CHAPTER FORM 4

THEME: Matter Around Us

2 The Structure of the Atom

SPM Topical Analysis

Year 2008 2009 2010 2011
Paper 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3

Section A B C A B C A B C A B C
1 1
Number of questions 5 — – – – 6 — – – – 2 1 – – – 3 1 – – –
2 2

ONCEPT MAP

MATTER

Kinetic theory of matter Atomic structure

Changes in states Diffusion in a solid, liquid Particles in matter: atom, molecule and ion
of matter and gas

Subatomic particles: proton, electron and neutron

Determination of the
melting and freezing
points of naphthalene
Electron arrangement in atoms
and valence electrons

Symbols of elements
A
Z X

Isotopes
 2.1 Matter SPM
’08/P1
1 Chemistry is the study of matter, its
composition and the changes it undergoes.
2 Matter is anything that occupies space and has
mass. In other words, matter is anything that
has volume and mass.
3 Examples of matter are books, pens, chairs,
water, air and plants. Examples of non-matter
are electricity and light.
4 The particle theory of matter states that matter is
made of very tiny discrete particles. The
particulate nature of matter is investigated in
(b) When the gas tap in the laboratory is turned
on, the smell of the gas is immediately
detected. This shows that the gas is also
made up of particles in motion.
7 An element is a substance that cannot be made
into anything simpler by means of a chemical
reaction.
8 The particles in some elements are made up of
atoms. For example, metals like gold, copper,
iron, zinc are all made up of atoms.

2
Activity 2.1.
5 Elementary particles that make up matter may
be atoms, molecules or ions.

1 ’04

Substance Chemical formula

Figure 2.1 Copper foil is made up of atoms
Naphthalene C10H8
9 A compound is a substance that can be made
Iron Fe
into something smaller by means of a chemical
Sodium chloride NaCl reaction.
10 Compounds contain more than one element.
State the particles present in each of the above The elements in a compound are not just mixed
substances. together. They are joined by strong forces
Solution Naphthalene – molecules, iron – atoms, called chemical bonds. Compounds do not have
sodium chloride – ions. the same properties as the elements they
contain. Compounds are
(a) formed by chemical reactions, and
(b) they have different properties from the
elements they contain.
All metals and noble gases are made up of atoms. 11 The particles in compounds may be molecules
A compound formed between non-metallic elements or ions. Molecules are made up of two or more
(example: naphthalene, C10H8), is made up of molecules. A atoms held together by chemical bonds.
compound formed between a metal and a non-metal Molecules are particles that are not charged.
(example: sodium chloride, NaCl) is made up of ions. 12 A molecule may consists of atoms of the same
element, for example, oxygen molecules (O2),
6 The existence of these particles is supported nitrogen molecules (N2), hydrogen molecules
by some observations. Some examples are: (H2) and sulphur molecules (S8) (Figure 2.2(a)).
(a) When a drop of 13 A molecule may also consist of dissimilar
ink falls into a atoms of two or more elements. For
glass of water, the example, a water molecule (H2O) consists of
colour of the ink one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms, and a
spreads carbon dioxide molecule (CO2) consists of
throughout the one carbon and two oxygen atoms (Figure
water. This shows 2.2(b)).
that ink is made 14 Some molecules can be very large. For
up of particles in Dropping ink into a example, quinine which is a drug used to treat
motion. glass of water malaria patients has the formula C20H24N2O2.

15 The Structure of the Atom


(a) Model of nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur
molecules
(b) Model of carbon dioxide and water molecules
Figure 2.2
2
15 However, some compounds consist of atoms or a
group of atoms that carry positive or negative
charges. These charged particles are called
ions. For example, table salt, NaCl, consists of
sodium ions (Na+) and chloride ions (Cl–)
(Figure 2.3). The rust on an iron nail consists of
iron(III) ions (Fe3+) and oxide ions (O2–).
Figure 2.3 Model of sodium chloride crystal
16 Ions which are positively-charged are called
cations. For example, sodium ions (Na+) and
iron(III) ions (Fe3+) are cations.
17 Ions which are negatively-charged are called
anions. For example, chloride ions (Cl–) and
oxide ions (O2–) are anions.
18 Generally, metals form positive ions and non-
metals form negative ions. Some examples of
cations and anions are given in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1
Examples of positive H+, K+, Cu2+,Al3+, NH4+, Mg2+,
ions (cations) Ca2+, Zn2+, Pb2+ and Ag+
Examples of negative
Br–, I–, OH–, NO3–, SO42–,
ions (anions) CO3 , PO43–, O2–, S2–
2–
and S2O32–
The Kinetic Theory of Matter
1 The kinetic theory is an extension of the
particle theory of matter. According to the
kinetic theory:
The Structure of the Atom
(a) The particles (atoms, molecules or ions)
possess kinetic energy. They are in
constant motion and constantly collide
with each other.
(b) The velocities of the particles in the three
physical states of matter—solid, liquid and
gas—are different.
(c) The higher the temperature, the higher
the kinetic energy, as the velocity of the
particles increases.
(d) At a given temperature, the lighter particles
move faster than the heavier ones.
2 In 1827, Robert Brown (a botanist) made an
observation through a microscope. He found
that pollen grains on the surface of water
are in constant motion. He explained that
the pollen grains are moving because the
moving water molecules are constantly
colliding with the pollen grains. The visible
motion of these pollen grains is called the
Brownian motion.
3 The Brownian motion gives the evidence that a
liquid consists of particles in constant
movement.
Figure 2.4 Pollen grain being bombarded by water
molecules
4 Another evidence of the movement of particles
is diffusion. Diffusion is the random
movement of particles from a region of high
concentration to a region of low concentration.
You can smell perfume
while you walk past
cosmetic counters.The
perfume particles have
left the open perfume
bottles and spread out
through the air by
diffusion.
5 There are three states of matter, namely, solid,
liquid and gas. Table 2.2 shows the
comparison between the three states of matter.
16
 SPM
Table 2.2 Comparison between the three states of matter ’11/P2

States of matter solid liquid gas

Arrangement The particles are very closely The particles are closely The particles are very far
of particles packed. packed but there are more apart from each other.
empty spaces between them
compared to the solid state.

Forces of The very strong forces of
attraction attraction restrict the
between particles movement of the particles.
The particles in a solid are
held in fixed positions.
Volume and Solids have fixed volumes
shape and shapes.
Types of Vibration and rotation
movement
Kinetic energy The kinetic energy of the
of particles particles are low.
Compressibility Very difficult to be
compressed because the
particles are packed closely
Rate of diffusion Very low
2
The forces of attraction are The forces of attraction are
weaker than in the solid state. very weak. The particles
The particles are no longer move randomly in all
held in fixed positions. directions at great speed.
Liquids have fixed volumes. Gases do not have fixed
However, they do not have shapes or volumes.
fixed shapes but take the
shapes of the containers.
Vibration, rotation and Vibration, rotation and
translation translation
The kinetic energy of The kinetic energy of the
the particles are high, particles are very high and
on average. they move at high speed.
Not easily compressed Easily compressed because
because the particles are the particles are very far
packed quite closely apart
Average Very high

SPM
Diffusion ’08/P2

1 Diffusion refers to the process by which

particles intermingle as a result of their kinetic
energy of random motion.
2 Figure 2.5(a) shows a container that consists
of gases A and B. The two gases are separated
by a partition. The particles of both gases are
in constant motion and make numerous
collisions with the partition.
3 If the partition is removed as in Figure 2.5(b),
the gases will mix because of the random
motion of their particles.
In time, a uniform mixture of gases A and B
particles will be produced in the container.
4 The rate of diffusion depends on the
temperature and the molecular mass of the
particles. The higher the molecular mass, the
lower the rate of diffusion.

17 The Structure of the Atom

 To investigate the diffusion of particles in a gas, SPM
’09/P1
liquid and solid
Apparatus Two gas jars with plastic covers, beaker, teat pipette, boiling tube, spatula and rubber stopper.

Materials Liquid bromine, potassium manganate(VII), KMnO4 crystals, water and hot jelly solution.
Procedure

(A) Diffusion in a gas

1 A few drops of liquid bromine are dropped into a gas jar using a teat
2

pipette.
2 The gas jar is covered with a gas jar cover.
3 An empty gas jar is placed upside down on top of the first jar.
4 The cover is removed and any colour change is recorded. The time
taken for the brown bromine vapour to spread into the second gas jar
is recorded.

Figure 2.6
(B) Diffusion in a liquid
2
1 A beaker is — filled with water.
3
2 A few potassium manganate(VII) crystals are placed at the bottom of
the water using a spatula.
3 Any colour change is recorded. The time taken for the purple
manganate(VII) ions to spread throughout the water is recorded.

Figure 2.7

(C) Diffusion in a solid

1 Some freshly cooked jelly solution is poured into a boiling tube until it
is almost full.
2 The jelly is allowed to set.
3 A small potassium manganate(VII) crystal is placed on top of the jelly.
4 The boiling tube is then stoppered using a rubber stopper.
5 Any colour change is recorded. The time taken for the purple
manganate(VII) ions to spread throughout the solid jelly is recorded.
Figure 2.8

Results

Experiment Observation
A The brown bromine vapour spreads out into the upper gas jar. The time taken is very short.
B After about 10 minutes, the purple colour of the manganate(VII) ions had spread
Activity 2.1

throughout the water.

C After a week, the purple colour of the manganate(VII) ions had spread throughout the
solid jelly.

The Structure of the Atom 18

Discussion
1 Diffusion has taken place in the gas (air in experiment A), liquid (water in experiment B) and solid (jelly
in experiment C).
2 The rates of diffusion of the particles in the solid, liquid and gaseous states are different. It is highest in
gases, lower in liquids and lowest in solids.
3 This shows that there are more and bigger spaces between particles in the gas. The spaces between liquid
particles are smaller. The particles in the solid state are very close with little space between them.
4 The occurence of diffusion proves that matter (bromine and potassium manganate(VII)) consist of
particles in constant motion.
5 The diffusion experiments show that because particles possess kinetic energy, they are in constant motion.

2
SPM
The Changes in the States of Matter ’10/P2

1 A substance can be changed from one state into another when it is heated or cooled.
2 The changes in the state of the substance can be explained using the kinetic theory model.

Heating Heating

Solid Liquid Gas

1 The particles in a solid are
packed closely in a fixed
pattern.
2 When the solid is heated,
the particles receive heat
energy. The kinetic
energy of the particles
increases and the particles
vibrate faster.
3 At the melting point, the
particles vibrate so much
that they break away from
their fixed positions. The
solid becomes a liquid.
4 The temperature at which
the solid changes into the
liquid state is called the
melting point.
1 When a liquid is continuously
heated, the particles receive more
energy and move even faster. They
collide with each other more often.
2 At the boiling point, the particles
receive enough energy to
overcome the forces of attraction
holding them together. The
particles in the liquid state break
loose to become the gaseous state.
3 When the liquid is cooled, the
movement of the particles slows
down. Stronger forces of attraction
between the particles are formed.
4 The particles are arranged in an orderly
ma n ner in the solid state. The
process whereby the liquid changes
into a solid is called solidification.
The temperature at which this process
occurs is called the freezing point.
5 The melting point and the freezing
point of a substance have the
same value.
1 When a gas is cooled, the
particles lose kinetic
energy. The movement of
the particles slows down.
2 The forces of attraction
between the particles are
formed which hold the
particles together in the
liquid state.
3 The process whereby the
gas changes into a liquid
is called condensation.
4 The temperature at which
the gas condenses to the
liquid state is the same
as the boiling point.

Cooling Cooling

19 The Structure of the Atom

 3 Examples of substances that undergo sublima-
tion are iodine, ammonium chloride and solid
carbon dioxide (dry ice).
The process in which substances change
directly from the gaseous to the solid state is
also called sublimation.

Melting Point and Boiling Point

1 No two substances have the same melting and
boiling points. We can thus identify a
substance by its melting and boiling points.
When a state of matter gains or loses heat, it undergoes 2 The melting and boiling points of a substance
2

a change. will change when there is a small amount of

A gain in heat is called an endothermic change. A loss
in heat is called an exothermic change.
Sublimation
3 As the melting and boiling points of an impure
1 Certain substances do not melt when heated.
SPM They change directly from the solid to the
’11/P1
gaseous state.
2 This process is called sublimation.
impurity in it. For example, the melting point
of pure water is 0 °C and its boiling point is
100 °C. A small amount of salt added to the
water will decrease its melting point to –2 °C
and increase its boiling point to 102 °C.
substance will deviate slightly from its
standard values, we can determine the purity
of a substance by the melting and boiling
points of the substance.

To determine the melting and freezing points of

naphthalene
Apparatus (A) Heating of naphthalene
Boiling tube, retort stand and clamp, tripod stand, 1 3 spatulas of naphthalene powder are placed in
Bunsen burner, wire gauze, thermometer (0 – 110 a boiling tube.
°C), 500 cm3 beaker, 250 cm3 conical flask, test tube 2 A 500 cm3 beaker is filled with water until it is
holder and stopwatch. 3
about — full. It is then placed on a tripod stand.
4
Materials Naphthalene and water. 3 The boiling tube containing naphthalene is clamped
Procedure in the beaker of water, making sure the naphthalene
Figure 2.9 powder is below the water level of the water bath.
Heating of 4 The water bath is heated until it reaches a
naphthalene temperature of about 65 °C as shown in Figure
2.9. The water is then heated with a low flame.
5 A stopwatch is started and the temperature of the
naphthalene is recorded at 30-second intervals until
the temperature reaches 90 °C. The naphthalene is
stirred continuously during the experiment.
6 The results are recorded in a table.
Figure 2.10
Cooling of (B) Cooling of naphthalene
naphthalene 1 The boiling tube containing the molten naphthalene
Activity 2.2

is removed from the hot water bath using a test

tube holder.
2 It is immediately transferred into a conical flask
to be cooled slowly as shown in Figure 2.10.

The Structure of the Atom 20

 3 The stopwatch is started and the temperature of the Discussion
naphthalene is recorded at 30-second intervals
1 In the heating of naphthalene, a water bath is
until it drops to about 70 °C. The naphthalene is
stirred continuously during the experiment. used instead of direct heating. This is to ensure
4 The results are recorded in a table. that an even heating process is carried out.
2 In the cooling of naphthalene, the boiling tube
Results containing the liquid naphthalene is cooled
(A) Heating of naphthalene inside a conical flask. This is to ensure that an
even cooling process is carried out.
Time (s) Temperature (°C) 3 Stirring the naphthalene continuously also
0 ensures even heating or cooling.
30 4 A water bath is suitable in this experiment
60 because the melting point of naphthalene is

2
below 100 °C, the maximum temperature that
90
can be attained by the water bath.
120
5 If the melting point of the substance is above 100
150 °C, the water bath will have to be replaced by an
180 oil bath or a sand bath.
210 6 Besides naphthalene, the other substance that is
suitable for heating by water bath is acetamide.
(B) Cooling of naphthalene 7 The heating curve of naphthalene consists of
Time (s) Temperature (°C) three regions: AB, BC and CD as in Figure 2.11.

0 Region in State of substance and the

30 the graph energy change
60
Region AB Naphthalene is in the solid state. As
90 SPM napthalene is heated, heat energy is
120 ’04/07
P2 converted to kinetic energy. Kinetic
150 energy increases and the molecules
180 vibrate faster about their fixed
210 positions. Temperature increases as the
molecules receive more heat energy.
Analysis of data
1 A graph of temperature Point B As the kinetic energy of the molecules
SPM against time is plotted
increases, the molecules vibrate
’10/P1 faster. At point B, some molecules
for the heating of
vibrate so much that they break away
naphthalene. The graph
is shown in Figure 2.11. from their fixed positions. The solid
naphthalene begins to melt.
2 A graph of temperature
against time is plotted Figure 2.11 Heating curve Region BC Naphthalene now consists of a
for the cooling of of naphthalene mixture of solid and liquid. At this
SPM
naphthalene. The graph ’11/P1 region the temperature remains
is shown in Figure 2.12. constant because the heat energy
3 When plotting a graph, supplied by the water bath is the
make sure that: same amount as the heat energy
(a) The axes are absorbed. Heat energy is absorbed to
labelled with their overcome the forces of attraction
units. holding the naphthalene molecules
(b) The points are together in the solid state. The heat
transferred absorbed to overcome the forces of
correctly. Figure 2.12 Cooling curve attraction is called the latent heat of
(c) The curve is smooth. of naphthalene fusion. Latent heat of fusion of

21 The Structure of the Atom

 Region in State of substance and the
the graph energy change
a substance is the heat required to
convert a solid into a liquid without
a change in temperature.
Point C All the naphthalene has completely
melted.
Region CD Naphthalene is in the liquid state. As
the liquid naphthalene is heated, the
molecules gain more heat energy. The
temperature continues to increase.
2
8 The cooling curve of naphthalene consists of
three regions: PQ, QR and RS as in Figure 2.12.
Region in State of substance and the
the graph energy change
Region PQ Naphthalene is in the liquid state.
The liquid naphthalene loses heat to
the environment. The kinetic
energy of the molecules decreases
as the temperature decreases.
Point Q As the kinetic energy of the molecules
decreases, the molecules move slower.
At point Q, some molecules stop
2 ’0 9
The graph shows the cooling curve for gas X.
Which of the following statements are true?
I From time 0 to t1 heat energy is absorbed.
II From time t1 to t2 forces of attraction between
particles become stronger.
III From time t2 to t3 the kinetic energy of particles
increases.
IV From timet3 to t4 heat energy released is equal to
the heat lost to the surroundings.
The Structure of the Atom
Region in State of substance and the
the graph energy change
moving except for small vibrations.
At point Q, the liquid naphthalene
begins to solidify or freeze.
Region QR Naphthalene now consists of a
mixture of liquid and solid. At this
region the temperature remains
constant because the heat energy lost
to the environment is the same
amount as the heat energy released.
Latent heat of fusion is released when
forces of attraction are formed
between the molecules as the liquid
naphthalene solidify (or freezes).
Point R All the naphthalene has completely
solidified.
Region RS Naphthalene is in the solid state. The
solid naphthalene continues to lose
heat to the environment and hence
the temperature drops down to room
temperature.
Conclusion
The melting point and the freezing point of
naphthalene is 80 °C.
A I and III only C I, II and III only
B II and IV only D I, II and IV only
Comment
From time 0 to t1 the substance loses heat to the
surroundings. Hence the temperature decreases.
(Statement I is incorrect)
From time t1 to t2 condensation takes place and heat
energy is released. The kinetic energy of particles
becomes lower and the forces of attraction become
stronger. (Statement II is correct)
From time t2 to t3 the particles continue to lose heat to
the surroundings. Hence the kinetic energy of
particles decreases. (Statement III is incorrect)
From time t3 to t4 freezing takes place. The temperature
of the substance remains constant because during
freezing, heat energy released is equal to the heat lost to
the surroundings. (Statement IV is correct)
Answer B
22
 2.1
1 State the type of particles (atoms, molecules or
ions) that make up the substances below.
(a) Ammonia gas (d) Potassium iodide
(b) Sodium chloride (e) Copper wires
(c) Iron nail (f) Cooking oil
2 The graph shows the heating curve for
naphthalene. Figure 2.13 John Dalton and his model

3 However, Dalton’s atomic model had its

weakness. It was found that:
(a) The atom is not the smallest particle in an

(a) State the melting point of naphthalene.
(b) What is the physical state of naphthalene at
time t second?
(c) Why does the temperature remain constant at
region BC although heating is carried on?
(d) Draw the cooling curve obtained when the
molten naphthalene is cooled from T3 to room
temperature.
2
element. There are subatomic particles
(proton, electron and neutron) in an atom.
(b) A radioactive atom decomposes spon-
taneously, which means that an atom can
be destroyed. A new atom can also be
created by a process called transmutation.
(c) Not all atoms of an element are alike. They may
differ in atomic mass. For example, hydrogen
has three isotopes 11H, 21H and 31H.
4 In 1897 J. J. Thomson discovered negatively-
charged particles which he called electrons.
Thomson then suggested that an atom is a
positively-charged sphere with electrons
embedded in it like a raisin pudding.

2.2 The Atomic Structure

The Historical Development of

the Atomic Model
1 The concept of the atom originated from
Democritus, a Greek philosopher. He proposed
that if a piece of gold is divided repeatedly, it
will reach a state whereby the smallest particle, Figure 2.14 J. J. Thomson and his model
which is indivisible, is obtained. He called the
smallest indivisible particle atomos, which 5 In 1911, Ernest Rutherford bombarded a thin
means ‘indivisible’ in Greek. gold foil with alpha particles (helium nuclei,
He2+).
2 In 1808, John Dalton proposed the atomic
(a) It was found that most of the alpha particles
theory. In this theory, Dalton proposed that:
passed directly through the gold foil without
(a) All elements are made up of small
deflection. Rutherford then suggested that
indivisible particles called atoms.
most of the atom must be empty space.
(b) Atoms are neither created nor destroyed in
chemical reactions.
(c) The atoms of an element are alike, but
differ from the atoms of other elements.
(d) When atoms combine, they do so in a
simple ratio.
(e) All chemical reactions result from the
combination or separation of atoms. Figure 2.15(a) Rutherford’s experiment

23 The Structure of the Atom

 7 In 1932, James Chadwick discovered rays of
electrically neutral subatomic particles which
he called neutrons. The neutron has a mass
almost the same as that of a proton. Chadwick
suggested that the nucleus of the atom contains
protons and neutrons, and the nucleus is
Figure 2.15(b) Magnified view showing alpha surrounded by a cloud of electrons.
particles deflected by the
nuclei of gold atoms

(b) However, some of the alpha particles were

deflected at very acute angles. To explain
the deflection of the alpha particles,
Rutherford proposed that all the positive
2

charge of an atom is concentrated in the

nucleus, which repelled the positively-
charged alpha particles in the opposite
direction. Further experimental studies led
to the discovery of positive particles in the
nucleus. Rutherford called the positively-
charged particles protons.
(c) Rutherford proposed that an atom
consists of a positively-charged nucleus
with a cloud of electrons surrounding the
nucleus. Figure 2.18 James Chadwick and his model
SPM
’08/P1 8 The atomic model in the present day is based on
the contributions of the above scientists. In this
atomic model:
(a) The nucleus of an atom consists of
protons and neutrons occupying a small
space in the centre of the atom.
(b) Electrons are moving around the nucleus
in permissible orbits or electron shells
(also known as quantum shells).
Figure 2.16 Ernest Rutherford and his model
Subatomic Particles of an Atom
6 In 1913, Niels Bohr proposed that the
electrons in the atom are arranged in An atom is made up of three smaller particles
permitted orbits called electron shells which are called protons, neutrons and electrons.
surrounding the nucleus. These particles are called subatomic particles.
Table 2.3 shows the relative masses and charges of
these particles.
Table 2.3 The symbols, relative masses and the
charges of subatomic particles
Subatomic Relative
Symbol Charge
particle mass
Proton p 1 +1
Electron e 1 –1
————
1840
Neutron n 1 0
Figure 2.17 Niels Bohr and his model

The Structure of the Atom 24

 3 that the number of neutrons in phosphorus is
’05 31 – 15 = 16.
6 The relative masses of the proton and neutron
The diagram shows a model of an atom.
are almost similar. However, the relative mass
Who introduced this model? of the electron is very small. So the mass of an
A Niels Bohr atom is determined by the number of protons
B J. J. Thomson and neutrons in the atom.
C John Dalton 7 The nucleon number and proton number of
D Rutherford SPM an element is written in the following way:
’09/P2
Answer A
Niels Bohr. He proposed that electrons are arranged
in shells surrounding the nucleus.

2
Proton Number and Nucleon Number
1 Protons and neutrons are located in the A student need not memorise the proton number and
nucleus and the electrons are arranged in nucleon number. It will be given in the examination. The
electron shells surrounding the nucleus. proton number is smaller than the nucleon number.
2 The nucleus is positively-charged because it
contains protons, each of which carry a
positive charge. 4 ’03
3 The proton number of an element is the
number of protons in its atom. The proton
State the number of37protons, electrons and neutrons
number is also known as the atomic number. in a chlorine atom,
17Cl.
Each element has its own proton number. No
two different elements can have the same Solution 17 protons, 17 electrons and 20 neutrons
proton number. For example, sodium, with a (37 – 17 = 20)
proton number of 11 means that it has 11
protons in its nucleus and an element with 11
protons in its nucleus must be sodium. Symbols of Elements
4 In a neutral atom, the proton number also tells
us the number of electrons. For example, the 1 Each element is represented by a symbol,
proton number of magnesium is 12. consisting of either one letter or two letters of
Therefore, a magnesium atom has 12 protons the alphabet.
and 12 electrons. The proton number of 2 Some elements are represented by the first letter
nitrogen is 7 and hence a nitrogen atom has 7 of its name. Examples are in the following table.
protons and 7 electrons.
5 The nucleon number (also known as the Name of element Symbol
S PM mass number) of an element is the sum of the Hydrogen H
’11 /P 2
number of protons and neutrons in its atom. Nitrogen N
Nucleon Nu mbe r o f Numb er o f Oxygen O
= +
number protons neutrons Fluorine F
OR Sulphur S
Nucleon Proton Number of
= + 3 The names of some elements start with the same
number number neutrons
letter. For example, the names of the elements
For example, a sodium atom has 11 protons Nitrogen, Neon, Nickel and Nobium start with
and 12 neutrons; hence the nucleon number of the letter ‘N’. Therefore, a second letter is
sodium is 23. added to differentiate between these elements.
The proton number of phosphorus is 15 The second letter used is always a small letter.
while its nucleon number is 31. This means Examples are in the following table.

25 The Structure of the Atom

 and 53 stand for? How many protons, electrons
Name of element Symbol
and neutrons are there in an iodine atom?
Silicon Si
2 (a) A list of elements are represented by the letters
Neon Ne given below:
Chlorine Cl
A, 126B, 2412C, 2311 D, 146E and 147F
11
5

Calcium Ca
Bromine Br Which two letters represent the same
element? Explain your answer.
Magnesium Mg (b) State four facts 27
that you can derive from the
nuclear symbol,
13Al.
4 Some elements are represented by the letters of
their Latin names. For example,

Name of
2

element
Latin Name Symbol 2.3 Isotopes and Their
Silver Argentum Ag Importance
Copper Cuprum Cu
Iro n Ferrum Fe Isotopes
Gold Aurum Au 1 Isotopes are atoms of the same element with
Le a d Plumbum Pb SPM the same proton number but different nucleon
’10/P1
Tin Stannum Sn numbers. Alternatively, isotopes can be defined
Potassium Kalium K as atoms of an element with the same number
Sodium Natrium Na of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
Mercury Hydrargyrum Hg 2 Many elements exhibit the phenomenon of
isotropy, whereby an element can have more
than one type of isotope.
2.2 3 The isotopes of an element have the same
1 (a) An atom of uranium (U) has 92 protons and chemical properties because they have the
143 neutrons. What is the proton number and same electron arrangement but their physical
nucleon number? Write its atomic symbol. (b) properties such as densities and melting points
Seaweed is rich in the element iodine, differ.
represented by 12753 l. Lack of iodine in our diet 4 Table 2.4 shows examples of isotopes of some
can cause goiter. What do the numbers 127 elements.
SPM
Table 2.4 Examples of isotopes of some elements ’07/P2

Proton Nucleon Number of Number of Percentage

Element
number number protons neutrons abundance
Hydrogen, 11H 1 1 1 0 99.985%
Deuterium, 21H 1 2 1 1 0.015%
Tritium, 31H 1 3 1 2 Man-made isotope
Carbon-12, 126C 6 12 6 6 98.1%
Carbon-13, 136C 6 13 6 7 1.1%
Carbon-14, 146C 6 14 6 8 Trace amount
Chlorine-35, 35 17 35 17 18 75.5%
17Cl
Chlorine-37, 37 17 37 17 20 24.5%
17Cl

Oxygen-16, 168O 8 16 8 8 99.757%

Oxygen-17, 178O 8 17 8 9 0.038%
Oxygen-18, 188O 8 18 8 10 0.205%

Same Different Same Different

Nucleon number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons

The Structure of the Atom 26

 5 Some elements, such as fluorine, F, have only
one isotope. However, most elements have
more than one isotope.
6 The relative atomic mass of an element is
based on the average mass of all the isotopes
of the element. For example, the relative
atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5 because
chlorine has 75% of 3517Cl and 25% of
37
17Cl.
7 In an element, some isotopes are stable while
the rest are unstable isotopes. Unstable
isotopes are radioactive isotopes.
8 Radioactive isotopes will undergo spontaneous
decay to emit radioactive rays: alpha, beta and
gamma. After radioactive decay, the proton
Uses of Isotopes in Daily Life SPM
’05/P2
Medicine
1 Cobalt-60 is a radioactive isotope of cobalt. It
decays by giving out gamma radiation. In
radiotherapy, malignant cancer cells are killed
by directing a beam of gamma rays towards
the cancer cells.
SPM
’09/P1
Radiotherapy is used to kill cancer cells
2 Patients suffering from thyroid cancer are given
a drink containing sodium iodide, (NaI)
containing radioactive iodide ions. The
radioactive iodide ions move preferen tially
Agriculture
1 Using the radioactive carbon-14 (14C) in carbon
dioxide, the path of carbon during the
photosynthesis process can be determined. The
rate of absorption of phosphorus by the plant
can be determined by adding radioactive
phosphate ions (32PO3– 4 ) to the ground.
2 Male pests can be attracted into traps using
female hormones (pheromone). The male
27
number and nucleon number of the isotope
may change.
9 There are many uses of radioisotopes, namely,
in the field of medicine, agriculture, industry,
archaeology, food preservation and electricity
generation.
Isotopes are atoms of an element with the same
number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
Alternatively, isotopes can be defined as atoms of an
element with the same proton number but different
nucleon numbers.
2
to the thyroid gland. The radiation given out
by the radioactive iodide ions will kill the
malignant cancer cells without affecting the
other parts of the body.
Patient suffering from thyroid cancer
3 Some medicine, surgical gloves, bandages,
plastic hypodermic syringes are sterilised by
using gamma radiation. These materials
cannot be sterilised by boiling.
pests are then exposed to gamma radiation
which can cause genetic mutation to the
gametes (sperms). The male pests are then
released to be allowed to mate with the females.
The offsprings produced will have physical
defects such as undeveloped digestive organs
and wings. This will terminate the survival of
the following generation.
The Structure of the Atom
 Industry
1 Beta radiation is used to control the thickness partially filled in which case a higher reading
of paper, plastic, metals and rubber made in will be recorded.
industry. A radioactive source is located at the
bottom of the material being produced. A
detector is located on top of the material. Any
change in the reading of the recorder signifies
a change in thickness of the material.

Figure 2.20 Using radiation to detect if a container is

fully filled
2

3 Radioisotopes are used to detect leaks in

pipes carrying gas. A radioisotope (for
example, sodium-24) is added to the gas so
that it will be carried along by the gas
flowing through the pipe. A detector is then
moved along the external wall of the pipe.
The detection of a high radioactive reading
will signify the location of the leakage.
Figure 2.19 Using radiation to control the
thickness of materials

2 Gamma radiation is used to detect whether

canned food or bottled drink is completely
filled or only partially filled. A radioactive
source emitting gamma radiation is directed
to the bottled or canned food. More radiation
will pass through if the container is only
Figure 2.21 Using radiation to detect a leak

SPM
Archaeology ’08/P1

Carbon-14 is used to determine the age of

archaeological artifacts. Plants take in carbon-14 The age of bones dug
in the form of carbon dioxide (14CO2) during out from a historical site
photosynthesis. Carbon-14 is incorporated into can be estimated using
carbon-14 dating. For
animals or human beings when the plants are
very old bones, much of
eaten. As long as the organism is alive, the the C-14 would have
amount of carbon-14 in it remains constant. This decayed. The minute
is because the intake of carbon-14 through food amount of C-14 left will
is offset by its spontaneous decay. However, show little radio activity.
when the organism dies, the intake of carbon-14 A recent archaeological
is stopped. The amount of C-14 ‘locked’ in the sample will have a high
body will continue to decay. The amount of C-14 reading of C-14.
remaining (measured by its activity) is inversely
proportional to the age of the artifacts.
Source: Jabatan Muzium Malaysia

The Structure of the Atom 28

 Food preservation
1 Food such as vegetables, fruits and meat rot due to the
activity of fungus and bacteria. These microorganisms can
be killed by irradiating the food with gamma radiation of
cobalt-60. The shelf-life of the food can be extended using
this method. Irradia tion is better than chemical preserva-
tives because it does not have adverse effects on health.
2 Irradiation can also slow down budding in potatoes and
onions, thus extending their shelf-life. Gamma radiation
can also slow the ripening of fruits to be exported.
Generation of electricity
Nuclear energy is an alternative source of
energy to replace fossil fuels such as petroleum,
natural gas or coal. The nuclear fuel used is
uranium-235. The uranium atoms become un
stable when bombarded with fast neutrons.
5 ’05
Name an isotope and state its purpose for each of
the following fields:
(a) Medicine (c) Archaeology
(b) Industry (d) Food preservation
Solution
(a) Cobalt-60 (gamma radiation from decay
of Co-60 is used to kill cancer cells)
(b) Sodium-24 (beta radiation from decay of
Na-24 is used to detect leakages in pipes)
(c) Carbon-14 (it is used to estimate the age
of archaeological artifacts)
(d) Cobalt-60 (gamma radiation from decay
of Co-60 is used to kill fungus or bacteria
that can cause food to rot)
2.3
1 Uranium has three isotopes: 23492U, 23592U and 23892U.
What do you understand by the term isotopes?
State the differences between these isotopes.
2 A list of elements are represented by letters of the
alphabet as given below. Choose a pair of isotopes
from these elements. Explain your answer.
23
A, B, C,13155D,13153E,5525F
11 12753 7934
3 Give an example of a radioactive isotope of
carbon. What is meant by radioisotope? Give a
use of the isotope given in your example.
29
Radiation can be used to delay rotting of
fruits and vegetables
2
This causes the uranium nuclei to split,
producing heat energy. The heat energy released
is used to produce steam from water. The steam
drives the turbine of the generator, producing
electricity.
2.4 The Electronic Structure
of an Atom
Electron Arrangement in an Atom
1 Niels Bohr suggested that the electrons in an
atom occupy orbits with definite energy levels.
Each of these orbits or energy levels can hold a
certain number of electrons. The electrons are
not static but are moving around.
2 The electron orbits are also known as quantum
shells. The shells are labelled first shell, second
shell, third shell and so on, away from the
nucleus.
3 The first shell is the one nearest to the nucleus
and is filled first. It can hold a maximum of
two electrons.
4 After the first shell is full, the remaining electrons
are filled into the second shell. The second shell
can hold a maximum of eight electrons.
Figure 2.22 The electron shells of an atom is
labelled away from the nucleus
5 After the first and second shells are full, the
remaining electrons are filled into the third shell.
The third shell can take a maximum of eight or
18 electrons. If the number of electrons of an
The Structure of the Atom
 atom is more than 20, the third shell will hold
18 electrons. If the number of electrons is 20 or
less, the third shell will hold 8 electrons.
6 Table 2.5 shows the maximum number of
electrons permitted in each shell.
7 The way in which the electrons are distributed
in the shells of an atom is called the electron
arrangement or electronic configuration of
the atom.
SPM Table 2.5 Maximum number of electrons
’11/P2
permitted in each shell of an atom
Shell Maximum number of electrons
2
Eight electrons are filled in the second shell.
Eight electrons are filled in the third shell. Two
electrons are filled in the fourth shell. The
electron arrangement of calcium is 2.8.8.2.
9 The electrons in the outermost occupied shell
are called the valence electrons. Therefore,
carbon atom has four valence electrons,
chlorine atom has seven valence electrons and
calcium atom has two valence electrons.
10 Elements with the same number of valence
electrons have the same chemical properties.

First 2
For example, lithium, sodium and potassium of
Second 8 Group 1 of the Periodic Table have the same
Third 8 or 18 chemical properties because each atom has one
Fourth 32 valence electron.

8 The examples below show the electron Group 1 Electron Number of

arrangement of some elements: element arrangement valence electrons
Lithium 2.1 1
1 Sodium 2.8.1 1
Potassium 2.8.8.1 1
The carbon atom, 126C has six protons.
In a neutral atom, the number of electrons = 11 Group 17 elements have the same chemical
the number of protons. properties because each element has seven
Hence there are six electrons and are arranged as valence electrons.
follows:
Two electrons are filled in the first shell. Group 17 Electron Number of
Four electrons are filled in the second shell. element arrangement valence electrons
The electron arrangement of carbon is 2.4.
Fluorine 2.7 7
Chlorine 2.8.7 7
2 Bromine 2.8.18.7 7
Iodine 2.8.18.18.7 7
The chlorine atom, 3517Cl has 17 protons.
In a neutral atom, the number of electrons = 12 The inert or noble gases of Group 18 of the
the number of protons. Periodic Table are very stable. They have
The 17 electrons are arranged as follows: filled outer shells of electrons.
Two electrons are filled in the first shell.
Eight electrons are filled in the second shell. Group 18 Electron Number of
Seven electrons are filled in the third shell. element arrangement valence electrons
The electron arrangement of chloride is 2.8.7. Helium 2 2
Neon 2.8 8
Argon 2.8.8 8
3
13 Helium has exactly two electrons in the first
The calcium atom, 4020Ca has 20 protons.
shell. It has attained the duplet electron
In a neutral atom, the number of electrons =
arrangement which is stable. Neon and argon
the number of protons.
each has eight electrons in the outermost shell.
The 20 electrons are arranged as follows:
It has attained the octet electron
Two electrons are filled in the first shell.
arrangement which is stable.

The Structure of the Atom 30

14 Table 2.6 shows the diagrammatic electronic structures and the electron arrangements of elements
with proton numbers 1 to 20.
SPM
’04,05
Table 2.6 The diagrammatic electronic structure of elements with proton numbers 1 to 20 06/P1
’08/P1

2
6
23
X, 3517Y, 126Z. Write the electronic configuration of
11
’04
each of these elements.
19
The atomic symbol of element X is 9X. Which Solution
of the following is true about the subatomic
Number Number
particles of element X? Proton Electronic
of of
number protons electrons configuration
Proton Nucleon Electronic
number number configuration X 11 11 11 2.8.1
A 9 19 2.7 Y 17 17 17 2.8.7
B 9 19 2.8.8.1 Z 6 6 6 2.4
C 19 9 2.7
D 19 9 2.8.8.1

Comment
2.4
The proton number of X is 9. Hence it has 9 protons
and 9 electrons. The 9 electrons are arranged as 1 Write the electron arrangement and draw the atomic
follows: structures of carbon and magnesium atoms.
Two electrons in the first shell and the remaining [Proton number: C, 6; Mg, 12]
seven electrons are arranged in the second shell. 2 The diagram shows the atomic
Its electronic configuration is 2.7. structure of an element X.
(a) In an atom of X, how
Answer A many of the following
are there?
(i) Valence electrons
7 (ii) Protons
’04 (b) What is the nucleon number of X if it has 16
neutrons?
The chemical symbols of three elements X, Y and (c) Write the atomic symbol of element X.
Z are shown as follows:

31 The Structure of the Atom

 Rutherford discovered the proton in 1911 and
2.5 Appreciating the James Chadwick discovered the neutron in
Orderliness and 1932. Niels Bohr explained the arrangement of
Uniqueness of the the electrons in an atom.
Atomic Structure 3 We now know that the protons and neutrons are
located at the center of the atom called the
1 John Dalton proposed the atomic theory nucleus. The electrons are arranged in orbits
about 200 years ago in 1807. Before that around the nucleus.
scientists thought that atoms were solid 4 The atomic structure of an atom can help us
particles like marbles. understand the chemical properties of the
2 About 100 years later, other scientists discovered elements better and how they are bonded
the subatomic particles. J.J. Thomson discovered together to form compounds.
the electron in 1897. Ernest
2

1 There are three states of matter: solid, liquid and 5 During freezing, the temperature remains constant
gas. because heat energy is released and the energy
2 When a substance is heated or cooled it will change released is equals to the heat lost to the surrounding
state. during cooling.
3 The table shows the energy involved during the 6 The proton number is the number of protons in the
change in state: nucleus of an atom.
7 The nucleon number is the total number of
Change of Change in protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
Process
state energy 8 Isotopes are atoms of the same element which
Solid to liquid Melting Heat energy is contain the same number of protons but different
absorbed numbers of neutrons.
9 The protons and neutrons are enclosed in the nucleus
Liquid to gas Boiling/ Heat energy is whereas the electrons are arranged in shells
evaporation absorbed surrounding the nucleus.
Solid to gas Sublimation Heat energy is (a) The first shell can hold a maximum of two
absorbed electrons.
(b) The second shell can hold a maximum of eight
Liquid to solid Freezing Heat energy is or 18 electrons.
released (c) The third shell can hold a maximum of 18
electrons.
Gas to liquid Condensation Heat energy is However for atoms with proton numbers 1 –
released
20, the atom attains stability when its third
Gas to solid Sublimation Heat energy is shell has eight electrons.
released (d) The valence electron is the electron in the
outermost shell of the atom.
4 During melting the temperature remains constant For example, the electronic configuration of the
because heat energy absorbed is used to overcome calcium atom, 4020Ca is 2.8.8.2.
the forces of attraction between the molecules. The calcium atom has two valence electrons.

The Structure of the Atom 32

 2
Multiple-choice Questions
4 An inflated balloon will shrink D The air particles diffuse out of
2.1 Matter faster at higher temperature than the balloon at a faster rate at
1 What process and change in heat at lower temperature. higher temperature.
energy takes place when iodine
’1 1 crystals are heated at room
temperature and pressure?

2
5 Carbon dioxide(CO2), sulphur
Change in dioxide(SO2) and nitrogen
Process heat energy dioxide(NO2) are three gases that
Heat energy cause acid rain.
A Melting Which of the following lists the
absorbed
Heat energy molecules in order of increasing
B Melting average speed?
released
[Relative atomic mass: C, 12;
Heat energy
C Sublimation N, 14; O, 16; S, 32]
absorbed
Heat energy
D Sublimation Which of the following is the Slowest Fastest
released
best explanation for this
2 Which statements below are true A Sulphur Nitrogen Carbon
observation?
about a gas? dioxide dioxide dioxide
A The air particles liquefy at
I They move at low speed. lower temperature. B Sulphur Carbon Nitrogen
II They are easily compressed. B The air particles react to form other dioxide dioxide dioxide
III They have a higher rate of compounds at higher C Nitrogen Sulphur Carbon
diffusion compared to a liquid. temperature. dioxide dioxide dioxide
IV They spread throughout the C The air particles come
vessel in which they are D Carbon Sulphur Nitrogen
closer together at lower
contained. dioxide dioxide dioxide
temperature.
A I, II and III only
B I, III and IV only
C II, III and IV only 6 The table shows the changes in physical states and energies of four
D I, II, III and IV substances.
3 The diagrams show the spacing of Name of Change of physical
the molecules of a substance at Process Change of energy
process state
two different temperatures.
I Freezing Solid to liquid Heat is released
II Melting Solid to liquid Heat is absorbed
III Boiling Solid to gas Heat is absorbed

at –110 °C at 85 °C
IV Condensation Gas to liquid Heat is released

What is the likely melting point and Which of the following processes above are correct?
boiling point of the substance? A I and III only C I, II and IV only
Melting point Boiling point B II and IV only D II, III and IV only
(°C) (°C) 7 Which of the following statements is true about pentane molecules when it is
A –125 90 cooled to a temperature of –129 °C? [Melting point of pentane is –135 °C and its
boiling point is 36 °C].
B –117 78 A The pentane molecules remain static.
C –102 75 B The pentane molecules move randomly.
C The pentane molecules are arranged closely together.
D –98 105 D The distance between the pentane molecules increases.

33 The Structure of the Atom

 8 The graph shows the
Magnesium oxide Sodium Ammonia
temperature against time of a ’07
substance X when it is heated. A Ions Atoms Molecules
B Ions Molecules Molecules
C Molecules Molecules Atoms
D Ions Ions Ions

2.2 The Atomic Structure

11 Which of the following sets is correct? The scientists who discovered the
electron, proton and neutron are
’08
Electron Proton Neutron
2

Which of the statements below are

A Ernest Rutherford J.J. Thomson James Chadwick
true about X?
I X starts to melt at Q. B J.J. Thomson Ernest Rutherford James Chadwick
II The melting point of X is T1 C J.J. Thomson Ernest Rutherford Niels Bohr
°C.
III X exists in gaseous state at D J.J. Thomson James Chadwick Ernest Rutherford
region TU.
IV At region RS, there is a 12 What can be deduced from the I It belongs to Group 15 in the
mixture of solid and liquid X. symbol 31 Periodic Table.
15P?
A I and III only I Phosphorus atom has five II It belongs to Period 3 of the
B II and IV only valence electrons. Periodic Table.
C I, II and III only II Phosphorus atom has 15 III It forms an ion with a charge of –
D I, III and IV only protons and 31 neutrons. 3.
III Phosphorus atom has 16 IV It is a metal.
9 The diagram shows the graph of neutrons. A I, II and III only
temperature against time for the IV Phosphorus atom has proton B I, III and IV only
heating of substance X. number of 15 and nucleon C II, III and IV only
number of 31. D I, II, III and IV
temperature (°C)
A I, II and III only
B I, III and IV only
C II, III and IV only 15 The diagrams show three models of
65
D I, II, III and IV the atom.

13 Two particles P and Q have the

t1 t2 time (s) following compositions:

Which statements below are true Particle Electron Neutron Proton

about substance X? P 10 10 9
I It is a gas at room
temperature. Q 10 12 11
II It undergoes physical change at Name the scientists who proposed
It follows that
65 °C. these models?
A P and Q are both negatively-
III It absorbs heat at time
charged
intervals t1 and t2. I II III
B P and Q have the same
IV It exists as a mixture of liquid
nucleon number. A James J.J. Ernest
and solid at time intervals t1 and
C P and Q are particles of the Chadwick Thomson Rutherford
t2.
A I and II only same element.
B Niels Bohr John Ernest
B I and III only D P is negatively-charged and Q
Dalton Rutherford
C II and III only is positively-charged.
C Niels Bohr J.J. Ernest
D II and IV only 14 An atom X has an electron Thomson Rutherford
arrangement of 2.8.5. Which of the
10 State the particles in magnesium following statements about X are D Niels Bohr Ernest J.J.
oxide, sodium and ammonia. correct? Rutherford Thomson

The Structure of the Atom 34

16 An atom has the symbol 25 Which of the following
Isotope Use
11 X. Which of the following
5 comparisons
81
between 7935Br and
statements about X are correct? I I I Carbon-14 To estimate the age 35Br are correct?
I It has 5 valence electrons in its of archaeological
atom. artifacts Bromine-79 Bromine-81
II It has 6 neutrons in its atom. I V Sodium-24 To detect leakages I Has 35 Has 35
III It belongs to Group 13 of the in pipes protons protons
Periodic Table.
IV It belongs to Period 2 of the A I, II and III only II Has 35 Has 35
Periodic Table. B I, II and IV only electrons electrons
A I, II and III only C II, III and IV only III Has 35 Has 35
B I, II and IV only D I, II, III and IV neutrons neutrons
C II, III and IV only
D I, II, III and IV 21 Which of the following statements IV Has 44 Has 46
are true about isotopes? neutrons neutrons

2
17 The atoms 126C and 115B have the I They have the same chemical
properties. A I and IV only
same
II They have different physical B II and III only
A number of protons
properties. C I, II and IV only
B number of neutrons
III The have a different number of D I, III and IV only
C physical properties
D chemical properties neutrons.
IV They have the same number 26 The radioisotope that is used to kill
of valence electrons. cancerous cells is
2.3 Isotopes and Their A I, II and III only A uranium-235
Importance B I, III and IV only B cobalt-60
C II, III and IV only C carbon-14
18 Two uranium isotopes are 23592U and
23892U. D I, II, III and IV D phosphorus-32
Which of the following
statements below is true? 22 Oxygen has the isotope 16 O, 17 O
A The 23592U atom has fewer and 18O. Which of the following 2.4 The Electronic Structure
electrons than 23892U atom. oxygen gas has the lowest rate of of_______________________anAtom
B The 23952U atom has 92
diffusion?
protons and 235 neutrons. A 16 O = 16 O 27 Which of the following particles
C The 23982U atom has 92 B 17 O = 17 O have eight valence electrons?
protons and 146 neutrons. C 18 O = 18 O
I 16 8W III 40
18 Y
D The 23592U atom and 23892U atom II 11X+
23
IV 3517Z–
D 17 O = 18 O
have the same number of A I and III only
neutrons. 23 B II and IV only
C I, II and III only
19 Isotopes are different atoms with
D II, III and IV only
the same number of
A protons but different number of
28 Which of the following particles
neutrons.
contains 18 electrons, 19 protons
B electrons but different X Y
and 20 neutrons?
number of protons. Which term describes the A 3 919 X+ C 39 –
C protons, electrons and 18X
particles X and Y shown above? B 40 20 X2+ D 39
neutrons. A Isotopes C Anions 19 X
D protons but different number of
B Isomers D Cations
electrons and neutrons. 29 How many protons and neutrons
24 An element has two isotopes, are there in one tin atom with
20 Which of the following pairs are which are represented by 127X nucleon number 119?
correct? and 131X. How does 127X differ
from 131X? Protons Neutrons
Isotope Use A It has four less neutrons and three
A 50 68
I Uranium-235 To generate less electrons.
electricity B It has four less neutrons. B 50 69
C It has four less protons and C 50 71
II Iodine-131 To kill cancerous three less electrons.
thyroid cells D It has four less protons. D 50 119

35 The Structure of the Atom

 30 The symbol of an element X is 33 Which of the following elements
40 Element W X Y Z
18X . We can deduce that an atom given below have the same
of element X number of valence electrons? Proton
6 7 12 15
I has eight valence electrons. 199 V ; 27
number
II has 22 neutrons in its nucleus. 13W; 3517X; 3919Y; 4020Z
III has three electron shells. A W and Y only A Y and Z only
IV has a total of 18 electrons in its B X and Z only B X and Z only
atom. C V and X only C X and Y only
A I, II and III only D V and Y only D W and Z only
B I, III and IV only
34 Which of the following list are the 38 The electronic configuration
C II, III and IV only
electron arrangements of all non- of arsenic is 2.8.18.5.
D I, II, III and IV
metals? Which of the following
31 Two particles X and Y have the A 2.6 2.7 2.8.5 statements is true?
B2 2.5 2.8.3 A Arsenic has three valence
following composition:
2

C 2.1 2.7 2.8.6 electrons.

Particle Electrons Neutrons Protons D 2.1 2.8.2 2.8.3 B Arsenic is in Group 14 of the
Periodic Table.
X 10 12 11 35 An atom 39 C The nucleon number of the
19Y
Y 11 12 11 I has 20 neutrons. arsenic atom is 33.
II has 19 protons. D Arsenic is in the same group
Which of the following statements III has one valence electron. of the Periodic Table as an
are true about X and Y? IV has four electron shells. element with proton number
I Both X and Y are negatively- A I, II and III only 7.
charged. B I, II and IV only
II Both X and Y are positively- C II, III and IV only 39 The electronic configuration of
charged. D I, II, III and IV the ion X– is 2.8.18.18.8.
III Both X and Y have the same The ion X– has 74 neutrons.
nucleon number. 36 What is the number of subatomic Determine the nucleon number
IV Both X and Y are particles of particles in 60 27Co2+ ion? of element X.
the same element. A 127
A I and III only Protons Neutrons Electrons B 128
B II and IV only C 129
A 27 33 27
C III and IV only D 130
D II, III and IV only B 27 33 25
40 The electronic configuration of the
32 An element 39 C 33 27 27
19 X strontium ion, Sr2+ is 2.8.18.8.
A has one valence electron. D 33 27 25 The Sr2+ ion has 49 neutrons.
B forms a positively-charged ion Determine the nucleon number
of charge +2. 37 The table shows the proton of strontium.
C is located in Group 17 of the numbers of four elements. Which A 85
Periodic Table. of the following pairs of elements B 86
D has 19 protons and 39 has the same number of valence C 87
neutrons. electrons? D 88

Structured Questions
1 Carbon has two isotopes as shown in Table 1 below. (ii) What is the difference between the two
isotopes 126C and 146C? [1 mark]
Atom Proton number Nucleon number
(b) Draw the atomic structure of 146C using, x, to
12
6 C represent an electron. [2 marks]
14
6 C (c) Give one use of 146C. [1 mark]
’08
Table 1
(d) What is the number of valence electrons in both
(a) (i) Complete Table 1 with the proton numbers and of the carbon atoms above? [1 mark]
nucleon numbers of the two different
carbon isotopes. [2 marks]

The Structure of the Atom 36

2 Diagram 1 shows a graph of temperature against time (g) (i) Explain the meaning of the term isotope.
of substance M when it is heated until it boils. [2 marks]
(ii) State a pair of isotopes from the particles in
Table 2. [1 mark]
4 Table 3 shows four substances and their respective
formulae.
’04
Substance Chemical formula
Bromine Br2
Iron Fe
Diagram 1 Naphthalene C10H8
(a) State the physical state of M at the region Sodium chloride NaCl
(i) PQ (iii) RS

2
(ii) QR (iv) ST [3 marks] Table 3

(b) When does M begin to boil? [1 mark] (a) State two substances that consist of molecules. [1
mark]
(c) What is the melting point of M? [1 mark]
(d) Explain why the temperature of M remains (b) Which of the following substances has the highest
constant from time t1 to t2. [1 mark] melting point: bromine, iron or naphthalene?
[1 mark]
(e) Sketch the graph obtained when molten M is
cooled from 450 °C to room temperature. [2 marks] (c) (i) State the substance that can conduct
electricity in the solid state. [1 mark]
3 Table 2 shows the proton numbers and nucleon numbers of (ii) Draw the arrangement of the particles of this
five particles represented by the letters V, W, X, Y and Z. substance. [1 mark]
Proton Nucleon Electron (d) Name the particles present in sodium chloride. [1
Particle
number number arrangement mark]
V 6 12 (e) Diagram 2 shows the graph of temperature against
W 8 16 time obtained when solid naphthalene is heated.
X 8 18
Y 11 23
Z 16 32
Table 2

(a) Write the electron arrangements of all the

particles in Table 2. [2 marks]
(b) What is the number of valence electrons in
particle V ? [1 mark] Diagram 2

(c) Draw the atomic structure of particle Y. [2 marks] (i) State the melting point of naphthalene. [1 mark]
(ii) Explain why there is no change in temperature
(d) State the number of electron shells in particle Z. [1
from Q to R. [2 marks]
mark]
(iii) State how the movement of naphthalene
(e) Explain the meaning of nucleon number. [1 mark] particles changes between R and S during
(f) What is the number of neutrons in particle Y ? [1 mark] heating. [1 mark]

Essay Questions
1 (a) Compare the three physical states of matter in You are given two substances X and Y. They are
terms of particle arrangements, forces of either naphthol or naphthalene.
attraction between the particles, kinetic energy of You are required to carry out an experiment to
the particles and compressibility. [8 marks] identify X and Y. Design an experiment to
(b) Table 1 shows the melting points of naphthol and determine X and Y.
naphthalene.

37 The Structure of the Atom

 Chemical Melting point (°C) 2 (a) Define the following terms:
(i) Proton number
Naphthol 65 (ii) Nucleon number
Naphthalene 80 (iii) Valence electron [3 marks]
Table 1 [12 marks] (b) (i) What are isotopes? [3 marks]
(ii) Give an example of a pair of isotopes. [2 marks]
(iii) Discuss six uses of isotopes. [12 marks]

Experiments
1 An experiment is carried out to determine the melting point of naphthalene. Solid naphthalene is heated
and its temperature is recorded every 30 seconds.
’05 Diagram 1 shows the recorded temperature readings at 30-second intervals.
2

Diagram 1
(a) Record the temperatures in the spaces provided in Diagram 1. [3 marks]
(b) Draw a labelled diagram of the apparatus used to carry out the experiment. [3 marks]
(c) Plot a graph of temperature against time for the heating of naphthalene. [3 marks]
(d) State the melting point of naphthalene. [3 marks]
(e) What is the physical state of naphthalene at time 90 seconds? [3 marks]
(f) Explain why the temperature between time 60 s to 120 s remained constant. [3 marks]
(g) Sketch a graph you expect to obtain if the molten naphthalene is cooled to room temperature. [3 marks]
2 ‘The melting point of a substance is lowered by the presence of impurities’.
Using naphthalene and a mixture of naphthalene with some acetamide, describe an experiment to prove
the statement above. Your answer should include the following items:
(a) Aim of experiment [3 marks]
(b) All variables involved [3 marks]
(c) List of apparatus and materials used [3 marks]
(d) Procedure of experiment [3 marks]
(e) Tabulation of results [3 marks]

The Structure of the Atom 38