CHEMICAL BONDING AND INTRO

TO THERMODYNAMICS
• What is a chemical bond?
• What types of bonds hold atoms together in a
molecule?
• Why do atoms of different elements react?
• List elements that tend to form ionic, covalent
bonds
• A chemical bond in simple terms can be
defined as the union between the electron
structures of atoms
• The Ionic Bond: it is the electrostatic force
that holds ions together in an ionic compound
• Ions are formed when there is a loss or gain of
electrons by the atoms (eg, Na+ , Cl- ). Thus Na+
…..
Cl- form an ionic bond, becoming the
molecule sodium chloride as shown below:
• Complete transfer of one or more valence
electrons
• Full charges on resulting ions

• Ionic bonds generally form between elements

in Group I and Group 2 (having one and two
electrons in their outer shell respectively) and
Group 7 (having seven electrons in their outer
shell)
• Covalent Bonds: a type of bond in which
electrons are shared by two atoms. Covalent
compounds are compounds that contain only
covalent bonds
• In a covalent bond, each electron in a shared
pair is attracted to the nuclei of both atoms
• Taking the molecule, H2 as an example:
• This attraction holds the two atoms in the
hydrogen molecule together and is responsible
for the formation of covalent bonds in other
molecules
• Other examples include F2, H2O, HCl, Cl2
• 2 types: non-polar and polar covalent bonds
• Non-polar involves equal sharing of electrons
between 2 atoms. No charges on atoms, eg. Cl2 .
Cl Cl
• Polar involves unequal sharing of electrons
between 2 atoms. Partial charges on atoms. Eg.
H Cl
• The molecule methane (chemical formula CH4) has
four covalent bonds, one between Carbon and
each of the four Hydrogens. Carbon contributes an
electron, and Hydrogen contributes an electron
• The sharing of a single electron pair is termed a
single bond. When two pairs of electrons are
shared, a double bond results, as in carbon
dioxide. Triple bonds result when three pairs (six
electrons total) are shared as in nitrogen gas and
acetylene.The types of covalent bonds are shown
in the figure above
• Pure covalent bonds are non-polar covalent bonds
where there is equal sharing of electrons
• Non-polar covalent bonds are very strong bonds
requiring a large amount of energy to break the
bond
• Non-polar covalent bonds are extremely important
in biology. They form the oxygen we breathe and
help make up our living cells
• One kind of non-polar covalent bond very
important in biology is the peptide bond
• Peptide bonds join together chains of amino acids
which are involved in the construction of proteins
• The polarity of a bond –the extent to which it
is polar- is determined largely by the relative
electronegativities of the bonded atoms
• Electronegativity is defined as the ability of an
atom in a molecule or an ion to attract
electrons to itself
• In a non-polar bond, bonded atoms have
equal electronegativities and vice versa
• Electronegativity trend on the periodic table
• Note: Bond polarity and ionic character
increase with an increasing difference in
electronegativity
• Covalent compounds are usually gases, liquids
or low-melting solids. Ionic compounds are
solids at room temperature and have high
melting points
• Polarity of water
• Try the following example: predict whether each
compound is purely covalent, purely ionic and polar
covalent
RbCl, S8, LiI, SbCl3, Br2, NO, HF, MgO, O3

• Define hydrogen bond and describe conditions under

which hydrogen bonds form and cite one example

• Explain what is meant by the polarity of the water

molecule, and how the polarity of water molecules
allows them to interact with one another.
• Hydrogen bonds result from the weak electrical
attraction between the positive end of one
molecule and the negative end of another
• Individually these bonds are very weak, although
taken in a large enough quantity, the result is
strong enough to hold molecules together
• Hydrogen bonding differs from other uses of the
word "bond“ since it is a force of attraction
between a hydrogen atom in one molecule and a
small atom of high electronegativity in another
molecule. That is, it is an intermolecular force, not
an intramolecular force
• When hydrogen atoms are joined in a polar
covalent bond with a small atom of high
electronegativity such as O, F or N, the partial
positive charge on the hydrogen is highly
concentrated because of its small size

• If the hydrogen is close to another O, F, N in

another molecule, then there is a force of
attraction termed a dipole-dipole interaction
• Importance :

• Hydrogen bonding has a very important effect

on the properties of water and ice
• Hydrogen bonding is also very important in
proteins and nucleic acids and therefore in life
processes. The "unzipping" of DNA is a
breaking of hydrogen bonds which help hold
the two strands of the double helix together
 Introduction to Thermodynamics
• It is the scientific study of the inter-conversion
of heat and other kinds of energy
• This is the study of the interrelation of heat
and work with chemical reactions or with
physical changes of state within the confines
of the laws of thermodynamics
• The laws of thermodynamics provide useful
guidelines for understanding the energetics
and directions of processes
• In thermodynamics, the changes in the state
of a system is studied
• Defined by, the values of all relevant
macroscopic properties, for example,
composition, energy, temperature, pressure
and volume
• Energy, pressure, volume and temperature are
said to be state functions—properties that are
determined by the state of the system,
regardless of how that condition was achieved
• The particular item or collection of items that
one is interested in (which could be as small as
a cell or as large as an ecosystem) is called
system

system

surroundings
• 3 main types of systems in thermodynamics:

 An open system (exchange of both energy and

matter with surroundings)
 A closed system (exchange of only energy
with surroundings and not matter)
 An isolated system (neither energy nor matter
is exchanged with surroundings)
 Three Laws of Thermodynamics
• The laws of thermodynamics define a group of
physical quantities, such as temperature, energy,
and entropy, that characterize thermodynamic
systems in thermodynamic equilibrium

• The first law of thermodynamics states that

energy cannot be created or destroyed but can
be converted from one form to another (law of
conservation of energy)
• The second law of thermodynamics states
that the entropy of the universe increases in a
spontaneous process and remains unchanged
in an equilibrium process
• The third law is an extension of the second
law and states that the entropy of a perfect
crystalline substance is zero at the absolute
zero of temperature. As the temperature
increases, the freedom of motion also
increases
THE END