Unit V.

Chemical Bonding

Unit V: CHEMICAL BONDING (6 Hours)

Introduction
Our understanding on the properties of substances or materials around us,
like what comprise this module you are reading, the food you eat daily, the water
you drink, the rocks and soil we stepped is the important concept of chemical
bonding. Chemical bonding is one of the most basic fundamentals of chemistry
that explains other concepts such as molecules and reactions. Without it, scientists
wouldn't be able to explain why atoms combine or attracted to each other or how
products are formed after a chemical reaction has taken place. The stability of
atoms depends on whether or not their outermost shell is filled with electrons. If
the outer shell is filled, the atom is stable. Atoms with unfilled outer shells are
unstable, and will usually form chemical bonds with other atoms to achieve
stability.

How do atoms combine? Typically they bind together or attract each other in such
a way that they lose their identities as elements and adopt a new identity as a
compound. These forces of attraction, which is a physical phenomenon of
chemical substances are called chemical bonds. And how do atoms join together?
Ultimately, it all comes down to electron in the outermost shell called valence
electrons which are involved in chemical bonding. The valence of an element is
the number of electrons the elements share, gain or lose when it forms compounds
with other elements. An important clue to the understanding of the driving force
for chemical bonding was the discovery of the noble gases and their apparently
inert chemical behavior. Elements tend to attain this configuration of completely
filled outer shells in order to gain stability.
Chemical nomenclature is a term given to naming of the compounds. It is used to
identify chemical species by means of written name based on the symbols of the
atoms in the formula. It is a useful means for communication among scientists.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
1. differentiate the different kinds of chemical bonds
2. draw Lewis Electron Dot Structure of given elements and compounds
3. predict geometry of compounds, distinguish and categorized polarity of
their molecules
4. identify intermolecular forces of attraction present in a given molecule
5. write and name formulas by identifying their ions and molecules

Activating Prior Learning

Why people marry? People find their best partner in life to attain contentment and
stability. This is analogous to the question, “why atoms combine?” As what was
emphasized in the last chapter, atoms that have incomplete valence electrons are
unstable. They tend to combine with other elements to form compounds and to
establish stability like their nearest noble gases.

Choose a partner and discuss the Octet Rule. Help each other to identify whether
the following atoms is complete or incomplete by identifying the number of their
valence electron and the number of electrons needed to make them complete like
their nearest inert gas.

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 Unit V. Chemical Bonding

Name of Atom No. of Valence Complete or Number of Electrons

Electron Incomplete Needed for Complete
Octet
Sodium
Calcium
Neon
Fluorine
Sulfur
Argon

When atoms combine they form different types of compounds. These compounds
are identified as ionic compounds or covalent molecules.

A. Types of Chemical Bonds:

Learning Objectives:

1. define metallic bond and cite some examples

2. define ionic bond and cite some examples
3. draw diagram showing electron transfer between atoms to form ionic
bonds
4. define covalent bond and cite some examples
5. show the sharing of electrons by nonmetals to form covalent bonds
6. discuss the differences among the types of bonds as to occurrence,
involvement and their properties

Let’s Learn

You should understand that atoms with incomplete valence electrons tend to pair
with another atom of the same kind in order to form a bond and attain stability.
Below are the different types of bonds:

1. Metallic bond occurs between like atoms of a metal in the free-state. It is

the attraction of the metal cations for the mobile electrons, often described
as islands of cations in a sea of electrons.

Look at the metal in your electrical wirings, what is it made of? Is it just
copper metal that is composed of Cu atom? Is a metal made up of atoms or
ions? It is made of atoms. Each positive center in the diagram represents
all the rest of the atom apart from the outer electron, but that electron has
not been lost - it may no longer have an attachment to a particular atom,
but it's still there in the structure. It is the mobile electrons that enable the
metals to conduct electricity

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 Unit V. Chemical Bonding

The metallic bond defines the properties of metals that was previously
discussed.

1. Concept Check

The strong metallic bonding generally results in what properties?

1. _____________________________________________

2. _____________________________________________

3. _____________________________________________

2. Ionic bond occurs when there is an attraction between a metal and a

nonmetal wherein electrons are transferred to form oppositely charged
ions. When atoms lose or gain electrons, they become ions to have the
same number of electrons as the nearest noble gas. Metal loses electrons to
form positive ion or cation and nonmetal gains electrons to form negative
ion or anion. Ionic compounds result when an atom that loses electrons
relatively easily (a metal) reacts with an atom that has a high affinity for
electrons or gains electron (a non-metal).

Consider the formation of ions for the following:

Formation of Sodium Ion

Sodium atom Sodium ion
 
Na – e  Na +
2-8-1 2-8 ( = Ne)
+
11 p 11 p+
11 e- 10 e-
0 1+
Formation of Magnesium Ion
Magnesium atom Magnesium ion

Mg – 2e  Mg2+
2-8-2 2-8 (=Ne)
12 p+ 12 p+
12 e- 10 e-
0 2+
Some Typical Ions with Positive Charges (Cations)
Group 1 Group 2 Group 13

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 Unit V. Chemical Bonding

H+ Mg2+ Al3+
Li+ Ca2+
Na+ Sr2+
K+ Ba2+

2. Concept Check

1. Number of valence electrons in aluminum

a) 1 e- b) 2 e- c) 3 e-
2. Change in electrons for octet
a) lose 3e- b) gain 3 e- c) gain 5 e-
3. Ionic charge of aluminum
a) 3- b) 5- c) 3+

Formation of Fluorine ion

unpaired electron octet
  1 -
: Cl  + e : Cl :
 

2-7 2-8 (= Ne)

9 p+ 9 p+
9 e- 10 e-
0 1- (ionic charge)

Formation of Oxygen ion

unpaired electron octet
  2-
:O + 2 e : O:
 

2-6 2-8 (= Ne)

8 p+ 8 p+
8 e- 10 e-
0 2- (ionic charge)

3. Concept Check
1. Number of valence electrons in Fluorine
a) 5 e- b) 6 e- c) 7 e-
2. Change in electrons for octet
a) lose 1e- b) gain 1 e- c) gain 3 e-
3. Ionic charge of Fluorine
a) 3- b) 2- c) 1-

In ionic bond, electron from Na is transferred to Cl, this causes a charge

imbalance in each atom. The Na becomes Na + and the Cl becomes Cl -, charged
particles or ions.

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 Unit V. Chemical Bonding

Consider the reaction between Na and O, the two atoms of Na lose one electron
each (2Na+) while atom of O gains two electron (O2-)

Another example is the ionic bonding between Ca and Cl, Calcium gives its two
electrons to Cl and two atoms of Cl gain one electron each from Ca:

Ionic compounds are always neutral, no net charge is present. The ratio in which
positive and negative ions combine is the ratio that achieves charge neutrality
for the resulting compound. Hence. Sodium Oxide (Na2O) and Calcium Chloride
(CaCl2) are presented as:
2 Na + O = 0 Ca + 2Cl = 0
2 (1+) + 1(2-) = 0 1(2+) + 2(1-) = 0
(2+) + (2-) = 0 (2+) + (2-) = 0

4. Concept Check

Show the transfer of electrons for the following atoms in forming ionic
bond:
1. Li and O
2. Ba and F
3. Al and O

3. Covalent bond occurs when there is an attraction between two nonmetals

wherein electrons are shared to form molecule. Covalent compounds result
when atoms share pair of electrons to attain octets. The electronegativity
between the nonmetals must be < than 2.

You can call the neutral particle molecule that is formed when atoms share
electrons, like in the H2 molecules. The two shared electrons do double duty,
helping each hydrogen atom achieve a helium noble-gas configuration.

Take note that the bonding electrons are pairs of valence electrons that are
shared between atoms in a covalent bond are represented with dashes for the
following molecules:

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 Unit V. Chemical Bonding

The nonbonding electrons are pairs of valence electrons on an atom that are not
involved in electron sharing. They are also referred to as unshared electron
pairs, lone electron pairs, or lone pairs.

The formed covalent bond may be single, double or triple depending on the
number of electrons shared by the atoms.

When atoms share one pair of electrons, a single covalent bond is formed like in
the case of diatomic molecule hydrogen:
H–H
Double covalent bond is formed when two atoms share two pairs of electrons
like carbon sharing its four electrons to two oxygen atoms.
O=C=O
Triple covalent bond is formed between nitrogen atoms in which two atoms
share three pairs of electrons.

Take a look on the valence electron and number of covalent bonds formed for
the following atoms:

Oxygen (6 Valence Electrons, 2 Octet Vacancies)

Nitrogen (5 Valence
Electrons, 3 Octet Vacancies)

Carbon (4 Valence Electrons, 4 Octet Vacancies)

5. Concept Check

Show the sharing of electrons for the following atoms in forming

covalent bond:

1. H and O
2. N and H
3. C and O
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4. C, H, and Cl
 Unit V. Chemical Bonding

Feedback
Answer the following questions:
1. If a pure substance is a good conductor of electricity in both its solid and
its liquid phases, the bonding in the substance is predominantly
a. Ionic
b. Metallic
c. Polar covalent
d. Non-polar covalent
2. Which type of bonding involves positive ions immersed in a sea of mobile
electrons?
a. Ionic
b. Non-polar covalent
c. Polar covalent
d. Metallic
3. Which kind of bond predominates in compounds formed between Group 1
and Group 17 elements?
a. Covalent
b. Metallic
c. Ionic
d. Polar-covalent.
4. Which pair of elements will not form an ionic bond?
a. Ba and Cl
b. Ca and S
c. K and O
d. C and Cl
5. In which of the following pairs of compounds are both members of the
pair ionic compounds?
a. Pl3 and HBr
b. H2S and NCl3
c. LiF and H2O
d. LiI and NiO
6. Elements in groups IA and VIIA of the periodic table possess,
respectively, how many valence electrons?
a. 1 and 1
b. 1 and 7
c. 7 and 1
d. 8 and 8
7. Formation of a positive ion is the result of an atom

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 Unit V. Chemical Bonding

a. Losing one or more protons

b. losing one or more electrons
c. gaining one or more protons
d. gaining one or more electrons
8. How many total electrons are present in a N3– ion?
a. 4
b. 7
c. 10
d. 12
9. Elements in groups IIA and VIIA of the periodic table would,
respectively, be expected to form ions with charges of
a. +2 and +7
b. -2 and -7
c. +2 and +1
d. +2 and -1
10. Which of the following is an incorrect statement about the number of
electrons lost or gained by a representative element during ion formation?
a. The number is usually three or less
b. The number is governed by the octet rule
c. The number is related to the position of the element in the periodic
table
d. More than one correct response
e. No correct response
11. The mechanism for ionic bond formation always involves the transferring
of
a. electrons from nonmetallic atoms to metallic atoms
b. protons from the nucleus of metallic atoms to the nucleus of
nonmetallic atoms
c. sufficient electrons to produce ions of equal but opposite charge
d. more than one correct response
e. no correct response
12. Which of the following statements contrasting covalent bonds and ionic
bonds is correct?
a. Covalent bonds usually involve two nonmetals and ionic bonds usually
involve two metals.
b. Covalent bonds usually involve two metals and ionic bonds usually
involve a metal and a nonmetal.
c. Covalent bonds usually involve a metal and a nonmetal and ionic
bonds usually involve two nonmetals.
d. Covalent bonds usually involve two nonmetals and ionic bonds usually
involve a metal and a nonmetal.
13. In which of the following molecular compounds are all the bonds single
bonds?
a. CS2
b. CS
c. CS2
d. O2
14. The total number of nonbonding electron pairs present in the Lewis
structure of SiH4 is

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 Unit V. Chemical Bonding

a. Zero
b. One
c. Two
d. Four
15. Which of the following statements concerning double covalent bonds is
correct?
a. They are found only in molecules that contain P or atoms in the third
period or higher
b. They are only found in molecules that contain large atoms that can
effectively overlap with each other
c. They occur only between atoms containing 2 valence electrons
d. They always involve the sharing of 4 electrons.

B. Lewis Electron Dot Structure (LEDS)

Learning Objectives:

1. draw a Lewis electron structure dot diagram for an atom or monoatomic

ion.
2. state and apply octet rule
3. illustrate covalent bond formation with Lewis dot diagram

Let’s Learn

The valence electrons are the basis for bonding of atoms. Hence, you should
know how to show the position of these electrons using dots. Lewis symbol
is a chemical symbol of an element surrounded by dots equal in number to
the number of valence electrons present in atoms of the element. The position
of the dots depends on its valence electron electronic configuration.

: .
Example: Oxygen – 1s2 2s2 2p4 (px2, py1, pz1) - :O
.
Lewis symbols for selected representative and noble gas elements are given
below:

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 Unit V. Chemical Bonding

6. Concept Check

Determine the number of valence electrons in each of the following

elements:
Ba

Br

Pb

Important Generalizations about valence electron:

1. Representative elements in the same group have the same number of

valence electrons.
2. The number of valence electrons for representative elements is the
same as the periodic-table group number.
3. The maximum number of valence electrons for any element is eight.

7. Concept Check

Write Lewis symbols for the following elements:

Using dots, Lewis made the valence electron visible. The stability of noble gases
is now associated with the 8 valence electrons around them. The stability of 8
valence electrons led to the conclusion that all elements strive to acquire 8
electrons in the valence shell, and the chemical reaction takes place due to
elements trying to get 8 electrons. This is octet rule which states that elements
gain or lose electrons to attain an electron configuration of the nearest noble gas.
Noble gases have complete outer electron shells, which make them very stable.
Other elements also seek stability, which governs their reactivity and bonding
behavior.

7. Concept Check
Write the Lewis symbols for each of the following ions:
a. As3–
b. I–
c. Be2+
d. O2–
e. Ga3+
f. Li+ 10
 Unit V. Chemical Bonding

Electrons are distributed as shared or BOND PAIRS and unshared or LONE

PAIRS

Consider the step-by-step approach to writing Lewis structures

Step 1: Determine the total number of valence electrons. Find the sum of valence
electrons of all atoms in the polyatomic ion or molecule. If it is an anion, add one
electron for each negative charge. If it is a cation, subtract one electron for each
positive charge.

Step 2. Write the chemical symbols of the atoms in the

molecule in the order in which they are bonded to one another, and then
place a single covalent bond, involving two electrons, between each pair
of bonded atoms.

26  6 = 20
Step 3. Add nonbonding electron pairs to the structure such that each atom
bonded to the central atom has an octet of electrons.
26  6 = 20 – 18 = 2

Step 4. Place any remaining electrons on the central atom of the

structure.
26  6 = 20  18 = 2  2 = 0

Step 5. If there are not enough electrons to give the central atom an octet, then use
one or more pairs of nonbonding electrons on the atoms bonded to the
central atom to form double or triple bonds.

8. Concept Check

Draw a Lewis structure for each of the following molecules:

a. F2
b. HF
c. NH3
d. CO2
e. CCl4
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 Unit V. Chemical Bonding

Feedback

Answer the following questions:

1. How many electrons appear in the Lewis symbol for an element whose
electron configuration is 1s22s22p5
a. 2
b. 4
c. 7
d. 9
2. The “octet rule” relates to the number eight because:
a. Only atoms with eight valence electrons undergo chemical reaction.
b. Ions with charges of +8 and –8 are very stable.
c. Atoms, during compound formation, frequently obtain eight valence
electrons.
d. All electron subshells can hold eight electrons.
3. Write the Lewis symbols of the ions in each of the following ionic
compounds and the Lewis symbols of the atom from which they are formed:
a. MgS
b. Al2O3
c. GaCl3
d. K2O
e. Li3N

C. Geometry and Polarity of Molecules

Learning Objectives:

1. differentiate a nonpolar bond and a polar bond

2. determine the polarity of a bond based on the electronegativity of atoms.
3. determine the polarity of simple molecules and the direction of dipoles
4. discuss the conditions for each type of intermolecular forces to be
present
5. identify the types of intermolecular forces present between the molecules
of a given substance
6. explain the properties of substances in terms of the nature and strength of
intermolecular forces
7. determine, draw and describe the geometry or shape of some simple
molecules
8. determine if the compound is molecular or ionic compound

Let’s Learn

Polarity of Molecules

Polarity of Bonds is based on the electronegativity values. The greater the

difference in electronegativity, the more polar is the bond.

Have you ever experienced having best friend? Sometimes you equally share
what you have with your best friend, like food. Nonpolar covalent bonding is
very similar to the way you share your food to your best friend.

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 Unit V. Chemical Bonding

An example of a nonpolar covalent bond is the bond between two hydrogen atoms
because they equally share the electrons. Another example of a nonpolar covalent
bond is the bond between two nitrogen atoms because they also equally share the
electrons.
Examples: H2 : H – H N2 : N = N

9. Concept Check
Show the diagram of sharing electrons forming nonpolar bonds of the
following molecules:

a. O2
b. Cl2
c. I2

Sometimes you lend your personal things to your best friend. It is similar to a
polar covalent bond wherein electrons have unequal sharing of the bonding pair
of electrons. Electrons spend more time near the more electronegative atom of the
bond and less time near the less electronegative atom of the bond. It creates
fractional positive and negative charges on atoms.

Example:

In H-Cl, the electronegativity of the Cl atom is 3.0, while that of the H atom is
2.1. The result is a bond where the electron pair is displaced toward the more
electronegative atom. This atom then obtains a partial-negative charge while the
less electronegative atom has a partial-positive charge. This separation of charge
or bond dipole can be illustrated using an arrow with the arrowhead directed
toward the more electronegative atom.

Bond polarity is the measure of the degree of inequality in the sharing of

electrons between two atoms in a chemical bond. The greater the electronegativity
difference between the two bonded atoms, the greater the polarity of the bond.

10. Concept Check

Using values of electronegativity, draw the arrow to indicate the

direction of the dipole in the following bonds. Arrange the following
bonds from most to least polar:

a) N-F O-F C-F

b) C-F N-O Si-F

c) Cl-Cl B-Cl S-Cl

Molecular Polarity is defined as the measure of the degree of inequality in the

attraction of bonding electrons to various locations within a molecule. If a
molecule has polar bond, does it follow that the molecule is polar?

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 Unit V. Chemical Bonding

Polar molecule is a molecule in which there is an unsymmetrical distribution of

electron charge.
Like for example H2O, the bond polarities associated with the two hydrogen-
oxygen bonds do not cancel one another because of the nonlinearity of the
molecule.

Another polar molecules is HCN, nitrogen is more electronegative than carbon

and carbon is more electronegative than hydrogen.

Nonpolar molecule is a molecule in which there is a symmetrical distribution of

electron charge.
In CO2 the effects of the two polar bonds are canceled as a result of the oxygen
atoms being arranged symmetrically around the carbon atom.

How to determine polarity? There are three ways to go about determining whether
a molecule is polar or not.
a. If the molecule has a net dipole, then it is polar.
b. If the structure is symmetric, then it is non-polar
c. There are three rules to this part:
1. When there are no lone pairs on the center atom, then the molecule
is non-polar
2. If it is linear or square planar, then it is non-polar. (This rule is more
important than rule 1, so it overrules it because it has lone pairs.)
3. If it has different terminal atoms, then it is polar. (This rule overrules
rule 1 and 2 because it is more important.)

11. Concept Check

Which of the following molecules are polar?
F2
HF
NH3
SO2
CCl4

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12. Concept Check
True or false:
 Unit V. Chemical Bonding

Intermolecular Forces
What holds molecules together? The force that holds molecules together whether
attractive or repulsive is called intermolecular force. The physical properties of
melting point, boiling point, vapor pressure, evaporation, viscosity, surface
tension, and solubility are related to the strength of attractive forces between
molecules called intermolecular forces.
Intermolecular forces also vary in strength from one another:
London Dispersion Weakest (<1 Kcal)
Dipole-dipole Stronger (2-5 Kcal)
Hydrogen bond The Strongest (12-16 Kcal)
(for comparison, a true covalent bond is about 400Kcal)
Intermolecular forces hold molecules together in the solid & liquid phase and
allow gases to condense on cooling. They also prevent instantaneous evaporation
from occurring. Strong attractive forces between molecules also make
vaporization phase changes more difficult.
There are three types of intermolecular forces operating in molecular substances
are:
a. London Dispersion Forces or Induced Dipole attraction, which are present
in ALL molecular substance. This intermolecular force is the weakest
attractive force that are formed due to the temporary dipoles induced in
non-polar molecules. There will be a distortion or a momentary shift in
electron density within the molecules electron cloud. The dipoles created
by the motion of electrons are transient or instantaneous dipoles. A large
number of these dipoles are created at any instant and may disappear when
electron density in the molecules shifts, but new dipoles appear.

Molecules that have an even electron distribution are typically single

atoms, molecules of the same element, hydrocarbons and symmetrical
molecules.

For example: H2, O2, N2, S8, C3H8, CCl4, CO2

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 Unit V. Chemical Bonding

The larger the atom or molecule, the Induced Dipole forces become
stronger.
- larger electron clouds are easier to deform

Why does the boiling point low for compounds that interact by this type of
force? The minimal force holding these molecules together allow them to
move readily from the liquid phase into the gaseous phase, or even from
the solid phase to gaseous phase, like I2. If Molecules have high boiling
points, they will have low vapor pressure, conversely low boiling point
mean high vapor pressure.

Dispersion forces increase with increasing molecular weight, hence the

trend for non-polar compounds is increasing boiling point, melting point,
freezing point with increasing molecular weight.

13. Concept Check

Which member of each pair should have the higher B.P.
and thus the stronger London Dispersion Force?
1. N2, O2
2. Ne, Kr
3. F2, Cl2
4. C3H8 (propane), C4H10 (butane)

b. Dipole-dipole Attraction
Dipole-dipole forces are attractive forces existing between polar
molecules. In this intermolecular force, dipoles are always present as
opposed to constantly forming and reforming dipoles in weaker
Dispersion force molecules.

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 Unit V. Chemical Bonding

Because there is unequal sharing of electrons between H and Cl atoms,

partial positive and negative poles exist and are referred to as dipole. The
more electronegative atom becomes partially negative and has most
electron density, whereas the least electronegative becomes partially
positive and has a lesser electron density. Because poles of opposite
charges attract, the partial negative end (i.e., Cl atom) will be attracted to
the partial positive end (i.e., H atom) of another HCl molecule.

c. Hydrogen Bond
A special type of dipole-dipole interaction between the hydrogen atom in a
polar molecule and the highly electronegative atoms of N, O and F in a
molecule

Why does H bonding occur? The small atoms of N, O, and F are powerful atoms
with strong nuclear charges and of high electronegativity values.

14. Concept Check

Identify kind of molecule and the intermolecular forces present in the
following molecules by putting a check:
Substance Polar or London Dipole- Hydrogen
Nonpolar Dispersion Dipole Forces Bonding
molecule Forces
H–F

CCl4

NH3

Geometry of Molecules

The valence-shell electron-pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory states that electron

pairs repel each other whether or not they are in bond pairs or in lone pairs. Thus,
electron pairs will spread themselves as far from each other as possible to
minimize repulsion. VSEPR focuses not only on electron pairs, but it also focus
on electron groups as a whole. An electron group can be an electron pair, a lone
pair, a single unpaired electron, a double bond or a triple bond on the center atom.
Using the VSEPR theory, the electron bond pairs and lone pairs on the center
atom will help us predict the shape of a molecule.

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 Unit V. Chemical Bonding

The shape of a molecule is determined by the location of the nuclei and its
electrons. The electrons and the nuclei settle into positions that minimize
repulsion and maximize attraction. Thus, the molecule's shape reflects its
equilibrium state in which it has the lowest possible energy in the system.
Although VSEPR theory predicts the distribution of the electrons, we have to take
in consideration of the actual determinant of the molecular shape. We separate
this into two categories, the electron-group geometry and the molecular
geometry.
Molecular geometry is the 3-dimensional shape that a molecule occupies in space.
Your knowledge in the Lewis electron dot structure is helpful to locate the
valence electrons of the center atom. The molecular geometry is determined by
the central atom and the surrounding atoms and electron pairs. The approximate
shape of most molecules can be predicted using the Valence Shell Electron Pair
Repulsion (VSEPR) model, which depicts electrons in bonds and lone pairs as
“electron groups” that repel one another and stay as far apart as possible.

Below are the possible geometry formed considering the number of electron
groups:

Two Electron Groups

2 bonds, 0 lone pairs

linear
bond angles of 180°

Three Electron Groups

3 bonds, 0 lone pairs 2 bonds, 1 lone pair

trigonal planar bent
bond angles of 120° bond angles of < 120°

Four Electron Groups

4 bonds, 0 lone pairs 3 bonds, 1 lone pair 2 bonds, 2 lone pairs

tetrahedral trigonal pyramidal bent

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 Unit V. Chemical Bonding

bond angles of 109.5° bond angles of 107° bond angles of 104.5°

Five Electron Groups

5 bonds, 0 lone 4 bonds, 1 lone 3 bonds, 2 lone 2 bonds, 3 lone

pairs pair pairs pairs
trigonal
seesaw T-shaped linear
bipyramidal
bond angles of bond angles of
bond angles of < bond angles of
120° (equatorial), <120° (equatorial),
90° 180°
90° (axial) <90° (axial)

Six Electron Groups

6 bonds, 0 lone pairs 5 bonds, 1 lone pair 4 bonds, 2 lone pairs

octahedral square pyramidal square planar
bond angles of 90° bond angles of < 90° bond angles of 90°

15. Concept Check

Determine the molecular geometry of the following:

a. SF4
D.
b. CH3Cl
M
c. BF3
d. NH3

olecules and Ions

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 Unit V. Chemical Bonding

Learning Objectives:

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. identify a molecules
2. predict the charge of ions formed by each element or molecule.

Let’s Learn

A molecule is a combination of two or more atoms. It can contain atoms of the

same element, or may contain two or more elements joined together in fixed
ratios. Still remember the Law of Definite Proportions? It states that different
samples of the same compound always composed of the same elements in the
same proportion by mass. In other words, water (H2O) molecules are always made
of one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms bonded together and table sugar
(sucrose, C12H22O11), always composed of twelve atoms of carbon, twenty-two
atoms of hydrogen and eleven atoms of oxygen.

A molecule is not necessarily a compound, which by definition is something

made up of two or more elements. Like what? Consider hydrogen gas, H2, which
is a pure element. It consists of molecules made up of two H atoms bonded
together. H2 is therefore a molecule but not a compound. H2 is a diatomic
molecule because it contains only two atoms.

There are several elements that exist in nature as diatomic molecules. We've
already discussed hydrogen, but did you know that nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2),
fluorine (F2), chlorine (Cl2), bromine (Br2), and iodine (I2) also exist in nature as a
diatomic? A diatomic molecule can also contain atoms of different elements. A
few examples are hydrogen chloride (HCl) and carbon monoxide (CO).

Water (H2O), on the other hand, is a molecular compound because it contains

hydrogen and oxygen bonded together in a ratio of two H atoms and one O atom.
Two hydrogen atoms bonded to one oxygen atom is also known as one molecule
of water.

Water (H2O) is a compound and a molecule.

The majority of molecules contain more than two atoms. They can be atoms of
the same element such as ozone (O3) which is made up of three oxygen atoms, or
they can be combinations of two or more different elements. Molecules
containing more than two atoms are called polyatomic molecules. Water, yet
again, falls into this category. H2O contains two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen
atom, which makes three atoms.

Molecular compounds are composed of molecules and almost always contain only
nonmetals.

Ions

20
 Unit V. Chemical Bonding

The nucleus of an atom (containing protons and neutrons) remains uncharged

after ordinary chemical reactions, but atoms can readily gain or lose electrons.

If electrons are lost or gained by a neutral atom, then the result is that a charged
particle is formed - called an ion.

For example, Sodium (Na) has 11 protons and 11 electrons. However, it can
easily lose 1 electron. The resulting cation has 11 protons and 10 electrons, for an
overall net charge of 1+ (the units are electron charge). The ionic state of an
atom or compound is represented by a superscript to the right of the chemical
formula: Na+, Mg2+ (note the in the case of 1+, or 1-, the '1'is omitted). In contrast
to the Na atom, the Chlorine atom (Cl) easily gains 1 electron to yield the chloride
ion Cl- (i.e. 17 protons and 18 electrons).

In general, metal atoms tend to lose electrons, and nonmetal atoms tend to gain
electrons.

Na+ and Cl- are simple ions, in contrast to polyatomic ions such as NO3- (nitrate
ion) and SO42- (sulfate ion). These are compounds made up of chemically bonded
atoms, but have a net positive or negative charge.

Elements must gain or lose electrons, to end up with the same arrangement of
electrons as the noble gases, in order to achieve the same kind of electron
stability.

Example: Nitrogen

Nitrogen has an atomic number of 7; the neutral Nitrogen atom has 7 protons and
7 electrons. If Nitrogen gained three electrons it would have 10 electrons, like the
Noble gas Neon (10 protons, 10 electrons). However, unlike Neon, the resulting
Nitrogen ion would have a net charge of N3- (7 protons, 10 electrons).

The location of the elements on the Periodic table can help in predicting the
expected charge of ionic forms of the elements. This is mainly true for the
elements on either side of the chart.

When atoms lose or gain electrons, they become ions.

- Cations are positively charged ions and are formed by elements on the left
side of the periodic chart (metals).
- Anions are negatively charged ions and are formed by elements on the
right side of the periodic chart (nonmetals).

16. Concept Check

Predict the charge on the most common monatomic ion formed by
each element.
a. fluorine
21
b. phosphorus
c. Barium
d. magnesium
 Unit V. Chemical Bonding

Feedback
Answer the following questions:
A. Write the formula for each ion.
1. the nitrogen ion
2. the carbonate ion
3. the stannous ion
4. the potassium ion
5. sulfur ion

B. Name each ion.

1. Fe2+
2. Fe3+
3. SO42−
4. Ba2+
5. HCO3−

E. Formula Writing and Nomenclature

Learning Objectives:

After going through this module, you are expected to:

3. trace the historical background of chemical symbols

4. identify and memorize the symbols of element from how it is named
5. recall and apply rules in writing and naming formulas of the
compound given the ions of which it is composed
6. give the names of common cations and anions using the stock system
7. give the name of ionic compound given the formula and vice versa
8. give the name of the molecular covalent compound given its formula
and vice versa

Let’s Learn

Symbols for the Elements

22
 Unit V. Chemical Bonding

An element is defined as a pure substance that contains only kind of atom. At

present, there about 114 known elements. Among the 114 elements, 11 are known
as gases like oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, helium and chlorine. Chemist before
have adopted a set of symbols to denote the names of the various elements.

The names and symbols of the elements known to the ancients were derived from
astrology. Gold was likened to the shining dawn, hence its Latin name aurum. Its
color and brilliance was associated with the sun, hence its ancient symbol
consisting of a circle to represent the sun. Similarly the color silver was likened to
that of the moon, hence its ancient symbol of the crescent moon. The elements
known to the ancient, the heavenly bodies with which they are associated, their
symbols and meaning are given below:

Name of Element Associated Symbol Symbol meaning of Symbol

Gold Sun Solar Disk

Silver Moon Crescent Moon

Copper Venus mirror of Venus who

rose from the ocean foam
on the shore of Cyprus,
famous for its copper
mines

Mercury Mercury staff or wand of

herald, Mercury the speed
messenger of gods

Iron Mars spear and shield of

Mars to represent the
strength of Iron

In 1894, Berzelius proposed that the symbol of the elements be the first letter of
the element’s name. In cases, where there were several elements with the same
initial letter, the first letter was followed by the second letter also from the name.

The symbols of the elements are be divided into four main groups:

a. Symbols derived from the capitalized first letter of the English name of the
element such as B for boron, C for carbon, and H for hydrogen.
b. Symbols derived from the first two letters of the English name. The first
letter of the symbol is capitalized but the second letter is in lower case. For
example, Ba for barium, Be for beryllium, Al for aluminum, and Ca for
calcium.
c. Symbols based on the first letter of the English name and one other letter
(written in lower case), which is not the second letter. This is done
because there are two or more elements whose names have the same first
letters. For example, Cd for cadmium because calcium is represented by
Ca; Tl for thallium because thorium is represented by Th.
d. Few symbols are based from Latin (or other foreign) names. These are
listed in Table 2.

Table 2
Elements with Symbols Derived From Ancient/Foreign Names

COMMON NAME LATIN NAME SYMBOL

23
 Unit V. Chemical Bonding

Antimony Stibium Sb
Gold Aurum Au
Copper Cuprum Cu
Iron Ferrum Fe
Lead Plumbum Pb
Mercury Hydragyrum Hg
Potassium Kalium K
Silver Argentum Ag
Sodium Natrium Na
Tin Stannum Sn
Tungsten Wolfram/ W

Formula Writing

When symbols are grouped together, they represent the combination of atoms in a
partial compound or the formula of the compound. The formula of a molecule
simply lists the various atoms present and gives the number of atoms in each
element. The different kinds of formulas are:

a. Empirical formula, also called the simplest formula – gives the simplest
ratio of atoms in the compound. By conversion it includes symbols of the
elements making up a compound and the subscript affixed to each element
denotes the relative number of atoms.
b. Molecular formula – gives the element composition and the actual number
of atoms in a molecule.
c. Structural formula – shows the arrangement of all the atoms in a molecule.
The interatomic bonds are represented by dashes.
d. Lewis structure – uses the symbol of an element with dots to represent the
number of electrons in the outermost energy level of an atom. A pair of
dots between adjacent atoms represents a bond.

Example: C2H4 (Molecular Formula)

CH2 (Empirical Formula)

H–C=C–H (Structural Formula)

H H

H: : H (Lewis Structure)
C :: C
. H: : H

Let us discuss oxidation number, a very important identity of an atom. The

oxidation number or the oxidation state of an element is a number having a
positive or negative or zero value that may be assigned to an atom of that element
when it forms an ionic compound. For covalently bonded compounds, it is the
positive or negative number, which indicates shifts of electrons density from one
atom to another. The less electronegative element is assigned a positive oxidation
number and the more electronegative element is assigned a negative oxidation
number.

In assigning the oxidation numbers in compounds, the following rules will be

helpful:

24
 Unit V. Chemical Bonding

a. The oxidation number of any free or uncombined element is zero. For

example, Na, Fe, H, O, P, S have oxidation number of zero.
b. The algebraic sum of the oxidation for all the atoms in a neutral compound
is zero.
c. The oxidation number of a monoatomic ion is the same as the charge on
the ion. The algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers of all atoms in a
polyatomic ion must equal the charge on the ion. The names, formulas and
ionic charges of some common polyatomic ions are given in the table
below.
d. Some principal oxidation numbers of some elements in the combined
state:
 Group 1 elements are always +1
 Group 2 elements are always +2
 Hydrogen usually +1, except in hydrides (ionic compounds of
hydrogen with group 1 or 2 elements), then it is -1
 Oxygen is usually -2, except in periodides, such as H 2O2 and Na2O,
then it is -1. (In superoxides, such as KO2, it is -1/2)
 Group 17 elements are -1 when in binary compounds with less
electronegative elements
 Sulfur in binary compounds with less electronegative elements is -2
 Nitrogen in binary compounds with less electronegative elements is -3
 Al (Group 13) is +3, Zn (Group12 ) is +2, Cd (Group 12 ) is +2, Ag
Group 11) is +1
 Many elements have more than one oxidation state or are said to have
variable oxidation numbers. Their principal oxidation numbers are
listed in Table 3.

Table 3
Principal Oxidation Numbers of
Some Common Elements with Variable Oxidation States

Symbol Name Oxidation Numbers

Sb Antimony +3, +5
As Arsenic +3, +5
Bi Bismuth +3, +5
Br Bromine -1, +1, +3, +5, +7
C Carbon -4, +4, +2
Cl Chlorine -1, +1, +3, +5, +7
Cr Chromium +2, +3, +6
Co Cobalt +2, +3
Cu Copper +1. +2
Au Gold +1, +3
I Iodine -1, +1, +3, +5, +7
Fe Iron +2, +3
Pb Lead +2, +4
Mn Manganese +2, +4, +7
Hg Mercury +1, +2
Ni Nickel +2, +3
N Nitrogen -3, +2, +3, +4, +5
P Phosphorus -3, +3, +5
S Sulphur -2, +4, +6
Sn Tin +2, +4
Ti Titanium +3, +4

25
 Unit V. Chemical Bonding

It is easier to remember oxidation number of monoatomic atoms, for the group

number of the atoms is the oxidation number of that atoms. How about
polyatomic ions? You need at least to be familiar and recognize these polyatomic
ions as you go along writing chemical formulas. These polyatomic ions are
summarized below in Table 4.

Table 4
Names & Formulas of Some Polyatomic Ions

Monovalent Negative Radicals Divalent Negative Radicals

Acetate C2H3O2 -1 Carbonate CO3 -2
Argenticyanide Ag(CN)2 -1 Chromate CrO4 -2
Bicarbonate HCO3 -1 Dichromate Cr2O7 -2
Bismuthate BiO3 -1 Manganate MnO4 -2
Bisulfate HSO4 -1 Metasilicate SiO3 -2
Bisulfite HSO3 -1 Molybdate MoO4 -2
Bromate BRO3 -1 Oxalate C2O4 -2
Chlorate ClO3 -1 Peroxide O2 -2
Chlorite ClO2 -1 Plumbite PbO2 -2
Cyanide CN -1 Silicate SiO2 -2
Dihydrogen H2PO4 -1 Sulfate SO4 -2
Phosphate
Formate HCOO -1 Sulfite SO3 -2
Hydroxide OH -1 Tetraborate B4O7 -2
Hypobromite BrO -1 Tetrathione S4O6 -2
Hypochlorite ClO -1 Thiosulfate S2O3 -2
Iodate IO3 -1 Zincate ZnO2 -2
Iodite IO2 -1
Metarsenite AsO2 -1 Trivalent Negative Radicals
Metaborate BO2 -1 Arsenate AsO4 -3
Metaphosphate PO3 -1 Boarate BO3 -3
Nitrate NO3 -1 Ferricyanide Fe(CN)6 -3
Nitrite NO2 -1 Phosphate PO4 -3
Perchlorate ClO4 -1 Phosphite PO3 -3
Periodate IO4 -1
Permanganate MnO4 -1 Monovalent Positive Radical
Thiocyanate SCN -1 Ammonium NH4 +1

As already stated, a chemical formula is a symbolic expression signifying the

number of atoms present in a molecular substance. We determine the type of atom
by referring to its symbol, so for Hydrogen, we will use H. The number of atoms
is determined by the subscript attached to the symbol. So a chemical formula of
water, i.e H2O has two atoms of hydrogen and a single atom of oxygen.

Although ionic compounds are composed of both positively and negatively

charged ions, the overall compound and its formula are electrically neutral. In
other words:

total positive charge (from cation) = total negative charge (from anion)

The empirical formula for an ionic compound indicates the smallest whole
number ratio of cations and anions needed to produce an electrically neutral
compound.

26
 Unit V. Chemical Bonding

You should follow these simple steps in writing chemical formula of ionic
compounds:

Steps for writing a chemical formula

Step 1: First, you have to decide the type of the bond.

If the prefixes are used, then it is a covalent bond. In case there are no prefixes, it
is an ionic bond. After that is decided move to Step number 2.

Step 2: Now, write down the symbol of the element or polyatomic ion. The
symbol of the positive element or the formula of the positive radical is written
first, followed by the negative element or radical.

Step 3: Now, write their corresponding charge or oxidation numbers as

superscripts.

Step 4: And balance the charges by providing subscript. To determine the number
of atoms for each (the subscript), apply the crisscross rule so that the algebraic
sum of the positive and the negative oxidation numbers is equal to zero.

For example: Write the empirical formula for calcium chloride.

1. The cation is written first: sodium ion (Ca 2+) and the anion is written last:
carbonate ion (Cl1-)
2. Combine them to form an electrically neutral compound:
 Since the charges are not equal in magnitude the charge of calcium
ion (+2) becomes the subscript for the chlorine ion. The charge of
the chlorine ion (1-) becomes the subscript for the calcium ion.

Ca+2 with Cl-1 = CaCl2

3. The final formula is CaCl2.

 Since only one calcium ion is needed, the subscript "1" is omitted
from the formula.

Another example: Write the empirical formula for Aluminum Oxide.

1. The cation is written first: Aluminum ion (Al3+) and the anion is written
last: sulfate polyatomic ion (SO42-)
2. Combine them to form an electrically neutral compound:
 Since the charges are not equal in magnitude the charge of
aluminum ion (+3) becomes the subscript for the sulfate
polyatomic ion. The charge of the sulfate polyatomic ion (2-)
becomes the subscript for the aluminum ion.

Al+3 with SO4-2 = Al2(SO4)3

3. The final formula is Al2(SO4)3

 Notice that parentheses are placed around the sulfate ion to
indicate that three sulfate ions are needed.

Another example: Write the empirical formula for lead (IV) oxide.
1. The cation is written first: lead (IV) ion (Pb4+) and the anion is written
second: oxide ion (O2-)
2. Combine them to form an electrically neutral compound.

27
 Unit V. Chemical Bonding

 Since the charges are not equal in magnitude, the charge on the
lead (IV) ion (+4) becomes the subscript for the oxide ion. The
charge on the oxide ion (-2) becomes the subscript for the lead (IV)
ion.
3. The initial formula that is written would be Pb2O4. Notice, however, that
this is not the empirical formula. Both subscripts can be divided by 2
giving the correct empirical formula, PbO2.

You should also notice that the charges of the ions are NOT shown when writing
the final formula.
If the positive oxidation number of one atom or radical equals the negative
oxidation number of another, their ration is 1:1. For example:

Mg+2 with O-2 = MgO Al+3 with PO-3 = AlPO4

This does not hold true for Hg2Cl2, Hg2Br2, Hg2I2, H2O2 and metal peroxides.

17. Concept Check

Write the correct empirical formula for each of the following
compounds:
1. magnesium carbonate
2. barium hydroxide
3. iron (III) Fluoride
4. potassium bicarbonate
5. ammonium phosphate
6. tin (IV) sulfite

Nomenclature of Compounds

Nomenclature is the process of giving a name of a chemical compounds so that

they can be easily identified as separate chemical substances. The primary
function of chemical nomenclature is to ensure that a spoken or written chemical
name specifies the name of a chemical formulas as a single substance.

Compounds are classified as binary (having two atoms), ternary (having three
atoms) and higher than ternary or higher than three atoms.

BINARY COMPOUNDS. These are compounds containing two different

elements. How do we name binary compounds? Let’s consider the following
Rules of Naming Compounds:

For Binary Compounds Containing a Metal and a Nonmetal

a. Binary Compounds Containing a Metal with a Fixed Oxidation Number
Rule: name of metal + stem name of nonmetal + ide

Examples: KCl is named a Potassium chloride: Poassium (the metal)

and chlorine (the nonmetal) has a stem name of chloro + ide, chloride
Na2S sodium sulfide
b. Binary Compound Containing a Metal of Variable Oxidation Number
Two systems are usually used in this category:
b. 1 Stock Method

28
 Unit V. Chemical Bonding

Rule: name of metal (oxidation number in Roman numeral) + stem name

of nonmetal + ide
Note that the oxidation number of the metal is written in Roman numeral
and enclosed in a parenthesis.

Examples: Cu2Cl2 copper (I) chloride

CuCl2 copper (II) chloride
FeBr2 iron (II) bromide
FeBr3 iron (III) bromide
b. 2 Classical Method
You use this method when the metallic ion has only two oxidation
numbers. In this system, the name of the metal is modified by adding
suffixes – ous when the ion is in its lower oxidation state and – ic when it
is in its higher oxidation state.

Examples: Cu2Cl2 cuprous chloride

CuCl2 cupric chloride
FeBr2 ferrous bromide
FeBr3 ferric bromide

For Binary Compound Containing Two Non-metals, the following rule

will apply:

Rule: prefix (except mono) + name of more electropositive element +

prefix + stem name of more electronegative element + ide

The prefix attached to each element indicates the number of atoms of the
element in the molecule. Some of these prefixes and their numerical
equivalence are given below.
mon(o) =1 pent(a) =5 oct(a) = 8
di =2 hex(a) =6 non(a) = 9
tri =3 hep(a) =7 dec(a) = 10
tetra =4

For two nonmetals forming more than one compound, the prefix mono is
omitted for the more electropositive nonmetal but is retained for the
second nonmetal. For nonmetals forming only one compound, prefixes are
omitted.

Examples: N2O dinitrogen monoxide HBr hydrogen bromide

NO2 nitrogen dioxide H2S hydrogen sulfide
N2O4 dinitrogen tetroxide

Binary Acids are compounds composed of hydrogen and another

nonmetallic element which when dissolved in water, produce hydrogen
ions.

Rule: hydro + stem name of nonmetal + ic acid

Examples: HBr hydrobromic acid H2Se hydroselenic acid

HF hydrofluoric acid HCl hydrochloric acid

18. Concept Check

Name the following compounds:
1. FeS 6. PCl3
2. P4O10 7. ZnBr2 29
3. H2S 8. HI
4. PbO2 9. CuO
5. SnCl2 10. BCl3
 Unit V. Chemical Bonding

TERNARY COMPOUND. These are compounds containing three different

elements – an electropositive element, which is either a metal or hydrogen, and a
polyatomic negative ion. In the discussion that follows, only the naming of
compounds in which one of these three elements is oxygen will be considered.

Oxyacids are compounds containing hydrogen and oxyanion. Oxyanions are

composed of oxygen and one other element, which is usually a nonmetal.

Rule: name or stem name of the element other than hydrogen and oxygen + ous /
ic acid

The suffix – ous is used when the element other than hydrogen and oxygen is in
its lower state and – ic when it is in its higher oxidation state. If an element forms
only one oxyacid, the – ic ending is used. It is important to point out that
hydrogen in an oxyacid is not specifically included in the name of the acid
because its presence is implied by the use of the word acid.

Examples: HNO – notice the stem name of the element other than hydrogen
and oxygen is nitro, the oxidation number of N is + 3
(lower oxidation number). Hence the name is:
Nitrous acid

HNO3 – oxidation number of N is +5 in this compounds (higher

oxidation number). Therefore the name is:
Nitric acid

H2CO3 – name of the element other than hydrogen and oxygen is

Carbon. Oxidation number of carbon is +4 (no other oxyacid
formed). The –ic suffix will apply, hence the name is:
Carbonic acid

In case where there are more than two oxyacid in a series, prefixes per–and
hypo–are added to the –ous or –ic names. The prefix per- is written before the
stem name of the element other than hydrogen and oxygen when this element has
a higher oxidation number than in the –ic acid. Hypo - is used when the element
other than the hydrogen and oxygen has a lower oxidation number than the –ous
acid.
Example: HClO (Cl = +1) hypochlous acid
HClO2 (Cl = +3) chlorous acid
HClO3 (Cl = +5) chloric acid
HClO4 (Cl = +7) percholoric acid

Another rule is applied for salts of Oxyacids – compounds containing a metal and
an oxyanion.

Rule: Name of metal + name of oxyanion (i.e., stem name of the element other
than oxygen) + ite or ate. Take note that the suffix – ite is used
when the element other than oxygen in the oxyanion is in its lower
oxidation state and – ate when it is in its higher state.

30
 Unit V. Chemical Bonding

Examples: CaSO3 – oxidation number of S in SO32 is +4 (lower oxidation

number). Stem name of S is sulf. Therefore, the name is:
Calcium sulfite

CaSO4 – oxyanion is SO42, sulfate. Oxidation no. of S is +6. It is

named as:
Calcium sulfate

There are definite patterns in naming oxyacids and their salts. The –ous and –ic
ending of the acid names become –ite and –ate in the salt names respectively, but
the stem name remains the same.

Examples: Oxyacids HClO hypochlorous acid

HClO4 perchloric acid
H2SO3 sulfuous acid
H2SO4 sulfuric acid

Salt of Oxyacids NaClO sodium hypochlorite

LiClO4 lithium perchlorate
Na2SO3 sodium sulfite
MgSO4 magnesium sulfate

19. Concept Check

Name the following compounds:
1. (NH4)2S 6. H3BO3
2. K2SO4 7. ZnBr2
3. H3PO4 8. HIO3
4. Pb(C2H3O2)2 9. (NH4)3PO3
5. BaClO2 10. CaCO3

COMPOUNDS HIGHER THAN TERNARY

For Acid Salts – compounds containing a metal, hydrogen and an oxyanion, the
rule is stated below.
Rule: name of metal + prefix (except mono) + hydrogen + name of oxyanion

The name of hydrogen may be substitute with bi- for acid salts of acids containing
two hydrogen atoms. In some cases, the numerical prefixes are used with metal
atoms to remove ambiguity as to the number of metal and hydrogen atoms.

Examples: NaHSO4 sodium hydrogen sulfate or sodium bisulfate

Na2HPO4 sodium hydrogen phosphate or
disodium hydrogen phosphate
NaH2PO4 sodium dihydrogen phosphate

There are categories called Mixed or Double Salts – compounds containing two
metals and an oxyanion. Take note of the following rule:

Rule: prefix (except mono) + name of metal with lower oxidation number + prefix
(except mono) + name of metal with higher oxidation number + name of
oxyanion

31
 Unit V. Chemical Bonding

Examples: KCaPO4 potassium calcium phosphate

Na2Ca(SO4)2 disodium calcium sulfate

There are EXCEPTIONS to the later rules. Please remember the following rules:

1. For compounds containing cyanide (CN -) and hydroxide (OH-) polyatomic

ions, the use the suffix –ide instead of –ite or –ate is applied.

Examples: NaCN sodium cyanide

Mg(CN)2 magnesium cyanide
Ca(OH)2 calcium hydroxide
NaOH sodium hydroxide

2. For ammonium (NH4+) compounds: ammonium is always named as a unit.

Examples: (NH4)2S ammonium sulfide
NH4NO3 ammonium nitrate
MgNH4PO4 magnesium ammonium phosphate

Feedback

A. Write the names of the following compounds:

1. NaF 2. SF6
3. SnCl4 4. HCIO3
5. PCl5 6. KCIO2
7. SO2 8. Ag2CrO4
9. CuS 10. FeSO4
11. P2O5 12. HNO3
13. H2S 14. NaNO2
15. NH4Br 16. Ca(OH)2
17. Pb(NO3)2 18. Fe2S3
19. H3BO3 20. N2O

B. Write the formulas for the following compounds:

1. Sodium acetate 2. Permanganic acid

3. Magnesium nitrate
5. Aluminum sulfate
7. Lithium carbonate
9. Nickel (II) bromide
11. Vanadium (V) oxide
13. Carbon disulfide
15. Iron (III) sulfate
17. Calcium phosphate
19. Gold (III) chloride
4. Copper (II) carbonate
6. Carbonic acid
8. Tin (II) hydroxide
10. Ammonium hydrogen phosphate
12. Dinitrogen tetraoxide
14. Calcium hydride
16. Oxalic acid
18. Zinc sulfide
20. Mercury (II) bromide

32
 Unit V. Chemical Bonding

Summary of the Unit

The table below summarizes the differences among the different bond types
discussed above.
Comparison on the Properties of the three Kinds of Chemical Bonds:
BASIS FOR
COVALENT METALLIC
COMPARISO IONIC BOND
BOND BOND
N

Meaning When there is a When there is the When there is a

strong strong electrostatic strong electrostatic
electrostatic force force of attractions force of attraction
of attractions between the cation between a cation
between two or atoms and the and an anion (two
positively delocalized oppositely charged
charged nuclei electrons in the ions) of elements is
and the shared geometrical called the ionic
pair of electrons arrangement of the bond. This bond is
is called the two metals, is formed between a
covalent bond. called a metallic metal and a non-
bond. metal.

Existence Exist as solids, Exist in the solid They also exist in

liquids and state only. the solid state only.
gasses.

Occurs between Between two Between two Non-metal and

non-metals. metals. metal.

Involves Sharing of The attraction Transfer and

electrons in the between the accepting of
valence shell. delocalized electrons from the
electrons present in valence shell.
the lattice of the
metals.

Conductivity Very low High thermal and Low conductivity.

conductivity. electrical
conductivity.

Hardness These are not These are not hard. These are hard,
very hard, though because of the
exceptions are crystalline nature.
silicon, diamond
and carbon.

Melting and Low. High. Higher.

Boiling Points

Malleability and These are non- Metallic bonds are Ionic bonds are
Ductility malleable and malleable and also non-malleable
non-ductile. ductile. and non-ductile.

Bond They are the The bond is non- Non-directional.

33
 Unit V. Chemical Bonding

BASIS FOR
COVALENT METALLIC
COMPARISO IONIC BOND
BOND BOND
N

directional bond. directional.

Bond energy Higher than the Lower than the Higher than the
metallic bond. other two bond. metallic bond.

Electronegativity Polar covalent: Not available. >1.7.

0.5-1.7; Non-
polar<0.5.

Diamond, carbon, Silver, gold, nickel, NaCl, BeO, LiF,

silica, hydrogen copper, iron, etc. etc
Examples gas, water,
nitrogen gas

Lewis structures, also known as Lewis dot diagrams, Lewis dot

formulas, Lewis dot structures, electron dot structures, or Lewis electron dot
structures (LEDS), are short hand notation or diagrams that show
the bonding between atoms of a molecule and the lone pairs of electrons that may
exist in the molecule. The chemical symbol of an elements in the molecule are
surrounded by dots equal in number to the number of valence electrons present in
atoms of the element.
Bond polarity is a useful concept for describing the sharing of electrons between
atoms within a covalent bond:
 A nonpolar covalent bond is one in which the electrons are
shared equally between two atoms.
 A polar covalent bond is one in which one atom has a greater attraction
for the electrons than the other atom. If this relative attraction is great
enough, then the bond is an ionic bond.

Molecular geometry is the 3-dimensional shape that a molecule occupies in

space that is determined by the central atom and the surrounding atoms and
electron pairs. The approximate shape of most molecules can be predicted using
the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) model, which depicts
electrons in bonds and lone pairs as “electron groups” that repel one another and
stay as far apart as possible.

The three types of intermolecular forces operating in molecular substances are:

 London dispersion forces, which are present in ALL molecular substance.
This intermolecular force is the weakest attractive force that are formed
due to the temporary dipoles induced in non-polar molecules.
 Dipole-dipole forces, which operate in addition to the dispersion forces
between polar molecules, results in stronger attraction between the
molecules
 Hydrogen bonding, which is a special type of dipole-dipole force, occurs
in substances in which a hydrogen atom is bonded covalently to a small
and very electronegative atom like fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen

An ion is an atom or molecule that has acquired a charged by either gaining or

losing electrons. An atom or molecule with missing electrons has a net positive

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 Unit V. Chemical Bonding

charge and is called a cation. An atom or molecule with extra electrons has a net
negative charge and is called an anion.

Molecules are made up of atoms that are held together by chemical bonds formed
by sharing or exchange of electrons among atoms.

Summary Of Rules For Chemical Names And Formulas

BINARY IONIC POLYATOMIC ACIDS (Ionic compounds COVALENT

COMPOUNDS COMPOUNDS containing H+ ions) COMPOUND

How to No numerical Second word Includes the word Contains

recognize by prefixes; ends in “-ate” “acid” binary numerical
name second word or “-ite” (or acids have names prefixes:
ends in “hydroxide” beginning with 1 = mono-
“-ide” or “cyanide”) “hydro-” 2 = di-
oxyacids do not 3 = tri-
have this prefix 4 = tetra-
5 = penta-
6 = hexa-
7 = hepta
8 = octa-
9 = nona-
10 = deca-
How to Two elements More than First element is H Two elements
recognize by only; first is a two binary: 2 only; both are
formula metal elements, but elements only nonmetals
first is not H oxyacids: contain
oxygen special
case:
HCN =
hydrocyanic acid
RULES: NAMES: Name the positive ALWAYS NAMES: First
ion first, then the negative ion. IDENTIFY the word is a
Never use numerical prefixes. negative ion numerical prefix
Single-atom negative ions end (whatever (omitted if first
in “-ide”, so binary compounds follows H). element occurs
always have this ending. only once), then
Polyatomic compounds usually name of first
end in “-ate” or “-ite”. element. Second
FORMULAS: Write the positive word is a
ion, with its charge, then the numerical prefix
negative ion, with its charge. (always present),
Now “Criss-cross”: charge on then the name of
the negative ion (ignoring minus Prefixes “hypo-” the second
sign) becomes subscript on the or “per-” must be element changed
first element; charge on the kept if present. to end in “-ide”.
positive ion becomes subscript (Second element
on the second element. Reduce Subscript on H is always more
to lowest terms if needed. always follows electronegative,
A polyatomic ion that occurs the charge on the closer to F on the
more than once needs negative ion. periodic table.)
parentheses, then a subscript. FORMULAS:
Just write what
the numerical
prefixes say.
Forget ionic

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 Unit V. Chemical Bonding

charges;
they don’t exist
for these
compounds.

Student Reflection on Learning

After using and studying this module, did you meet your expectations on what to
learn in this module? How well you used the instruction given in the module?
How would you used your learnings in this module in your everyday life? What
would you like to learn more?

References:

Bucat, R.B., (ed). 1983. Elements of Chemistry. Australia: Australian Academy of

Science.
(Farmington, 2008)2004. "Molecular Geometries." Chemistry
Foundations and Applications. Volume 3. Prentice Hall, 2008, p. 362-421.
Fleming, D.G., Manz, J., Sato, K., and Takayanagi, T. (2014). Fundamental
change in the nature of chemical bonding by isotopic
substitution. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 53(50): 13706–
13709.
Nivaldo J. Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 1st ed. Upper Saddle
River: Pearson
Padolina, Ma. Cristina A. 1990. Chemistry A: Fundamental Concepts of
Chemistry. UPOU
Pauling, L. (1931). The nature of the chemical bond. Application of results
obtained from the quantum mechanics and from a theory of paramagnetic
susceptibility to the structure of molecules. Journal of the American
Chemical Society, 53(4): 1367-1400.
Petrucci, Ralph H. General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2007. Print.
Zumdahl, Steven S., and Susan Arena. Zumdahl. Chemistry. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, 2007. Print.

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/
Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/
Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/
Chemical_Bonding/Fundamentals_of_Chemical_Bonding

http://limestone.k12.il.us/teachers/rhebron/Chem_HO/C04_Naming_Writing.html

https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_Illinois%2C_Springfield/UIS
%3A_CHE_267_-_Organic_Chemistry_I_(Morsch)/Chapters/
Chapter_01%3A_Structure_and_Bonding/1.12%3A_Polarity_of_Molecules

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