllables. Examples:
A 'nice old ̖̖ chair. I 'can’t speak Chi ̖̖ nese.
A 'nice cosy ̖̖ chair. I 'can’t study Chi ̖̖ nese.
A 'nice 'comfortable ̖ chair. I 'can’t trans'late Chi ̖̖ nese.
2. The accentuation of Phrasal verbs
Phrasal verbs are grammatical entities that are formed by a base verb and a particle.
This particle can be an adverbial particle or a preposition. The difference between the
two is that the preposition is closely tied to the (pro)noun it controls; the adverbial
particle is closely tied to its verb (as if by a hyphen).
The accentuation of phrasal verbs is also subject to rhythmical modification, and to

study their stress pattern, there are several points to keep in mind.
1-There are phrasal verbs that take a direct object. They are transitive. They cannot
stand alone because without the object, they wouldn’t make sense. Examples: bring up
the children; throw away the rubbish, sweep up the crumbs. These verbs may be
separated in their parts. When this happens, the accentual pattern will depend on the
position and the nature of the object. Let’s look at these examples:
a) 'Put on your `shoes. 'turn off the `tap.

b) 'Put your `shoes on. 'turn the `tap off.
c) 'Put them òn. 'turn it òff.
In examples a and b, the direct object has more accentual weight than the particle, that
is why it attracts the nuclear stress, but when the pronoun that replaces the direct object
separates the parts, verb and particle receive stress.
2- There are phrasal verbs that do not take a direct object. They are intransitive.
For example: 'come ìn, 'wake ùp, 'sit `down. When these verbs stand alone, they are
stressed on both parts: verb and particle. The verb or the particle may lose their stress,
however, if rhythmical modification justifies it. Examples:
'Sit `down. he 'got ùp.

You 'can’t sit `down. he 'soon got ùp.
You should 'sit down 'right `now. he 'got up `fast.
3- Some phrasal verbs are followed by particles that function as intensifiers, that is, to
give force to the verb. If this particle is removed, the verb does not lose meaning. Verbs
like these are: 'listen ùp, 'hurry ùp, 'eat ùp; 'calm `down. In these verbs, which can
stand alone, verb and particle are stressed.
Some of these verbs, on the other hand, may be followed by a direct object. In this case,
the stress pattern will be affected by rhythmical modification. Pay attention to the
following examples:
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'Eat up your `soup; 'eat it ùp;
I’m 'saving up `money; I’m 'saving it ùp.
I’m 'saving 'up to go to Èurope. (no direct object, so both parts are stressed)
4- Another category is the phrasal-prepositional verbs. They are verbs that are
followed by an adverbial particle and by a preposition. Examples: to 'get òn with, to
'put ùp with; to 'catch ùp on. In these examples, verb and particle take a stress but
the preposition remains unstressed. They may also undergo rhythmical modification.
Look at these examples:
I 'tried to catch 'up on my `studies

I 'can’t put ùp with it any longer
I 'get on `well with him
I’m 'fed ùp with your nonsense
We’ve 'run out of `gas.
Note: When the adverbial-prepositional verb is followed by an object pronoun (I 'can’t

put ùp with it), the adverbial particle retains the stress, but when a noun follows it
(We’ve 'run out of `gas.), the adverbial particle loses it.
5-There are phrasal verbs that are inseparable and the preposition that follows the verb
cannot be removed without affecting the meaning of the word. Examples: 'fall òff, 'fall
`down, 'come a`cross. In these cases, the preposition loses its stress if rhythmical
modification justifies it. Look at these examples:
The 'man fell 'off the `ladder, and the 'woman fell 'down the `stairs.
'Get down that `ladder; you may 'fall òff.
Exercise 13.1
Practice the following sentences paying special attention to phrasal verbs. Listen
and repeat.
1- Come on! 'Eat up your 'soup before it gets cold. (Verb takes a Direct Object. Particle
loses the stress).
2- We’re 'saving ' up to buy a new car. (Intensifying particle. No Object. Both parts
take a stress).
3- I 'fell off my 'horse and dislocated my shoulder. And my 'wife fell 'down the `stairs.
One disaster after another. (Fell off takes an Object, so the particle loses stress)
(Because fell down is affected by rhythmical modification the base verb loses its stress).
4- (At a petrol station) Could you 'fill it ̗ up for me? (A pronoun separates the parts;
verb and particle are stressed).
44
5- I’m 'tired òut! I’ve been working all day. (Both parts stand alone; both parts
stressed).
6- The wind was very strong last night. It 'blew down a `tree in our garden. (Verb takes
an object; verb and object stressed).
7- It was only after Mr Jones died that we 'found 'out he was a millionaire. (verb takes
an Object but object starts with an unstressed pronoun, so both parts are stressed)
8- It’s 'pouring `down with rain. You can’t 'possibly go òut. (Verb followed by particle
and preposition. Preposition remains unstressed) (Intransitive verb. Rhythmical
modification affects stress of verb).
9- John! You’re driving much too fast. 'Slow `down. (Verb with an intensifier. Both
parts take a stress).
10- Could you 'wrap the ̗ jumper up for me? It’s a present. (Verb takes an Object. The
noun attracts the stress).
11- You’ve 'missed out an `L in my name. It’s M-A-L-C-O-L-M, not MALCOM. (Verb
takes an Objects. The noun attracts the stress).
12- 'Just calm `down! I’m sure we’ll find your purse. (Verb with an intensifier.
Rhythmical modification elides the stress of verb).
13- If you 'added up the 'money you spend on cigarettes and beer, you’d realise where
you spent it all. (Verb takes an Object. Rhythmical modification drops the stress of the
particle).
Exercise 13.2
Circle the particle of the phrasal verb that does not carry stress.
1- He looked up the chimmney, but couldn’t see anything.

2- He looked the word up in a dictionary.
3- She put out the cat, locked the door and went to bed.
4- She looked after the baby for me.
5- The plane took off.
6- He took off his coat.
7- She came across the room and gave me a kiss.
8- My house was burgled yesterday. The burglar managed to get in.
9- The police were called, but the burglar got away.
Exercise 13.3
Circle the words of the underlined parts that carry stress.
1- I’d better write your telephone number down.

2- The bird’s cage wasn’t closed properly. It managed to get out, and unfortunately it
flew away.
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3- When Mrs Johnson died she didn’t have a penny. She’d given all her money away to
charity.
4- I don’t feel like cooking tonight. Shall we eat out?
5- If I were you, I’d put some more salt in it.
6- A button has come off my shirt! Could you sew it back on for me?
7- Could you help me bring the bird in?
8- You’ve shaved off your beard!
Exercise 13.4
Read the following text paying special attention to the stress pattern of the phrasal
verbs.
We were closest when she was four, which I think is a lovely age for a child. They
know the parents best, and don’t have the outside contacts. She must have grown up
suddenly when she went to school, because I remember her growing away from her
family slightly. Any father who has a teenager daughter comes across an
extraordinary collection of people, and there seemed to be an endless stream of
strange young men coming through our house. By the time I’d learned their names,
they’d gone away and I had to start learning a new lot.
She went to a good school, but that didn’t work out. She must have upset somebody.
When she left she decided she wanted to become an actress so I got her into a drama
school. It wasn’t to her liking so she joined a theatre group and began doing bits and
pieces in films. She was doing well, but then gave it up. Then she took up social work,
and finally went to work for a designer.
3. Words with two stresses, compound or simple, may shift their primary stress,
depending on whether they are preceded or followed by a stressed word.
Exercise 13.5
Read the following sentences paying special attention to the rhythmical
modification patterns. Listen and repeat.
1- The 'Budapest 'climate’s of a 'continental 'type. He 'lives in Buda'pest. The 'climate’s

conti'nental.
2- 'Have a 'piece of 'home-made 'cake. This 'cake’s home-'made.
3- He has 'five o’clock 'tea nearly 'every after'noon. He has 'afternoon 'tea. It’s 'nearly
five o’'clock.
4- There’s a 'man down'stairs. He’s 'come from New 'York. A 'New York 'journalist
lives in the 'downstairs 'room.
5- He’s 'just a 'silly, 'empty-headed 'boy. He 'never remembers 'anything. He’s 'quite
empty-'headed.
6- I’ll 'give you a 'post-dated 'cheque. By the 'way, I 'hope you don’t 'mind its 'being
46
post-'dated.
7- 'How can such a 'good-natured 'woman have such a 'bad-tempered 'daughter? The
'mother’s ex'tremely good-'natured, but the 'girls’s unbe'lievably bad-'tempered.
8- They 'crossed Hyde 'Park and 'waited at 'Hyde Park 'corner.
9- She’s 'wearing her 'navy-blue 'suit. I 'always 'think she 'looks her 'best in navy-'blue.
10- The 'sardine 'sandwiches were de'licious, but the to'matoes were 'all over 'ripe.
'Overripe 'fruit gets 'squashed 'easily. I 'love sar'dines.
11- I 'want a 'second-class 'ticket to King’s 'Cross. I 'always go second-'class.
12- There’s a 'good-looking 'girl over 'there in a 'light-blue 'hat. She’s 'quite
good-'looking; her 'hat’s light 'blue.
14.0 ENGLISH RHYTHM
The characteristic feature of English rhythm is given by the notorious difference

47
between strong (stressed) and weak (unstressed) syllables. The difference occurs
because, in the speech flow, syllables undergo a reduction in time duration: a feature
usually linked to the modification of the vowel quality. These modifications, which take
place at word and sentence level are represented in the pronunciation by the vowel /ә/.
Examples:
At word level: secretary /`sekrәt(ә)rI/
At sentence level: 'One of the `students /'wʌn әv ðә `stju:dәnts/
0ne of the differences between English and Spanish rhythm lies in the fact that Spanish
vowel weakening, in terms of quality and quantity, is very slight compared with
English. This means that, when in English two stressed syllables are separated by
unstressed ones, the latter ones tend to be compressed and quickened, so that the time
between each beat will approximately be the same as the time taken by two consecutive
stressed ones. Examples:
(two consecutive stressed syllables) 'Safe `journey

'Smart `children
(two stressed syllables separated by 'That was for the `journey.

Unstressed ones) 'These were for the `children.
But because in Spanish the time to pronounce strong and weak syllables is almost the
same, the time duration to produce a Spanish utterance will be proportionate to the
number of syllables it contains. Examples:
'Ese `viaje 'Eso 'fue para el `viaje.

'Esos `niños 'Eso 'fue para los `niños.
Closely connected with rhythm is pause. Pauses may be predictable, in which case they
separate grammatical unit-like sentences or some kinds of clauses. They may also be
unpredictable, caused by hesitation, false starts, or variables like cough or laughter.
Useful vocabulary
Quantity: From the auditory point of view (the aspect that interests us here) sounds are
perceived as longer or shorter.
Quality: From the articulatory point of view, it implies differences in tongue position
and mouth cavity. From the auditory point of view, we perceive one sound as different
from another one or from others.
According to the theory of rhythm, English is stress-timed. This means that stressed
syllables tend to occur at relatively regular intervals of time whether they are separated
48
by stressed syllables or not. In this way, the time taken between each stress in the
utterance:
1 2 3 4 5
'Walk 'down the 'path to the 'end of the ca'nal.
Would be approximately the same.
This regularity, however, is much more likely to occur in a slower kind of delivery than
in a faster one.
Spanish, on the other hand, would be syllable-timed. That is to say, the time between
stressed syllables would be shorter or longer in proportion to the number of syllables the
utterance contains.
ENGLISH RHYTHM DRILLS
Exercise 14.1
Listen and repeat.
Stressed words separated by one unstressed syllable.
1- They 'tried to 'catch the `bus.

2- In 'spring it 'rains a `lot.
3- We 'hope to 'go to 'Rome by `boat.
4- The 'snow was 'falling 'thick and `fast.
5- I 'think he 'wants to `go.
6- I 'told him 'not to 'go to Ha`waii.
Stressed words separated by two succesive weak (unstressed) syllables.
1- They’ve 'got a 'boy and a `girl.

2- 'Just as the 'train `left.
3- 'Knock at the `door.
4- 'What can the `matter be?
5- 'What do the `parents think?
6- I’m 'going for the `day.
7- 'Think of a `number.
8- 'They were a `nuisance.
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Stressed words separated by three succesive weak syllables.
1- 'Tom and 'Dick are at a `concert.
2- There was a re'duction of 'carbon diòxide.
3- If we do 'not act 'soon, we’ll be `punished.
4- We 'came to the con'clusion that they were `stolen.
5- I 'got it from a `friend.
Stressed words separated by four succesive weak syllables.
1- He 'tells me that they are `there.

2- They im'posed con'tempt on us in the `South.
3- Our 'vision of 'criminals 'looking for 'trouble is 'thrown at us by the `media.
4- And as a re'sult.....
Stressed words separated by five succesive weak syllables.
1- I be'lieve that if we are ar'rested.

2- 'People have the il'lusion that they are going to 'get a`way with it.
3- They are 'frightened of going out in the `dark.
4- It’s 'better for you that you 'go to bed èarly.
Exercise 14.2
The next two exercises are based on common patterns of stressed and unstressed
syllables. Practice them in accordance with the key patterns given.
Key pattern: □□□□□□□□□□

1- I 'think it was an 'excellent af`fair.
2- I 'wonder if he’ll 'ask me in ad`vance.
3- We 'haven’t got an 'envelope to `match.
4- The 'office-boy will 'show you where to `go.
5- The 'factory is 'working day and `night.
6- The 'light should be in 'quite another `place.
7- There 'isn’t really 'quite enough for `two.
8- I 'didn’t want to 'put him off a`gain.
9- I 'don’t suppose you’ll 'understand my `point.
10- The 'bus is more con'venient than the `tram.
11- The 'concert’s being 'broadcast after `six.
12- It’s 'just as good as 'being in the`hall.
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13- We’ll 'switch it on as 'soon as we’ve had `tea.
14- I’d 'like a lump of 'sugar in my `tea.
15- I 'shouldn’t be sur'prised if they for`got.
16- Ap'proximately 'ten of you can `come.
17- The 'others must wait 'here a little `while.
18- We’ll 'fetch you in a 'car in half an `hour.
19- He 'wanted me to 'listen to his `song.
20- We 'finished it the 'day before he `came.
Key pattern: □□□□□□□□□□□...etc.

1- He 'says that he 'wants us to 'take it a`way.
2- We 'ought to be 'grateful we 'haven’t to `pay.
3- You 'know that we 'ought to dis'cuss it to`day.
4- A 'woman has 'fallen and 'broken her `leg.
5- I 'never say 'no to a 'hot cup of `tea.
6- Then 'turn to the 'right at the 'end of the `street.
7- I 'shouldn’t have 'thought he could 'get there in `time.
8- He 'tied up the 'parcel and 'took it a`way.
9- It 'won’t be the 'first time I’ve 'gone without `lunch.
10- Ex'cuse my dis'turbing you 'when you’re so `tired.
11- The 'bus stop is 'just a bit 'farther a`long.
12- You 'couldn’t have 'come at a 'more con'venient `time.
13- It’s 'not what I 'wanted to 'ask you a`bout.
14- A 'friend of mine’s 'married a 'girl from a`broad.
15- I 'see he’s for'gotten to 'leave his ad`dress.
16- We 'haven’t got 'time to ar'range for it `now.
17- An 'apple a 'day keeps the 'doctor a`way.
18- The 'book you’ve just 'lent me is 'better than 'many I’ve `read.
19- I 'like to sit 'down with a 'good ciga'rette and a `book.
20- He 'promised to 'mail the re'port in Ju`ly.
Personal pronouns (we, you, him, them, it, etc.) and prop-words (one, ones, some, etc.)
are normally unstressed, even when they are at the end of a sentence or phrase. The next
exercise offers reading practice on the topic. The unstressed pronouns and prop-words
are printed in italics.
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Exercise 14.3
Practice the following miscellaneous exercises.

1- 'Fold them 'carefully and `give them to him.
2- 'Take them a`way from them.
3- 'Why didn’t you `give it to him.
4- I’ve 'told him I’ll look èverywhere for them.
5- 'What can I `do for you?
6- 'Put them in my `car for me, please.
7- My 'father `bought me them.
8- 'What did he `tell you about us?
9- `Show them to them.
10- `Show them them.
11- 'Let me `see them.
12- 'Where did you `see them?
13- Go 'up to him and `tell him about it.
14- 'Take them all a`way with you.
15- 'Let me `look at you.
16- 'Take `care of her for me, won’t you?
17- 'I’ll look àfter them for you.
18- The as'sistant will 'wrap it ùp for you.
19- `Read it to him.
20- `Write it for them.
21- `Spell it to me.
22- `Tell me about it.
23- `Show it to me.
24- `Give it to him.
25- I 'bought them for him `yesterday.
26- They àsked us about it.
27- He’ll 'sell them `two of them.
28- He 'doesn’t 'want us to `see them.
29- 'Give me a`nother one.
30- `No one can tell you the answer to the question.
31- I 'asked her to 'buy me some this `morning.
32- I 'knew she 'had one to `give you.
33- He 'caught one and `gave it to me.
34- The ones with `chocolate on them.
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35- She 'asked him to 'find her a `bigger one.
36- I 'wanted him to 'give you a `new one.
37- 'Give her one if she `wants it.
38- Al'low me to `buy you some.
39- `Keep them for me.
40- He in'vited us to 'go and `see them.
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15.0 INTONATION
Intonation represents, basically, the characteristic melody of a language. In the case of

English and Spanish, many of their melodies do not always clash in terms of form and
meaning. For obvious reasons, these kinds of melodies or patterns will not receive much
attention here, although the students must be warned about their similarities. There are
others, however, that require more drilling because they are different, not only in their
form, but also in their function.
Sticking to the purpose of this manual, the drills in this section constitute only the basics
of English Intonation. They provide just the tools to continue deepening into the study
of intonation if the student finds it necessary.
Two basic concepts to start practising intonation are: form and function. The form has
to do with the melody of the pattern; the function, with the meaning conveyed through
that melody. In this context, the forms to be drilled here are: Falling, Rising, Falling-
Rising, Rising-Falling. The functions are the ones indicated in each case.
INTONATION DRILLS
I FALLING INTONATION
Form: `No, ̖̖ No
Function:
1- Statements and peremptory commands have falling intonation both in English and
Spanish. Because there is no clash in both languages, only the examples are given.
We 'went for a 'ride in the `car.

I’ll 'come as 'soon as I `can.
'That’s the 'best `shop.
'Come `here.
'Don’t `shout.
'Get òut.
2- In questions beginning with an interrogative word:
Questions beginning with an interrogative word tend to use falling intonation when they
have a routine connotation. Or when they lack some kind of special interest. But it is
54
also used when interest combines with strong curiosity, like when you haven’t seen a
dear friend for a long time and you say ‘Where have you been all this time?’
Exercise 15.1
Listen and repeat
'What’s the `time? / 'Where have you `put it? / 'Who would 'like some `chocolate? /
'How `far is it? / 'What have they `done? / 'Why are you so `late? / 'What `day is it? /
'What’s the `date?/ 'When did she `leave? / 'When do the `shops open? / 'Which do you
like `best? / 'Who is the àuthor? / 'Why don’t you `listen? / 'Who’s `there?
3- In rhetorical questions
Rhetorical questions are not questions in the strict sense of the word. They are like
statements that expect agreement on the part of the listener.
Exercise 15.2
Listen and repeat.
'Isn’t that `kind of her? / 'Haven’t I been `quick? / 'Wasn’t it a 'good `film? / 'Don’t they
look `nice? / 'Isn’t it a `pity? / 'Wasn’t the 'weather àwful? / 'Weren’t you 'well `looked
after? / 'Aren’t I `naughty? / 'Won’t it be `wonderful? / 'Isn’t it `lovely today? / 'Wasn’t
it a 'difficult exami`nation? / 'Aren’t you 'smartly `dressed?
4- In expressions like the following, Falling Low intonation is normally heard.
Execrcise 15.3
Listen and repeat.
'How ̖̖ terrible! / 'How ̖̖ awful! / 'Most un ̖̖ usual! / 'How ex ̖̖ citing! / 'How ̖̖ clever! /
'Good ̖̖ heavens! / 'My ̖̖ goodness! / 'Oh ̖̖ boy!
II RISING INTONATION
Form: ΄No, ̗ No
Function
1- A very common form of Rising Intonation is the Rising Low form. It appears in Yes-
No questions both in English and in Spanish. eg:
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Have you 'heard the 'latest ̗ news? / Are you 'going a ̗ lone? / Did you 'like the ̗ film?
Apart fromYes-No questions, Low Rising Intonation appears:
2- In polite imperatives which are in fact requests.
Exercise 15.4
Listen and repeat
'Bring me a ̗ chair / 'Hurry ̗ up / 'Sing us a ̗ song / 'Don’t ̗ cry / 'Don’t be ̗ late / 'Hold
this for ̗ me / 'Now listen ̗ carefully / 'Give me a ̗ hand / 'Wait a ̗ moment / 'Buy me a
̗ newspaper / 'Don’t be ̗ silly / 'Come a ̗ long / 'Don’t be ̗ lazy / 'Let’s try a ̗ gain /
'Stay where you ̗ are / 'Pass me the ̗ salt /
3- In polite warnings
Exercise 15.5
Listen and repeat
'Be ̗ careful / 'Mind the ̗ step / 'Don’t ̗ fall / 'Take ̗ care / 'Watch ̗ out /
4- In farewells and greetings
Exercise 15.6
Listen and repeat.
'Good ̗ bye / 'So ̗ long / 'Good ̗ morning / 'See you ̗ later / 'See you ̗ soon / 'Good
̗ evening / I 'mustn’t ̗ stop you / 'Cheery ̗ oh / 'Come again ̗ soon /
5- In remarks of concern, sorrow, encouragement and apology
Exercise 15.7
Listen and repeat
'That’s ̗ right. / 'Don’t ̗ trouble. / 'That’s ̗ all. / I’m 'so ̗ sorry. / 'Keep on ̗ trying. / 'That’s
̗ good. / 'Don’t 'hurt the ̗ poor thing. / 'That’s e ̗ nough. / 'That’s ̗ funny. / 'O ̗ K. /
'That’s the ̗ way. / It’s 'all ̗ right. / I 'beg your ̗ pardon. /'That’s the 'one I ̗ meant. /
'Hurry ̗ up./ 'Go ̗ on / 'Very ̗ good / 'Don’t ̗ worry.
6- In afterthoughts. An afterthought is the part added to a remark to make it less

definite.
Exercise 15.8
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Listen and repeat
1- 'That’s the `last, I ̗ think.
2- He’s `late, as ̗ usual.
3- I 'think it’s quite `fair, on the ̗ whole.
4- We were 'always good `friends, till ̗ last year.
5- 'Nothing can 'save her `now, except a ̗miracle.
6- She 'lunchesèarly, ̗ usually.
7- It’ll be 'ready in a `moment, if you’ll ̗ wait.

8- He was `right, neverthe̗ less.
9- They 'knew `nothing about it, till ̗ now.
10- In 'spring it 'rains a `lot, ̗ generally.
11- She 'does what she’s `told, of ̗ course.
7- For rising intonation, the rise may be high, as for echo questions, which are used
either to express incredulity, or to ask for a repetition of something the listener fears he
has misheard; also if the listener has not been paying attention. Examples:
1- A: “I 'came to 'see `you” B: You 'came to 'see ΄me?

2- A: It’s 'nearly half past èight B:΄Sorry?
3- A: I 'saw `John this morning. B: ΄Who
4- A: I’m `sick of the damned thing! B: ΄What did you say?
III FALLING-RISING INTONATION
The Falling-Rising intonation has no equivalent in the Spanish language. It is the

pattern most typically English, for that reason the most difficult for Spanish students to
achieve.
Form: ˇNo, ̬ No
This pattern may take two forms in the tonetic stress-mark system. In longer utterances
it may be divided as in:
I was most sur`prised to ̗ hear it.; or it may be non-divided in shorter ones, as in
She’s ̬ nice.
Function
1- In remarks of concern, apology, encouragement.
Exercise 15.9
57
Listen and repeat.
I’m `so ̗ sorry / I `do a ̗ pologise / Ex`cuse me for being ̗ late / I `didn’t mean to ̗ hurt
you / `We are to ̗ blame for that / `Someone must know the ̗ truth / Àspirin will do you
̗ good / `This is my ̗ son / `That’s not the ̗ way / `Blue’s a good ̗ colour for you /
`Here’s my little ̗ boy / `That’s a good sug ̗ gestion / He’ll `never under ̗ stand / `This
is the way to ̗ do it / `Here’s a nice place for a ̗ picnic / `Nobody would have done
̗ better / You `can if you ̗ want to / It would be `lovely to have a flat of one’s ̗ own.
2- In statements with implications. This means that part of the message has not been
verbalized, so it’s for the listener to infer the hidden part. The following item intends to
illustrate this function.
Exercise 15.10
Listen and repeat
1- I `don’t aˇgree (although I do understand your point of view)
2- You òught to ˇtry (even if you’re not likely to succeed)
3- You àre ˇslow (I would have thought you would have been quicker)
4- It’d be `better to ˇfly (although the journey is very beautiful by train)
5- You `needn’t ˇpay (so don’t be put off by the thought of the expense)
6- I ònly had ˇthree (and you knew that wasn’t enough)
7- I `love ˇknitting (but I can’t sew)
8- I’d `love to ˇgo (if only it were possible)
9- He’s `never ˇsure (so it wouldn’t be nice to rely on him)
10- It’s `much too ˇhigh (we like the hill, but we aren’t able to go to the top)
11- I `don’t believe it’s ˇtrue (in spite of all the rumours)
12- She `can’t come toˇday (it’s a pity; what about another day?)
13- It `doesn’t look like ˇnew (but it seems all right, though)
14- That `question’s too hard for ˇme (but no doubt someone else can manage it)
15- It would be `nice of you to come and ˇstay (but I suppose you really must go)
16- I’m a`fraid that’s all we can ˇdo (I’m sorry it’s not very much)
17- I `didn’t think she was ˇshy (wherever else she might be)
18- I’d `like to come if I ˇmay (I hope there’s no objection)
19- She has `pretty ˇhair (I don’t admire much else about her)
20- I’d`like it if it’s ˇblue (but I’m not interested in having any other colour).
3- In contradictions to remarks made.
Exercise 15.11. Listen and repeat

1- These 'shoes are well `made, but ˇthose aren’t.
58
2- He a`greed, but his ˇwife didn’t.
3- She 'couldn’t under`stand, but ˇhe could.
4- My 'father 'never used to `mind, but my ˇmother did.
5- The 'small 'book will 'go into my `pocket, but the ˇbig one won’t.
6- My 'first 'wife cooked `well, but my ˇsecond one doesn’t.
7- 'Milk will do you `good, but ˇbeer won’t.
8- They 'don’t `like it, but ˇI do.
9- A 'few 'students 'didn’t work `much, but ˇmost did.
10- My 'friend had a 'very dull `lesson, but ˇwe didn’t.
11- 'We can go 'next `week, but ˇthey can’t.

12- 'We 'knew her very `well, but ˇhe didn’t
13- 'Grass grows `very well here, but ˇtrees don’t.
14- 'They have `plenty of time, but ˇwe haven’t.
15- The 'boys 'didn’t need to `change, but the ˇgirls had to.
4- In story telling, we often use the past continuous tense for background information
and the past simple for main events, and we often use different intonation patterns with
these two tenses: ‘fall-rise’ tone for background information and ‘fall’ tone for main
events.
Exercise 15.12
Listen and repeat.
1- I was 'walking along the ̬ street one day, and I 'saw a `wallet on the `pavement.
2- I was 'taking a ̬ shower this morning and I 'smelt something `burning.
3- I was 'waiting for the ̬ bus yesterday, and I saw some 'men 'running away from the
po`lice.
4- I was 'lying in ̬ bed this morning, and I 'heard a 'knock at the `door.
5- We were 'going back ̬ home this afternoon, when we 'saw a 'crowd taking 'part in a
`protest march.
5- To make corrections we use a falling-rising intonation to repeat the old information,

and a falling intonation for new information.
Exercise 15.13
Listen and repeat.
1- A: Did you say half past eight?

B: No, not half past ̬ eight, half past `nine.
2- A: Cardiff is one of my favourite places in England.

59
B: But Cardiff isn’t in ̬ England, it’s in `Wales.
3- A: Which chemist’s are you talking about? Is it on the corner?
B: Well, it isn’t on the ̬ corner, exactly, but it’s very `near there.
4- A: Elvis was a famous actor.

B: Well, not exactly an ̬ actor, more a `singer.
6- Limited agreement or response with reservations

Exercise 15.14
Listen and repeat
A: I’ve heard this is a good university.

B: ̬ Yes.
B’s response would be taken to mean that he would not completely agree with what A
said, and A would probably expect B to go on to explain why he was reluctant to agree.
A. It’s not really an expensive computer, is it?

B: ̬ No.
Fall-rise in such contexts almost always indicates both something ‘given’ or ‘conceded’
and at the same time some ‘reservation’ or ‘hesitation’
5- To express uncertainty or doubt

Exercise 15.15
Listen and repeat
A: I Think we still have a chance to win.

B: You ̬ may be right.
A: I believe Miller will be appointed chairman.

B: It’s ̬ possible.
IV RISING-FALLING
Form: ̂ No, ̭ No
Function
60
This pattern is used basically:
1- In exclamations and remarks of surprise

Exercise 15.16. Listen and repeat
'What a ̗ beautiful `house! / 'What an in ̗ credible àcrobat! / 'What ̗ interesting
`books! / They’ve ̗ crossed the `border! / 'They ̗ managed to sur`vive! / Ma ̗ donna is
in my `house! / 'They’ve ̗ found the `treasure! / 'Someone has ̗ broken into my `house!
/ My ̗ house has been `burgled!/ The ̗ President has called me ùp! / 'I’ve ̗ won the
`lottery! / 'He’s been ̗ chosen `king! /
2- To convey rather strong feelings of approval, disapproval, surprise, awe or

astonishment.
Exercise 15.17
Listen and repeat
A: You wouldn’t do an awful thing like that, would you?

B: ̭ No. (strong feeling of approval).
A. Isn’t that view lovely!

B: ̭ Yes. (strong feeling of approval).
A: I think you said it was the best so far.

B: ̭ Yes. (strong feeling of approval)
A: How lucky you happened to be here!

B: ̭ Yes! (strong feeling of approval)
A: Would you like to meet a famous politician?

B: ̭ No. (strong feeling of disapproval).
A: I got an ‘'A’ in my end-of-term examination.

B: You got an ̭ ‘A’. (strong feeling of surprise)
A: All of them got through the mid-term examination.

B: ̭ All of them. (strong feeling of surprise).
A. There were thousands of them.

B: ̭ Really? (feeling of surprise)
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WRITTEN WORK
Exercise 15.18
a) Tick the utterances that most qualify to be said with falling intonation.
1- Peter’s lazy, 2- but John isn’t.

3- When do you have the test?
4- You can leave today, 5- as far as I’m concerned.
6- Get out of my way!
7- Pass me the salt, please.
8- This is the largest building I’ve ever seen.
9- Wasn’t it a nice film?
10- That’s my little girl!
b) Give reasons to explain the falling intonation in the utterances you ticked.
c) Tick the utterances that most qualify to be said with Rising intonation.
1- Have you ever cooked Chinese food?

2- Oh, George, 3- Must you go?
4- We can leave tomorrow, 5- If that’s what you want.
6- Is it right, dad? 7- That’s fine.
8- Your house’s on fire.
9- I didn’t mean to offend you.
10- Did you go to Oxford? 11- Did I go to Oxford?
d) Tick the utterances that most qualify to be said with Falling-Rising intonation.
1- Did Peter visit you today? 2- No. He said he’ll come tomorrow.
3- I said close the door- 4- Don’t you hear me?
5- Be careful 6- He’s a bad guy.
7- Good morning. 8- I’m very sorry I’m late.
9- What do you think of Pearl? 10- Does she qualify? 11- Well, she has pretty eyes.
12- My parents gave me this watch for my birthday. 13- It looks jolly nice. 14- Would
you let me wear it? 15- I don’t think you’d better.
e) Build contexts where the utterances: We ought to go; He never smiles; It’s not the
same; are said with a Falling-Rising intonation, like in the examples.
I’d love to try
“What about going bungee jumping?”

“I’d love to try, but I’m too shy”
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They are not for you
“What marvellous flowers” “I’ll get a vase”

“They are not for you” “They are for me”
16.0 TEXTS FOR FURTHER PRONUNCIATION PRACTICE
The following texts contain numerous examples of the stress patterns we have studied
and that can be easily recognised. Such cases are the last lexical item rule, contrasts,
emphasis and synonyms and repetitions. Read and identify each.
J. Windsor Lewis Chile Conference March, 1995
Prosodic Shibboleths
Listen and repeat
1- How’s your computer behaving? - I’m sick of the damned thing.

2- I find the French very friendly. - We find them very unfriendly.
3. Stopping is not allowed in this street except for loading and unloading.
4- The phone’s ringing. - Let it ring. To hell with the phone.
5- The saucepan’s on fire. – Well, don’t just sit there. Do something.
6- Better the devil you know than the devil you don’t know.
7- He didn’t help me. So why should I help him, damn him.
8- It’s very difficult stuff this.- Not in my opinion. Not a bit of it.
9- It wasn’t my fault. My watch stopped. – Well, whose fault was it?
10- Waiter, there’s a fly in my soup. - Don’t worry sir. I’ll soon rescue it.
11- The milkman’s coming. He can’t be. Not at this late hour.
12- London? I like the city. I like the City but I hate the West End.
13- I’ve got work to do. - Well. Get on with it then. No one’s stopping you.
14- Mind your own business. - But this thing is very much my business.
15- Try this new export beer. That beer wasn’t exported, it was deported.
16- Where’s that T-shirt I gave you? - It’s in the wash at the moment.
63
17- Your flat’s right opposite the pub we used to go to, you know.
Read the following story
1) One day the North Wind and the Sun were having an argument.
2) “You can’t be half strong as I am”, the Wind was saying.
3) “Oh, yes I am”, rejoined the other.
4) Just then a traveller appeared.
5) “What a fine cloak”, exclaimed the Wind.
6) “Yes, it is nice, isn’t it?, added his friend. “Is it warm?
7) “Oh! Very warm. And it could solve your dispute
8) if you’d grant me that pleasure.”
9) “What did you say?”, they chorused.
10) “I suggest, gentlemen, that this very garment
11) can provide the decision you require.
12) “What do you mean?”, snapped the Wind.
13) “My idea is”, continued the stranger calmly,
14) “that, whichever of you can make me take it off soonest,
15) he’ll be recognised as the stronger.”
16) “All right”, answered the Wind, shall I try first or will you?”
17) “You start”, replied his companion.
18) Then the Wind blew absolutely furiously but the wayfarer
19) only wrapped his mantle tighter around him.
20) At last he simply had to give up the struggle.
21) Then old Sol shone out really powerfully.
22) Immediately the poor fellow was forced to take the thing off.
23) “There!”, he sighed. That settles the matter.”
24) Well! I suppose I’d better be getting along. Goodbye, then!”
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Read this conversation carefully paying special attention to the placement of the
nuclear accent
Visiting the Zoo
Sally: The last time I saw you, you were planning to visit the zoo. Did you go?
Elena: Yes. We went there Sunday afternoon.
Sally: How did you like it? Which animals did you see?
Elena: We didn’t see any animals.
Sally: You didn’t see any animals! Why not?
Elena: Well, we went there, but we didn’t see any animals.All we saw was the outside
of the gate. It was closed.
Sally: But the zoo is never closed on Sundays. It’s open till five o’clock.
Elena: That’s when we arrived.
Sally: Why did you go so late?
Elena: We left our hotel at three o’clock, but we didn’t get there till five.
Sally: But it shouldn’t have taken more than forty minutes. How did you go? Did
you walk?
Elena: Mario decided we should take a bus because taxis are so expensive.
Sally: Well, even by bus it shouldn’t have taken very long. How could it take two
hours?
Elena: It probably wouldn’t have taken two hours if we had taken the right bus.
Sally: Which bus did you take?
Elena: We didn’t know which bus to take, so I asked a man which bus went to the
zoo. He thought it was the number 15 bus.
Sally: He was right. The number 15 bus goes right to the zoo.
Elena: But the number 11 bus came first and the driver said we could take that to
65
Middle Street.
Sally: Yes, but Middle Street is a long way from the zoo.
Elena: That’s what we found out.
Sally: How did you get from Middle Street to the zoo?
Elena: Well, the driver of the number 11 bus had told us to change to the number
30 bus at the corner of Middle and Main. So we stood on that corner for thirty
minutes. It was sunny and hot. There was no place to sit down. We waited, and
waited, and waited. At last the bus came, and we got on.
Sally: So you finally got to the zoo, and it was closed.
Elena: Yes, but that’s not the whole story. That bus didn’t take us to the zoo.
Sally: What do you mean? Wasn’t it the right bus after all?
Elena: It was the right bus, but it was going in the wrong direction.We rode, and rode,
and rode. Finally I decided to ask the driver how much farther it would be to the
zoo. And the driver said we were going away from the zoo. We should have
been standing on the other side of the street.
Sally: Oh! That’s terrible. So you got off the bus and crossed the street.
Elena: Just in time to catch the right bus.And it took us to the zoo, all right. But of
course the zoo was closed.
Sally: What an experience! I should have told you how to go.
Read this conversation carefully
How do you make Hamburgers?
Mrs. Wong: Have you tried cooking Chinese fried rice?

Mrs. Adams: Yes, I made it last Saturday, just the way you told me to make it.
Mrs. Wong: How did it taste?
Mrs. Adams: Not as good as yours, but we all liked it. All except my teenagers. They
don’t like anything but hamburgers.
Mrs. Wong: Oh, hamburgers! My children keep asking for hamburgers. I get so tired
of hearing about hamburgers!
Mrs. Adams: I know what you mean. I get tired of making them.
Mrs. Wong: How do you make them? I suppose I should learn how.
Mrs. Adams: They’re very simple, compared to your food.
Mrs. Wong: What kind of meat do you buy?
Mrs. Adams: Some kind of ground beef. I usually ask for either ground sirloin or
ground round steak. It’s more expensive than ground chuck, but it has
less fat.
Mrs. Wong: How much do you buy?
Mrs. Adams: A pound makes four big hamburgers.
Mrs. Wong: What do you mix with the ground beef?
Mrs Adams: I just add a little salt, some pepper, and sometimes a little chopped
onion. Some people don’t like it with onions, but I do.
Mrs. Wong: So you mix the salt and pepper and onions with the ground beef.
Mrs. Adams: Yes, and divide the mixture into balls. Then make the balls into patties.
Mrs. Wong: What is a patty?
66
Mrs Adams: You just press down on a ball and make it flat. Patties are flattened balls.
If you want to get more than four patties out of your pound of meat, just
make the patties thinner. But don’t handle the meat too much.
Mrs. Wong: Why not?
Mrs. Adams: Because it will make the hamburgers tough. They’ll be hard and tough.
Mrs. Wong: Then I suppose you cook them on top of the stove.
Mrs. Adams: Yes, in a hot frying pan. Put some butter in the pan and let it melt. Then
put the hamburger patties in.
Mrs. Wong: How long do you cook them?
Mrs. Adams: That depends on how you like them. Some people like them rare- red
inside.
Mrs. Wong: I don’t like them rare!
Mrs. Adams: If you like them medium or well-done, cook them longer.
Mrs. Wong: Then you put them between pieces of bread.
Mrs. Adams: Most people use special rolls. You put the hamburger inside the big roll,
and serve it with ketchup and pickles. I let my family spread ketchup
on their own hamburgers, if they want it.
Mrs. Wong: Is that all you need to do?
Mrs. Adams: That’s all.
17.0 OTHER COMPLEMENTARY TEXTS FOR READING PRACTICE
THE HUMAN CONDITION
As human beings we are aware of our own existence. We know that we exist, we know
about ourselves- our personality, our thinking, our movement and our emotions. We
know that we are involved in the world; we also know, although perhaps don’t think
will die. Nobody gets out of life alive.
As far as we humans know, there are certain qualities we possess that make us
different from the rest of the animal kingdom. We are aware of ourselves as seemingly
separate beings. We have the ability to remember our past, to imagine the future, to
recognize objects and understand the meaning of symbols. We are able to reason and we
attempt to understand the world. We have imagination. As self-conscious beings we can
sense ourselves in the here and now and we know where we have been and can imagine
where we might be.
When we talk about the human condition we are not talking about other human
beings, we are talking about ourselves. One aspect of ourselves that we can only
glimpse at is the amount of time and mental energy that we spend daydreaming. Most of
us spend a huge percentage of our time daydreaming. We wish that things could be
different from the way that they are: ‘One day I’m going to do this...’, ‘Oh, if only...’,
‘What will happen if...?’
Because things aren’t often as we want them, because we imagine they could be
67
different, we attempt to make our lives different. We are always building new worlds
for ourselves. Motivated by this desire for a better life, people go to work and create
artificial worlds where there are television commercials, rapid transport, central heating
and CD players. All human enterprises, such as science and religion, come about
through human need, in our awareness of the inadequacies in ourselves and in our
world. We try to reform the world with science. We try to make it more reasonable and
less frightening with religion.
THE FOURTH WORLD
WHAT IS THE FOURTH WORLD?
The Fourth World is the name given to indigenous peoples descended from a country’s
original population and who today are completely or partly deprived of the right to their
own territory and its land. Nothing has been so destructive to indigenous people as what
we call ‘progress’. Mines, dams, roads, colonization schemes, plantations, cattle ranches
and other expressions of ‘economic development’ have forced indigenous peoples from
lands they have occupied for centuries. Moreover, this ‘progress’ has severely damaged
the environment.
EUROPEAN COLONIALISM
European colonialism has been one of the most destructive processes in human history.
1492, the year Colombus arrived in the Americas, marked the beginning of a tragic
adventure. Within 400 years continuous expansion had pushed most of the world’s
original peoples off their lands and decimated their numbers. In South America the
number of indigenous people fell from 30 million to 5 million in just 50 years. At least
10 million Africans were shipped as slaves to the Americas.
The Europeans came bearing their civilization as if it were a gift. Yet, to the people they
termed ‘savage’, whose well ordered societies and rich cultures stretched back
thousands of years, the gift was lethal. Contact with Europeans brough not only murder,
68
theft and enslavement but disease and the destruction of their ways of life.
The colonizers came with a sword in one hand and a Bible in the other. A Spanish
soldier said: ‘We come to bring light to those in darkness and also to get rich’. The
Europeans took no account of the highly developed spiritual awareness of the people.
They sought to convert them to their own misguided understandings of truth, to an alien
religion – often on pain of death.
‘In the long hundred years since the white man came, I have seen my freedom disappear
like the salmon going mysteriously out to sea. The white man’s strange customs which I
could not understand pressed down on me until I could no longer breathe. And when I
fought to protect my land and home, I was called a ‘savage’. When I neither understood
nor welcomed the white man’s way of life I was called “lazy”. When I tried to lead my
people I was stripped of my authority.
(Chief Dan George, Vancouver)
MARTIN LUTHER KING
Martin Luther King was born in Atlanta, Georgia, on 15 January 1929, in the heart of
the American south. From an early age he was aware that black people were not treated
as equal citizens in America. Four million Africans had been torn from their homes and
shipped to America to work as slaves. Even though slavery had been abolished by
Abraham Lincoln in 1869, most blacks still lived in poverty in the richest nation on
earth. They earned half of white people’s wages; many could not vote; they lived in
ghettos and they were segregated (separated) in public places. Some whites (like a
secret society called the Ku Klux Klan) wanted slavery reintroduced and used violence
against black people.
Martin Luther King was a Christian. He became a doctor of theology and in 1954 a
Baptist minister in Montgomery, Alabama. He believed that the only way to achieve
equality was by non-violent and peaceful forms of protest. Not all blacks agreed with
him. The Black Power movement (led by Malcolm X) believed that equality would only
be achieved by violence.
In Montgomery black people could only sit at the back of buses and even the old had
to give up their seat if a white person asked them. Martin Luther King organized a ‘bus
boycott’, (when black people refused to use the buses until they were desegregated).
This movement was known as the Civil Rights movement and in 1960 Martin Luther
King became its leader. In 1956 the government passed a law making it illegal to
segregate people on buses.
Martin Luther King campaigned endlessly. In 1957 he spoke to a crowd of 40,000 in
69
Washington at a ‘freedom march’. He organized various forms of peaceful protest.
Often the police reacted with violence. In 1960 he led a march of a quarter of a million
people in Washington demanding that black people be given the vote.
Throughout his life Martin Luther King was confronted by violence. His home was
bombed, he was stabbed, his family received death threats but he kept to his Christian
belief that violence and hatred could only be conquered by love and forgiveness. In
1964 he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, and in 1965 equal voting rights were given
to black people.
In 1967 America became involved in theVietnamWar. Over 400,000 Americans were
fighting in the war and thousands of Vietnamese civilians had died. In a Christmas Eve
speech in 1967, Martin Luther King said ‘humankind is a child of God, made in his
image...until men see this everywhere...we will be fighting wars.’
In 1968 a white man called James Earl Ray shot Martin Luther King dead in
Memphis. The world was stunned. He was only 39. His wife Coretta later wrote: ‘The
killers of the dream could end his mortal existence with a single bullet but not all the
bullets in all the arsenals in the world can affect his death.’
I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will
not be judged by the colour of their skin, but by the sort of persons they are. I have a
dream that one day ...all God’s children, black, white, Jews and Gentiles, Protestants
and Catholics, will be able to join hands and sing in the words of the black people’s old
song, Free at last, free at last, thank God Almighty, we are free at last.
THE PROBLEM OF SUFFERING
Humans and animals not only die but sometimes they suffer the most terrible pain. In
the Nazi Holocaust during the second world war at least six million Jewish people died
as well as millions of others. They died in mental, physical and spiritual agony. We
cannot imagine the scale of the suffering. It was a period of history when the human
potential for creating a hell on earth reached one of its most terrible points. Where was
God at Auschwitz, Belsen, Treblinka and all the other death camps?
Today, around the world, millions of people are going through terrible suffering. In
many cases this suffering is caused by other human beings. As well as the physical
suffering that is going on everyone suffers in other ways- psychological ways.
Suffering, it seems, is part of human and animal existence. We live in what has been
called a ‘pain factory’ in the universe.
‘Someone tells us that God loves us as a father loves his children. We are reassured.
But then we see a child dying of inoperable cancer of the throat. His earthly father
is driven frantic in his effort to help, but his heavenly father reveals no obvious sign
of concern.’
The amount of suffering in the world at any moment is staggering. It is a problem for
us all. It is also a special kind of problem for those who believe the world is ruled by a
God of power and love. The problem is this:
70
Either God wills to remove evil and is not able to do so, or God does not will to
remove it. If God does not will to remove it then he is not a God of love. If God is not
able to remove it then he is not all powerful.
The question for people who believe in an all-knowing (omniscient), all-loving

(benevolent), and all-powerful (omnipotent) God, is how can this evil exist in a world
that He supposedly created? This problem has been called the problem of evil or the
problem of suffering. It raises serious questions about the nature and existence of the
traditional God of Christianity. Dealing with this problem has been a major concern of
Western thinkers and ordinary Christians for hundreds of years. Some thinkers have
tried to answer the problem of evil. Here are seven of their ideas.
PERSONAL VIOLENCE
The message from government, media and law enforcers is quite clear. Our society is
plagued by violence. It’s a crazy world out there. ‘Stranger-danger is the catch-phrase.
Bolts, steel doors, alarm systems and all manner of sophisticated locking devices are
enjoying boom sales in our cities.
Set against this violent world outside is a powerful and cherished ideal: The family
offering love and security against the cruel world outside. However, statistics show a
different picture. More than half the murders in the West are the result of domestic
disputes. Children are more likely to be abused by their own parents than by anybody
else. Most women are raped by people they know – in the home. To quote American
sociologist Norval Morris:‘You are safer on the streets than at home, safer with a
stranger than with a friend or relative.’
WHAT IS PERSONAL VIOLENCE
Personal violence can take many forms: physical, psychological, sexual, economic –
even supernatural. There are, however, some things common to all types of personal
violence. Personal violence usually involves the person inflicting the violence gaining
power – or extra power – over the victim by causing them pain. It’s easier to do this to a
71
person if you ‘own’ them. They become an object, a commodity that you can treat as
you please. The brutal treatment of Africans sold into slavery is a shocking example of
this. But the easiest thing of all has been for men to abuse women and adults to abuse
children. In the past men have legally owned women and children but although this is
not the case today, incest, rape and battering are on the increase.
Violence breeds violence. Parents who batter their children have often been battered
themselves. These people are not simply sadistic. Often they are beating to make sense
of their own confusing and painful childhood. Using violence against others, they
regain an element of control, even self-respect.
Some people cannot express their anger and resentment to others in their home
environment and so project their violence onto others. It is often the case that obedient
children who never express anger towards their parents carry a psychological time-
bomb in their heads. Many men find an escape for their anger in what sociologists call
‘compulsive masculinity’. Some join the armed forces, some go into aggresive ‘cut and
thrust’ business and some turn into street fighting machines on a Saturday aftternoon or
evening. The ‘macho’ way, continuously shown in Hollywood movies, presents the idea
that actions speak louder than words. The hero bottles things up and then explodes in a
display of violent power. But behind this bravado lies the fact that these men can’t
express their feelings and emotions until it’s too late.
One way this manifests itself is child sexual abuse. Men who can’t express their
emotions find it more desirable to have sexual relationships with children they easily
dominate than with other adults with whom they feel emotionally inadequate.
Women, on the other hand, are more likely to ‘internalize’ aggression, become
depressed and turn violence against themselves. Anorexia and tranquilizer dependency
are typical symptoms of this self-destructive urge.
ADVERTISING
The average person living in a city is bombarded by over 1.600 advertising images a
day. Wherever we go we are invited to spend. We are shown pictures of desirable goods
and services, and we are given reasons why we’re entitled to have them. We are
encouraged to want more than we need. Adverts tempt us, give us glimpses into a world
of luxury.
Whether we are aware of it or not, adverts do affect us. Advertisers talk about us as
targets. They tailor their work very specifically for particular targets. They know which
audiences are susceptible to their produce. When TV sells advertising space it is buying
audiences. It is buying us. It offers advertisers a known audience to which to advertise.
The fee is fixed according to what kind of audience it is. If a programme is mainly
watched by people in their twenties to forties it will cost more to advertise in its
commercial breaks than, say, in a programme aimed at older people who have less
spending power.
Adverts also manipulate the audience. If you buy a certain produce you will be
rewarded by having many friends or you will be happy and so on. Some adverts play on
people’s fears. If you buy a certain insurance policy you will be guaranteed a lifetime of
72
peace and security. If you buy a telephone your old age won’t be lonely and isolated,
with relatives phoning you up from across the world. Adverts also make us discontented
with what we already have- invest with the advertiser and you can enter a glamorous
world. If you buy the product or service you will reach a new and higher status.
Ownership will tell the world you’ve ‘made it’, you’re ‘in’ with the in-crowd’.
Advertising is a unique form of communication. Many adverts do not even need the
product to be included; everybody knows what is being talked about. Others rely on
simple visual clues, like the Silk Cut cigarette adverts which use photographs of pieces
of cut silk, and no words at all. Advertising is more of a code than a language. Words
are used in compressed and witty ways, for example, one advert of Lucozade uses three
letters: NRG. It is left up to the consumer to decode the advert – the more time it takes
to decode the longer we are in the advertiser’s power.
Adverts also have hidden content. A Woolworth’s promotional leaflet advertises toys.
Boys’ toys include guns, construction sets and activity toys. The girls’ toys feature
dolls, housekeeping and ‘fluffy’ toys. The hidden message is reinforced by the use of
colour. Soft pastel shades for the girls and strong dramatic greens, reds and khaki for the
boys. The imagery upholds stereotypes which are certainly not the primary message of
the advert. But the stereotypes play a large part in reinforcing the appeal of the products.
OUR THROWAWAY WORLD
The average British household throws away about one tonne of rubbish a year,
including around 132 kg of food. Nearly a third of this garbage is from packaging and
the rest from bottles, cans and plastic containers.
If we walk along a sea shore we will have to pick our way through all sorts of waste.
Our streets are littered with polystyrene french-fry containers, parks with dog faeces,
and our countryside with plastic fertilizer sacks and abandoned cars.
Pollution, however, is about more than individual behaviour. It breaks over us in great
waves. Take acid rain. Half of West Germany’s trees are dying from acid rain. Take
nuclear power. The ‘accidental’ dumping of half a tonne of uranium in the Irish sea
helps ensure those waters are the most radioactive in the world. Cancer rates around the
Sellafield/Windscale nuclear power station are six times the national average for
children. So waste is not just a messy habit of individuals. It is a by-product of
industrial growth. We are overburdening the planet with our rubbish the effluence of
our affluence.
73
Little or no accounting is done, for instance, on the damage to clean air or water. If we
argue that pollution means profits, then it follows that industry’s worst offenders should
be the biggest and wealthiest. And this is the case. Petro-chemical, car and electronic
companies predominate. They are the most profitable precisely because they are getting
something for nothing: use of never-to-be repeated finite resources, like oil and natural
gas. Created millions of years ago, these fossil fuels are being fast used up. Nothing is
put in their place. And a by-product of their use is waste.
The 400 million cars in the world today are the cause of the choking smog that covers
so many of our cities. Their emissions contain lead and cause the build up of carbon
dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere. At present rates of emission, CO2 concentrations will
have doubled in 60 years. This could trigger the destruction of the ozone layer which
shields the Earth from the harmful effects of the Sun’s ultra-violet rays. If this happens
it could cause a ‘hot house’ effect, increasing temperatures by two or three degrees,
enough to melt the Artic and the Antartic ice caps, raising sea levels and flooding all
low-lying areas.
The industrial, capitalist world encourages us to consume more and more. We can see
the effects of this if we pick up a current affairs magazine. Half the pages are concerned
with violent crime, economic disaster and war; the other half shows carefree people
behind packets of cigarettes, bottles of alcohol and shining new cars. Glossy advertising
encourages greed and produces envy in a world where the consequences of such
selfishness are all too obvious. Societies which produce satellite nuclear technology to
make death rays in space when one billion people live in absolute poverty is irrational.
A society which supports huge industries for petfoods or cosmetics while claiming it
cannot afford to buil hospitals or schools clearly needs to look at its values and
morality.
FUNDAMENTALISM
WHO ARE FUNDAMENTALISTS?
‘They worship the authority and wisdom of the past and they hope to regain a lost
past.They have an absolute set of rules and are not always strictly religious but
encompass secular form of belief. Any obsessive preoccupation with a single
explanation of the cosmos or a single “answer” to the problems of society can slip easily
into fundamentalist belief. They reassert an old truth as the answer to modern doubt”
(Richard Swift)
When we think of fundalmentalism we often picture the media image of ‘fanatical

Muslims’ beating their chests or American TV Evangelists calling on viewers to donate
money for ‘eternal salvation’. However, there are fundamentalists who put on three-
piece suits, work in the Stock Exchange and believe that all of human existence can be
defined in economic terms. Over the last decade or so there has been a worldwide rise in
different forms of fundamentalist belief.
Life today can be very confusing. The pace of change in this century has been amazing,
with traditional habits, beliefs and cultures under constant pressure to adapt. In an
74
increasingly materialistic world our individual worth is measured according to standards
of how much money or power we have. We no longer seem to belong anywhere. Old
communities are disappearing. Governments are increasingly large and remote. The
traditional family is no longer, in many cases, a place of security. Our world is getting
more violent. The global economy means that our livelihoods can be changed by the
touch of a computer in Brussels or Tokyo. All this confusion provides fertile ground on
which the seeds of fundamentalism can grow.
Fundamentalists can sell their ideas by referring back to the ‘old ways’: the intimate
gathering around the family hearth; a clear sense of what is right (and will be rewarded)
and what is wrong (and will be punished). We have to ask, however, whether there was
ever a time on Earth when people lived in total harmony with themselves and their
neighbours? Fundamentalists often talk as if this time once existed. If it did and it was
perfect, why does it not exist today? Why did it disappear? Why did we ever leave this
‘Garden of Eden’ where idyllic family life, hard word and god-fearing morality kept us
all happy? The seeds of discontent that have grown and flowered in the modern world
must have been planted in that garden.
Fundamentalists do not only hard back to a golden age. They are obsessed by the idea
that we are heading towards an apocalyptic crisis if we don’t mend our ways. Christian
fundamentalists talk about the ‘second coming of Christ ‘, known as ‘endtimes’. Each
different fundamentalist movement aims to put things right with a programme of moral
reform.
‘When the Christian majority takes over the country, there will be no satanic churches,
no more free distribution of pornography, no more abortion on demand and no more
talk of rights for homosexuals. After the Christian majority takes control our society
will not put up with other religions, they will be seen as immoral and evil and the State
will not permit anybody to practise them.’
(Pat Robertson, TV Evangelist and US Presidential candidate)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ALLEN, S. (1965). Living English Speech. Longman Group Limited. London.
FINCH, D. & ORTIZ, h. ( 1982). A Course in English Phonetics for Spanish Speakers.
Heinemann Educational Books.
FRENCH, A. V. (1984). Encores. English Language Program Devisions Bureau of
Educational and Cultural Affairs. United States Information Agency. Washington
D.C. 20547.
GOMM, H & J. HIRD. (2000). Insideout: Intermediate. MacMillan Education.
JENKINS, J. (1992). Contemporary Moral Issues. Heinemann Educational Books Ltd.
MARKS, J. (2007). English Pronunciation in Use. Cambridge University Press.
JONES, D. (2006). English Pronouncing Dictionary. Cambridge University Press.
ORTIZ, H. (1998). Word Stress and Sentence Accent. Number 16. Universidad
Metropolitana de Ciencias de La Educación.
ROACH, P. (1991). English Phonetics and Phonology. Cambridge University Press.
ROACH, P. (2000). English Phonetics and Phonology. Cambridge University Press.
SOARS, J. & L. (1987). Headway. Upper Intermediate. Oxford University Press.
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WELLS, J.C. (2006). English Intonation: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press.
WINDSOR, L, J. (1995). Prosodic Shibboleths. Chile Conference.
(1999). My Giant Treasury of Stories and Rhymes. Bookmart Limited
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INTRODUCTION

1- There will be snow and storms in the United States.

2.1 CONSONANT /t/

2.1.0 IN STRONG SYLLABLES

Weak aspiration in strongly stressed syllables

Aspiration can be heavy in weak syllables:

Weak or no aspiration in weak syllables

-‘t’ followed by schwa: Saturday, butterfly

2.2 CONSONANT /k/

2.2.0 IN STRONG SYLLABLES

-before a vowel: cʰongress, ocʰcasion, cʰapital, cʰommunist, ocʰcur

Weak or no aspiration in strongly stressed syllables

- in ‘skV’: sky, score, escape, ski

2.2.1 IN WEAK SYLLABLES

Pay attention to the strong aspiration in: thankʰ you

-in ‘k’ followed by /ә/: focus, thinker, Incas

Note: In this context the aspiration is neutralized by the schwa.

2.3.0 IN STRONG SYLLABLES

-before a vowel: pʰower, pʰear, pʰublic, apʰpear, repʰair, impʰose, apʰpeal

2.3.1 IN WEAK SYLLABLES

No aspiration or little aspiration in weak syllables

-when ə follows p: opposition, opportunity, leopard, developing, preparation, purpose

3.0 FEATURES OF CONNECTED SPEECH

d + j becomes dʒ in: and you /ænʤu/ during /'ʤʊәrIŋ/

1- What would you like to eat?

1- This is your best book.

A: I’ve missed you so much. Where have you been?

A: What would you like to study in next year’s literature course?

This kaleidoscope of unique species is known as biological diversity. It has been

A rich biological diversity is important to our own survival. We rely, directly or

The question for people who believe in an all-knowing (omniscient), all-loving

3.4 The intrusive-r

Context: /ә/ + /ә/

1- The American idea (r) of the future is limited.

1- Context: /ә/ + /I/

When Joanna (r) is here.

2- Context: /u:/ + /ә/

All he knew (r) about Africa.

3- Context: /u:/ + /I/

Shall we be seeing you (r) again?

I was able to (r) escape and survive.

6- Context: /ɔ:/ + /ә/

I saw (r) a film today, oh boy.

7- Context: /ɔ:/ + /I/

Another military (r) operation

We turn our eye (r) on Africa.

10- Context: /ә/ + /ɔ:/

Obama (r) also came to the summit.

11- Context: /ә/ + /ɔI/

They produce tuna (r) oil

12- Context /Iә/ + /aI/

13- Context: /Iә/ + /eә/

In the Korea (r) area

14- Context: /ɔ:/ + /a:/

The law (r) after

15- Context: Before a pause

I don’t want to go to Florida (r)…or anywhere else.

16- Context: /ә/ + /aI /

17- Context: /әʊ/ + /I/

Mexico (r) investigated

a- pronounced /ә/, in: about, abstain, aware, attempt, attain, attack

ambassador, ambiguous, ambition, ambivalent, ambrosia, amphibian, amnesia,

The following unstressed beginnings are pronounced with vowel /ә/