MASS NUMBER = total number of protons and

Atomic Structure

7
3

Sub-atomic particles

neutrons in the nucleus

Li
ATOMIC NUMBER = number of protons (also equals
number of electrons for neutral atoms, but not for ions!)

ELECTRONS
(orbit the nucleus
in shells or energy
levels)

NB Number of neutrons = MASS NUMBER ATOMIC NUMBER

Isotopes

All atoms of a particular element must have the same number of protons
in their nuclei, but the number of neutrons can vary

NUCLEUS
(contains protons
and neutrons)

Isotopes of an element have the same ATOMIC NUMBER (ie the same
number of protons), but different MASS NUMBERS (because they have
different numbers of neutrons)
Isotopes have different physical properties but they always have the same

Properties of the particles

chemical properties (because they have the same number of electrons)

Electron arrangement

Relative
mass

Relative
charge

Proton

+1

shell (the lowest energy level) can hold a maximum of two electrons, and the

Neutron

next two shells a maximum of eight.

Electron

Very small

-1

Electrons are arranged in shells (energy levels) around the nucleus. The first

The number of shells occupied is equal to the period number

The number of electrons on the outer shell is equal to the group number

 between a metal and a non-metal

Ionic
involves the TRANSFER of electrons forming IONS
ions have the electronic structure of a noble gas
metals LOSE electrons and become POSITIVE ions
Group 1: lose 1 electron and become 1+ ions e.g. Na+

+
Na

Na

2, 8, 1

[2, 8]+

Group 2 lose 2 electrons and become 2+ ions e.g. Mg2+

non-metals gain electrons and become NEGATIVE ions

Bonding
between non-metals
Covalent
involves the SHARING of electron pairs in order to achieve a full outer shell of electrons
one shared pair is a single covalent bond, two shared pairs makes a double bond etc
covalent bonds are strong bonds

H-H

Cl-Cl

O=O

H-Cl

Group 7 gain 1electron and become 1- ions e.g. F-

2, 7

[2, 8]-

Group 6 gain 2 electrons and become 2 ions e.g. oxide O

there is a strong electrostatic attraction between oppositely
charged ions and this is called an ionic bond
-

Na

2-

sodium chloride (NaCl)

Other examples:

2+

xx

xx 2O
Mg
xx
magnesium oxide (MgO)
2+

Ca

calcium chloride (CaCl2)

CH4
methane

NH3
ammonia

H 2O
water

Metallic
the electrons in the highest occupied energy levels (outer shell) of metal atoms are
DELOCALISED and so free to move through the whole structure
this corresponds to a structure of positive ions with electrons between the ions holding
them together by strong electrostatic attractions

 Ionic compounds have regular structures

Ionic

(GIANT IONIC LATTICES) in which there are strong

electrostatic forces in all directions between
oppositely charged ions.

Structure and properties

Covalent substances fall into two categories with respect to structure:

Covalent

SIMPLE MOLECULES and GIANT STRUCTURES

(i) Simple Molecules e.g. water, methane, ammonia, oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine etc
these have relatively low melting points and boiling points because only weak forces of
attraction between molecules (intermolecular forces) need to be overcome when the substance
melts or boils (this requires little energy). The covalent bonds are NOT broken.
these do not conduct electricity because the molecules do not have an overall electric charge

Ionic compounds therefore have high melting points

and high boiling points (a lot of energy is needed to
break the many strong ionic bonds)
(NB MgO has a much higher m.pt than NaCl because
of increased charges on the ions (2+, 2- versus 1+, 1-))
When melted or dissolved in water, ionic compounds
conduct electricity because the ions are free to move
and carry the current
Solid ionic compounds do not conduct electricity
because the ions are fixed in place
Metals consist of GIANT structures

Metallic

of positive ions arranged in a regular pattern,

surrounded by a sea of electrons
Metals conduct heat and electricity because of the
delocalised electrons in their structure
Metals can be bent and shaped because the layers
of atoms are able to slide over each other and fall
into new positions

(ii) Giant structures e.g. diamond, graphite, silicon dioxide

these have very high melting/boiling points because the atoms in these giant structures are linked
by many strong covalent bonds which must be broken when the substance melts or boils
In diamond, each carbon atom forms four covalent bonds with other carbon atoms
Diamond is very hard
In graphite, each carbon atom bonds to only three others, forming layers.
The layers are free to slide over each other and so graphite is soft and slippery
One electron from each carbon atom is delocalised this allows graphite to
conduct heat and electricity (like in metals)
Carbon can also form macromolecules e.g. buckminsterfullerene (C60)
which is very important in the world of nanotechnology
a NANOMETRE (nm) is ONE THOUSAND-MILLIONTH of a metre
Nanoscience
nanoscience refers to the study of structures that are 1-100nm in size, of the order of a few
hundred atoms
nanoparticles show different properties to the same materials in bulk and have a high surface area
to volume ratio which may lead to the development of new computers/catalysts/sensors/coatings etc

Collision Theory

RATES

Reactions can only occur when reacting particles collide with each other and with sufficient energy

General
Reactions proceed at a variety of rates
The rate of a reaction is followed by measuring
the amount of a reactant used or the amount
of product formed OVER TIME:

The minimum amount of energy that particles must have to react is called the activation energy
Not all collisions lead to a reaction. Rate: a measure of the number of successful collisions per unit time
The rate of a reaction can be altered by changing: conc, press, temp or surface area or adding a catalyst

Concentration

concentration rate

Concentration is given in Molar which refers to

product

the number of moles per cubic decimetre (mol/dm3)

reactant

Equal volumes of solutions of the same molar

concentration contain the same number of moles
Time

Time

Rate is fastest at the start when most reactant is

present. Graph levels off when reaction is finished
Rate = amount of reactant used or amount of product formed
Time

The method chosen depends on the reaction:

(a) If a gas is produced:
(i) measure mass over time (which will decrease as long
as the gas is allowed to escape use a cotton wool
plug to prevent loss of anything other than the gas)
(ii) measure volume of gas over time (which will
increase use a gas syringe or displacement of water,
a thistle funnel would reduce the amount of gas lost as
the reactants were added together)

(b) If a solid is produced:

of solute i.e. the same number of particles

Temperature
temperature rate
Increasing temperature increase the energy that
reacting particles have, this increases their speed
so that they collide more frequently but also more
energetically more collisions are successful
At room temperature, a temperature rise of 10C
approximately doubles the rate

Surface Area s.area rate

Increasing surface area increases the number
of particles per unit volume, increasing the chance of solid particles exposed, increasing the
of a collision, therefore increasing the frequency of
chance of a collision, therefore increasing
the frequency of collisions rate
collisions (more collisions per unit time) rate
Direct proportionality

Increasing the concentration increases the number

Doubling the concentration doubles the number of

particles per unit volume, doubling the frequency of

collisions, doubling the rate (direct proportionality)

Pressure

pressure rate

Equal volumes of gases at the same temp and

pressure contain the same number of molecules.
Increasing the pressure of reacting gases increases
the number of particles per unit volume,
increasing the chance of a collision, therefore

increasing the frequency of collisions rate

Disappearing cross experiment use of a light meter
and data logger would improve accuracy and precision Direct proportionality

Catalyst

add a catalyst rate

Catalysts change the rate of reactions but are

NOT USED UP during the reaction.
Catalysts lower the activation energy required,
so more collisions are successful
V. useful in industry see reversible rxns sheet
Different reactions require different catalysts
e.g. manganese (IV) oxide in the decomposition
of hydrogen peroxide
2H2O2

2H2O + O2

NB Test for oxygen: relights a glowing splint

Equilibria

a reversible reaction is one that proceeds in both directions (

when a reversible reaction occurs in a CLOSED SYSTEM,

EQUILIBRIUM is reached when the RATE of the forward reaction
becomes EQUAL to the RATE of the reverse reaction

Haber Process

although reversible reactions may not go to completion, they can still be

used efficiently in continuous industrial processes
developed by Fritz Haber, the Haber process is used to manufacture
ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen:
N2 + 3H2

2NH3

nitrogen is obtained from air by fractional distillation

hydrogen is obtained from the cracking of oil fractions, or from natural
gas (methane + steam hydrogen + carbon dioxide)
The purified gases are passed over an IRON CATALYST at a high

Reversible Reactions
Energy changes

Exothermic e.g. combustion, neutralisation. Energy is transferred, often as heat,

to the surroundings. This is detected by an INCREASE in temperature
Endothermic e.g. thermal decomposition. Eenergy is taken in, often as heat,
from the surroundings. This is detected by a DECREASE in temperature
A reversible reaction is EXOTHERMIC in one direction, ENDOTHERMIC in
the other

Choosing conditions

the relative amounts of all the reacting substances at equilibrium depend on

the CONDITIONS of the reaction. Often, the conditions are a COMPROMISE
to give a reasonable YIELD of product reasonably QUICKLY
Factors affecting YIELD:
1. Temperature:
Endothermic
reaction

Temp

Yield increases

Exothermic
reaction

Yield decreases

Temp
Yieldan
decreases
increases
2. Pressure: In gaseous
reactions,
increase inYield
pressure
will favour the reaction
that produces the LEAST number of molecules of gas
temperature (approx 450 C) and a high pressure (approx 200 atmospheres)
3. Catalysts do NOT affect the YIELD they speed up the forward and reverse
Some of the hydrogen and nitrogen reacts to form ammonia, although,
reactions equally
because the reaction is reversible, the ammonia also breaks down again
Factors affecting RATE:
into nitrogen and hydrogen, giving a mixture of reactants & product
Rate is increased by : increasing temp, increasing pressure or by adding a catalyst
On cooling, the ammonia is liquefied and removed. The remaining N2 and NB catalysts allow a compromise of conditions: they speed up reactions so that
lower temps/pressures can be used (saves money and energy and is safer). In
H2 is recycled back into the reactor
addition, catalysts are not used up during the reaction.
It is important for sustainable development as well as for economic reasons
Haber: (i) increasing temp would increase rate, but lower the yield because the
to minimise the energy requirements and energy wasted in industrial
forward reaction is exothermic, 450 C is a compromise (ii) increasing pressure
processes. Non-vigorous conditions mean less energy is used and released
would increase rate and yield (fewer moles on right hand side), 200 atm is a
compromise in terms of cost, energy and safety
into the environment.

Acids, bases & salts

Making salts

Salts can either be made by (i) precipitation reactions or by (ii) reacting

acids with metals, bases or alkalis
The choice depends on whether the salt is soluble or insoluble:
All sodium, potassium and ammonium salts are soluble
All nitrates are soluble

Making soluble salts using acids

All acids contain H+(aq) ions and they can be used to make soluble salts
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is used to make chlorides
Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is used to make sulphates
Nitric acid (HNO3) is used to make nitrates
The method chosen then depends on the metal in the salt:
(i)

Most chlorides, bromides and iodides are soluble except silver & lead
Most sulphates are soluble except barium and lead
Many carbonates, oxides and hydroxides are insoluble except sodium,
potassium & ammonium
Use the data sheet to write formulae, include state symbols: solid (s),
liquid (l), gas (g), aqueous solution (dissolved in water) (aq)

acid + metal
e.g. 2HCl + Mg

salt +

hydrogen

MgCl2 + H2

(obs: fizzing, solid disappears)

(not neutralisation)

Add the solid metal to the acid until no more dissolves / until the fizzing stops; filter off the
excess metal; evaporate off the water to crystallise the salt. This method is not suitable for
making salts using group 1 metals because they react too violently. Also, the metal must be above
hydrogen in the reactivity series, so this is not suitable for making copper salts
(ii)

acid + base
e.g. 2HCl + CuO

Making insoluble salts by precipitation

salt

CuCl2 +

water

(base = metal oxide)

H2O

(neutralisation)

Mix two appropriate soluble salt solutions together

Add the solid base to the acid until no more dissolves (warm acid); filter off the excess solid;

For example, if you wanted to make lead chloride you would need to

evaporate off the water to crystallise the salt. This is not suitable for soluble bases.

choose a solution containing lead ions and one containing chloride

(iii)

acid + alkali salt + water

e.g. HCl

ions
It is wise to choose a nitrate and a sodium salt as these are always

(alkali = soluble base, metal hydroxide)

+ NaOH NaCl + H2O

H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) H2O (l)

(neutralisation)

(the ionic equation for this reaction)

soluble (e.g. lead nitrate solution and sodium chloride solution)

Two colourless solutions reacting together to give a colourless solution. Therefore an indicator is

e.g. lead nitrate + sodium chloride lead chloride + sodium nitrate

needed to show when the acid and alkali have completely reacted the preparation has to be

The solid lead chloride (precipitate) is filtered off, washed and dried

done twice, once with an indicator to find out exactly how much acid and alkali is required and

Precipitation can be used to remove unwanted ions from solutions, for

then again without the indicator; finally the water must be evaporated off to crystallise out the

example in treating water for drinking or in treating effluent. The

simplest way is to raise the pH by adding hydroxide ions which react
with the unwanted metal ions to produce insoluble metal hydroxides.

salt.
NB Ammonia (NH3) dissolves in water to produce an alkaline solution of ammonium hydroxide
(NH4OH). This can be reacted with sulphuric acid to make ammonium sulphate and with nitric

Calculations

Reacting Masses

Work out moles for the substance whose mass is given (moles = mass/RAM or RFM)

Relative atomic mass (RAM or Ar)

This compares the mass of atoms of the element with the carbon-12 isotope. It is
an average value for the isotopes of the element e.g. Ar for chlorine is 35.5
because 25% of all chlorine is 35Cl and 75% is 37Cl

Convert this number of moles into mass (mass = moles x RAM or RFM)
e.g. Calculate the mass of H2O that is made when 8g of O2 reacts with an excess of H2
2H2 + O2 2H2O

Relative formula mass (RFM or Mr)

This is the sum of the relative atomic masses of the atoms in the numbers shown
in the formula of the compound
e.g. Mr of H2O = (2 x 1)+16 = 18

Use mole ratio from the balanced equation to find moles of the substance in question

RFMs: O2 = 32; H2O = 18

moles O2 = mass/RFM = 8/32 = 0.25

mole ratio O2:H2O is 1:2 therefore moles H20 = 2 x moles O2 = 2 x 0.25 = 0.50
mass H2O = moles x RFM = 0.50 x 18 = 9g

(no units)

Percentage yield

Mr of Mg(NO3)2 = 24 + (2 x (14 + (3x16))) = 148

In grams, the relative formula mass is known as one mole of the substance

Percentage composition

This is the percentage, by mass, of an element in a compound, and is found by:

Yield is the mass of product made. Percentage yield is calculated by:

% yield =
mass of product actually made x 100
mass of product expected
It is not usually possible to get 100% yield because: the reactants may not be
completely pure, the reaction may not go to completion because it is reversible, some of

number of atoms x Ar x 100%

Mr

Moles

e.g. % H in H2O = 2 x 1 x 100 = 11%

18

Used by chemists for counting

(one mole of particles contains 6 x 1023

mass

mass

moles RAM

moles RFM

particles, in the same way that a dozen is 12)

Empirical formula

This is the simplest whole number ratio of elements in a compound and it can be
calculated from the masses/percentages of elements that combine together by:
(i) dividing each mass (or %) by the RAM for the element (i.e. work out moles)
(ii) dividing all numbers by the smallest number to get a whole number ratio
e.g. 160g Cu and 20g O Cu = 160/64 = 2.5

then by 1.25 = 2

O = 20/16 = 1.25 then by 1.25 = 1 Cu2O

the product may be left behind in the apparatus or may be lost when it is separated from
the reaction mixture or from other products. Some of the reactants may react in ways
different to the expected reaction to give unexpected products (side reactions)

Atom Economy
The atom economy (or atom utilisation) is a measure of the amount of starting
materials that end up as USEFUL products. It is calculated by:
% atom economy = Relative mass of useful product x 100
Relative mass of all products
(NB Remember to take into account the number of moles of products as well)
Chemical companies rely on reactions to make the products which they sell. It is very
important for them to use reactions with a high % yield and high % atom economy.
This means less waste (good for the environment) and more profit (good for the

NB Be careful with rounding, only round up/down when the number is nearly whole, not

company). It also conserves the Earths resources and reduces any associated pollution.

nearer to half way (if close to half then multiply both numbers by 2 to convert to whole!)

This is good for sustainable development.

Electrolysis

The basics

When an IONIC substance is MELTED or DISSOLVED in water the

IONS become free to move about within the liquid or solution
Passing an electric current through molten or dissolved ionic

Purification of copper

Copper must be purified before it can be used to make electrical wires

substances
breaks them down into elements. This is called ELECTROLYSIS
+

(remember that solid ionic

anode dissolves

cathode builds up

Cu (s) Cu2+ (aq) + 2e-

Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- Cu (s)

(oxidation)

CATHODE

ANODE

compounds DO NOT

(reduction)

The copper sulphate electrolyte allows the Cu 2+(aq) to move from the anode to the cathode

conduct electricity)
ELECTROLYTE
(contains ions)

During electrolysis:

(i) positively charged ions (CATIONS) move to the negative electrode

(CATHODE) and GAIN electrons. This is REDUCTION
e.g. Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- Cu (s)
(ii) negatively charged ions (ANIONS) move to the positive electrode
(ANODE) and LOSE electrons. This is OXIDATION

e.g. 2Cl- Cl2 + 2e When the ionic substance is dissolved in water then there is a mixture

Impurities such as silver, gold (precious metals) and arsenic (toxic) fall to the bottom and are
recovered.

Electrolysis of brine

Electrolyte = concentrated solution of NaCl (brine)

Ions present = Na+, Cl- (from NaCl) and H+, OH- (from H2O)
Anode: 2Cl- Cl2 + 2e-

Cathode: 2H+ + 2e- H2

(the ions left behind make NaOH)

Overall:

sodium chloride hydrogen + chlorine + sodium hydroxide solution

of ions present (H+ and OH- ions from water are also present). The

Uses: (i) Cl2 is used to kill bacteria in purification of drinking water and in swimming pools. It

products formed depends on the reactivity of the elements involved

can

according to the following rules:

also be reacted with sodium hydroxide to make bleach (good at killing bacteria) (ii) H 2 is used to

(i) At the cathode: Look at the reactivity series, if the metal present is

hydrogenate unsaturated vegetable oils in the manufacture of margarine and is used in the Haber

lower than hydrogen then the metal ion accepts the electrons and is

process to make ammonia (iii) NaOH is used to make soap and paper and to increase pH in many

formed. Otherwise hydrogen ions accept electrons and H 2 is formed.

industrial processes (e.g. can be used to precipitate out metal ions when purifying water)

(ii) At the anode: If Cl , Br or I is present then they lose electrons and

-

the halogen is formed. Otherwise OH- ions lose electrons and water
and oxygen is formed: 4OH- 2H2O + O2 + 4e-

Environmental issues

Lots of electricity is required, which often comes from the burning of fossil fuels (finite
resource,
burning produces greenhouse gas CO2 which causes global warming)