Chapter 1 Atomic Structure

Atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

Mass number is the sum of number of protons and number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different mass numbers.
Ions are charged particles formed by the loss or gain of electrons from an atom or a group of
covalently bonded atoms.
Chapter 2 Electrons in atoms
1st ionization energy is the energy needed to remove 1 mole of electrons from 1 mole of atoms
of an element in the gaseous state to form 1 mole of gaseous +1 ions. (Exp: ionic equation M ->
M+ + e-)
2nd ionization energy is the energy needed to remove 1 mole of electrons from 1 mole of +1 ions
in the gaseous state to form 1 mole of gaseous +2 ions.
Atomic orbitals are regions of space that can be occupied by a maximum of 2 electrons.
Atomic radius is one-half the distance between two nuclei.
Principal Quantum Shells are regions at various distances from the nucleus that may contain up
to a certain number of electrons. (Exp: Shell 1, Shell 2, Shell 3…)
Subshells are regions within the principal quantum shell where electrons have more or less
energy depending on their distance from the nucleus. (Exp: 2s, 2p, 3s…)
Atomic orbital are regions of space around the nucleus of an atom that can occupied by one or
two electrons. (Exp: 3Px, 3Py, 3Pz orbitals are orbitals in the P subshell/p subshell contains 3
orbitals)
Electrons have 2 states, “spin”
Pauli Exclusion Principle: Each orbital can hold at most 2 electrons with opposite spins
Aufbau Principle: Each electron is placed from the lowest energy level.
Hund’s Rule: Each orbital in a sublevel is singly occupied before any orbital is doubly occupied.
Chromium (proton number 24) – partially filled d subshell is more stable
Copper (proton number 29) – fully filled d subshell is more stable
Factors influencing ionization energy:
Size of nuclear charge
Distance of outer electrons from the nucleus
Shielding effect of inner electrons – no. of full electron shells, repulsion from electrons in inner
shells (Mg & Al)
Spin-pair repulsion – electrons in the same orbital (Exp: Phosphorus and Sulphur)
Chapter 3 Atoms, moles and stoichiometry
Relative atomic mass is the average mass of the isotopes relative to 1/12 the mass of an atom of
the carbon-12.
Relative isotopic mass (mass number) is the mass of an isotope on a scale relative to 1/12 the
mass of an atom of the carbon-12.
Relative molecular mass is the average mass of a molecule of the substance relative to 1/12 of
the mass of an atom of the carbon-12.
Relative formula mass is the average mass of the ionic compounds of the substance relative to
1/12 of the mass of an atom of the carbon-12.
Mass spectrometer
Determine atomic masses and isotopic abundances
Deduce the molecular mass of an organic compound
Deduce the formula of an organic molecule from its fragmentation pattern and isotopic ratios
Base peak is the peak caused by the most abundance fragment formed during ionization
Molecular ion peak (M) is the peak caused by the ion corresponding to the molecular mass
Number of C atoms, n = (100/1.1) x (M+1peak height/ (M peak height)
Cl atom – 3:1 (M:M+2)
Br atom – 1:1 (M:M+2)
One mole of a substance is the amount of substance that has the Avogadro number of specified
particles.
End point is the point where complete neutralisation happens.
Chapter 4 Chemical bonding
Ionic bond is the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions
Metallic bond is the electrostatic attraction between cations and delocalized electrons.
Covalent bond is the electrostatic attraction between the nuclei of two atoms and a shared pair of
electrons
Co-ordinate/ dative covalent bond is the sharing of a pair of electrons between two atoms where
both the electrons in the bond come from the same atom.
Electronegativity is the power of an atom that is covalently bonded to another atom to attract the
bonding pair of electrons to itself
Bond energy is the energy required to break one mole of that bond in a molecule that is in
gaseous state.
Bond length is the internuclear distance between two nuclei of two atoms in a covalent bond.
Bonding pair is a shared pair of electrons that are involved in covalent bonding.
Lone pair is the pair of electrons in the outer shell of an atom that are not involved in bonding.
Electronegativity is the power of an atom to attract the bonding pair of electrons to itself.
(Factors: Nuclear charge, atomic radius, shielding)
Bond polarity is the partial separation of charge when two different atoms are joined by a
covalent bond, resulting in an unequal sharing for the bonding pair of electrons.
Pure covalent bond – electron distribution is equal between the atoms, no separation of charge
between atoms
The overall dipole of a molecule depends on its shape and electron distribution.
The dipole moment is the vector sum of the dipole moments of all the bonds.
Instantaneous dipole-induced dipole forces are the attractive intermolecular forces caused by
temporary instantaneous dipoles in molecules. (Factors: size, no. of electrons, contact points)
Permanent dipole-permanent dipole forces are the attractive intermolecular forces caused by
permanent dipoles in molecules. (Factor: Electronegativity differences)
Molecular orbital is a compound orbital formed by two atomic orbitals overlapping to form a
covalent bond.
Sigma bonds involves the end-to-end overlapping of an atomic orbital from one atom to another
end of an atomic orbital from another atom.
Pi bonds involves the side-by-side overlapping of two p orbitals.
BF3 (trigonal planar, 120)
CO2 (linear, 180)
CH4 (tetrahedral, 109.5)
NH3 (pyramidal, 107)
H20 (non-linear, 104.5)
SF6 (octahedral, 90)
PF5 (trigonal bipyramidal, 120 and 90)

Chapter 5 States of Matter

Gases

Ideal gas is a gas in which the volume is proportional to the temperature.

Assumptions of the Kinetic Theory of Gases (ideal gas)

• Gas molecules move rapidly and randomly.
• All collisions between particles are elastic, no kinetic energy is lost due to collision
• Distance between gas molecules is greater than the diameter of molecules, thus the volume
of molecules is negligible.
• No forces of attraction/repulsion between molecules. (momentum is conserved)
• The temperature of the gas is related to the average kinetic energy of the
molecules

PV=nRT, Mr= mRT/PV, R=8.31 J/K mol (kPa with dm^3, Pa with dm^3)
Boyle’s Law: PV=PV (Graph) - constant n and T
Gay-Lussac’s Law: P/T=P/T - constant n and V
Charles’ Law: V/T=V/T - constant n and P
Avogadro’s Law: V is directly proportional n - constant T and P

Deviations from ideal gas behaviour: (graph)

• High pressure: Volume of molecules not negligible relative to the container
• Low temperature: Low kinetic energy, molecules move slower, more time to interact
with other molecules, thus intermolecular forces present, pulling molecules to
each other.
Effect of temperature on the energy of gas particles (graph)
Area under the graph = total number of molecules in a body of gas

Liquids

Liquids have surface tension

• Surface tension: cohesive forces between particles
• Strong IMF lead to greater surface tension
• Liquids tend to assume a geometry that minimises surface area

Vapour pressure is the pressure exerted by a vapour in equilibrium with a liquid, in a

closed container.
Vapour pressure increases as temperature increases, gas particles have more kinetic
energy, IMFs are overcome more easily, more gas molecules collide on the walls of the
container.

Solids

Lattice- a regularly repeating arrangement of ions/atoms/molecules in 3 dimensions

Giant ionic lattice (NaCl, Mgo)

- A 3-dimensional arrangement of alternative positive and negative ions held by strong
electrostatic forces.
Properties:
• Hard- strong electrostatic forces between ions
• Brittle -force applied along layers displaces the ions, ions of like charge come near
to each other, repulsion between like-charged ions disrupts bonding
• High melting and boiling points- higher charge density, higher melting/boiling point
• Soluble in water - ion-dipole forces
• Conducts electricity in the molten or aqueous state (mobile ions)

Giant metallic lattice (Copper)

- A 3-dimensional arrangement of positively charged ions surrounded by a sea of
delocalized electrons
Properties:
• Malleable and ductile - Metallic bonds are easily broken and reformed, delocalised
electrons continue to hold the ions in the lattice/ Layers of metal ions slide over
each other when force applied, new metallic bond is formed between metal ions
and delocalised electrons.
• High tensile strength - due to strong attractive forces between metal ions and
delocalised electrons

Giant covalent lattice (Graphite, Diamond, SiO2)

-A 3-dimensional network of covalent bonds throughout the whole structure.
Properties are related to its structure. (slides)

Simple molecular lattice (Iodine, Sulfur, Water, Phosphorus)

-A 3-dimensional arrangement of covalent molecules held together by weak
intermolecular forces.
The intermolecular force depends on the molecule:
• Instantaneous dipole-induced dipole forces
• Permanent dipole-permanent dipole forces
• Hydrogen bonding

Properties
• Low melting and boiling points

Chapter 6 Enthalpy changes

Enthalpy: The total chemical energy of a substance/energy stored in the bonds of chemical
compounds
Hess’s Law: the total enthalpy change in a chemical reaction is independent of the route by
which the chemical reaction takes place
H= mcT/n
Assumptions for calorimetry
a. Density of solution is the same as water
b. Specific heat of a solution is same as the specific heat of water
c. Reaction takes place under standard conditions, no heat loss to the surroundings

Chapter 7 Redox Reactions ​

Redox Reaction: A reaction that involves electron transfer from one species to another and
oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously.
Oxidation number: The electric charge and atom would have if the electrons in a bond were
assigned exclusively to the more electronegative atom
Half equations: Equations which describe either the oxidation or reduction process in a redox
reaction.
Chapter 8 Equilibria
Reversible Reaction: A reaction in which products can be changed back to reactants by reversing
the conditions
Equilibrium Reaction: A reaction that does not go to completion and in which reactants and
products are present in fixed concentration ratios.
Characteristics of equilibrium:
a. Dynamic: forward and reverse reaction occur at the same rate
b. Concentration of reactants and products remain constant
c. Requires a closed system.
Le Chatelier’s Principle: If a change is made to a system at dynamic equilibrium, the position of
equilibrium moves to minimize this change.
Partial Pressure: the pressure that the gas would exert if it occupied the whole container
Haber process
Temp: 400-500C, Pressure: 200atm, Catalyst: Iron
P increase, NH3 increase
T decrease, NH3 increase
NH3 liquified and removed, NH3 increase
Contact process
2SO2 + O2 à 2SO3
Conditions: Temp: 400-450C, Pressure: 1-2 atm, Catalyst: Vanadium(V) pentoxide
P increase, SO3 increase
T decrease, SO3 increase
Chapter 9 Rate of Reaction
Rate of reaction = (change in amount of reactants/products) / time
Rate = 1/time
Collision theory states that particles must collide in the correct orientation and with sufficient
energy in order to react with each other.
Activation energy: the minimum energy required by colliding particles for an effective collision
to take place
Graphite is slightly more stable than diamond because of the delocalized electrons
Graphite: - more chemically stable, lower potential energy(thermodynamically stable)
Diamond: - higher potential energy, but very high activation energy barrier.
A reaction will speed up if
- The frequency of collisions increase
- The proportion of particles with energy greater than the activation energy increases
Volume of reaction vessel decrease, rate of reaction increase
Boltzman distribution curve
- Area under the curve: no. of particles
Catalyst: A substance that increases the rate of reaction but remains chemically unchanged itself
at the end of a reaction
Homogeneous catalysis: reactants and catalyst are in the same phase
Heterogeneous catalysis: reactants and catalyst are in different phases
Autocatalysis: a product of the reaction catalyses the reaction
Characteristics of enzyme catalysis
- Enzymes are proteins synthesized in nature and behave as biological catalysts
- Enzymes are more efficient than inorganic catalysts
- Enzymes catalyse very specific reactions
- Enzymes do not produce byproducts
- Enzymes work under very mild conditions