Colloids and Surfaces A 582 (2019) 123930

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Colloids and Surfaces A

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/colsurfa

Improving the rheology, lubricity, and differential sticking properties of T

water-based drilling muds at high temperatures using hydrophilic Gilsonite
nanoparticles
Ehsan Pakdamana, Shahriar Osfouria, , Reza Azinb, Khodabakhsh Niknamc, Abbas Roohid
⁎

a
Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Petroleum, Gas, and Petrochemical Engineering, Persian Gulf University, Bushehr, Iran
b
Department of Petroleum Engineering, Faculty of Petroleum, Gas, and Petrochemical Engineering, Persian Gulf University, Bushehr, Iran
c
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Persian Gulf University, Bushehr, Iran
d
Bonian Sanaat Notash Co., Khuzestan Science & Technology Park, Khuzestan, Iran

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Recent developments in nanofluids indicate that the addition of nanoparticles to water-based drilling muds can
Hydrophilic gilsonite alleviate many drilling problems, including wellbore instability, lost circulation, torque and drag force, differential
Nanoparticle pipe sticking, and low drilling rates. In this study, the addition of hydrophilic Gilsonite nanoparticles (HGNs) to
Drilling mud water-based drilling mud was investigated, and its effects upon the well-cleaning process, rheological properties,
Rheology
filtration loss reduction, lubricity characteristics, and, more importantly, on the differential sticking of the base fluid
Lubricity
Differential sticking
were evaluated. Hence, initially, the HGNs were characterized by means of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy,
the dynamic light scattering technique, as well as thermogravimetric and differential thermogravimetric analysis.
The results showed that after the addition of HGNs, the rheological behavior of the base mud before the hot roll
process was improved, and, interestingly, after the hot roll at 149 °C and 4 h, the characteristics of the sample mud
were significantly retained, compared to those of the base mud. Also, after the hot roll, the plastic viscosity (PV)
improved, the yield point (YP) was remarkably maintained, and the ratio of YP/PV was enhanced. On the other hand,
the American Petroleum Institute (API) filtration loss was reduced by 36%, and, additionally, after the hot roll
process, the filtration loss reduction and the mud cake thickness in high-pressure high-temperature conditions di-
minished by 79.4% and 50%, respectively. After the hot rolling process, the lubricity coefficient and torque per-
centage dropped by 15% and 13.63%, respectively. Also, the HGNs reduced the differential sticking coefficient and
increased the likelihood of differential sticking release of the base fluid by 61.5%.

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: osfouri@pgu.ac.ir (S. Osfouri).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2019.123930
Received 19 July 2019; Received in revised form 1 September 2019; Accepted 3 September 2019
Available online 04 September 2019
0927-7757/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
E. Pakdaman, et al.
Nomenclature
AL Torque reading base mud
API American Petroleum Institute
API FL API filtration loss
AHR after hot-roll
BL Torque reading sample mud
BHR before hot-roll
CF correction factor
DLS dynamic light scattering
DTG differential thermogravimetric
FTIR Fourier transform infrared spectra
HG hydrophilic Gilsonite
HGN hydrophilic Gilsonite nanoparticle
HPHT high-pressure high-temperature
HT high temperature
KSC Bulk sticking coefficient
LC lubricity coefficient
1. Introduction
Recently, the use of nanoscale materials in the design of drilling
fluids has been gaining ground. These materials can effectively develop
drilling fluid technology; therefore, they may provide a brilliant per-
spective in the exploration and development of oil and gas [1]. Com-
pared to macro-materials, nanoscale materials are better and more ac-
tive in terms of strength, thermal stability, and the role of surface forces
which are due to their small particle size and the high value of their
surface to volume ratio [2]. Also, changing from macro to nanoscale
causes changes in the physical state and chemical properties of the
materials [3]. These properties can highly improve the quality of the
mud cake, reduce the friction and differential pipe sticking, keep the
wellbore stable, protect the reservoir, and increase the recovery of oil
and gas [2,4]. Nano-scale materials also accomplish a significant task in
protecting the environment, increasing drilling efficiency, and saving
drilling costs [1,3].
Unconsolidated formation is one of the reasons for wellbore in-
stability [5]. Muds based on large and medium-sized particles are
generally not suitable for preventing lost circulation, washout, and hole
collapse [6]. Also, the use of these types of muds in preventing fracture
of the formation, inter-particle cohesion, cementation, and strength-
ening near-wellbore formation is not helpful [6,7]. Moreover, water-
based drilling nanofluids have better cohesion properties and ce-
mentation characteristics for forming bonded networks of particles
within the formation matrix [6]. These fluids can create a loop of mud
cakes around the wellbore to withstand extreme in-situ tensions [3]. In
addition, nanofluids prevent the breakdown and formation fracture, so
drilling nanoparticles can be applied with the functional characteristics
required to remove or reduce the formation unconsolidation [1,8]. In
other words, the plugging nanoparticles are used because they can
penetrate the pores of shale to form a suitable cake and to strengthen
the wellbore [9]. Also, conventional water-based drilling muds cause
problems in the wells due to their particle size, which is much larger
than the shale pore throats [10]. To name a couple of these problems,
pipe sticking, collapse, and shrinkage of wellbore might be mentioned,
but the size of nanofluid particles are adjustable to that of pore throats
in shale formations. These fluids make the internal mud cake, which
reduces the penetration of drilling fluids into the shale [1,10]. Chemi-
cals and polymers which are originated from coarse and moderate
particles are subject to limitations in terms of temperature stability
under high-pressure high-temperature (HPHT) conditions. These re-
strictions cause various problems in the wellbore [6]. In such en-
vironments, the use of smart fluids with high temperature stability
improves the rheological properties of water-based drilling muds
2
Colloids and Surfaces A 582 (2019) 123930
LPLT low–pressure low-temperature
PAC-LV polyanionic cellulose-low viscosity
PDI polydispersity index
PSD particle-size distribution
PV plastic viscosity
TGA thermogravimetric analysis
YP yield point
UHT ultra-high temperature
WBM water-based drilling mud
WBMs water-based drilling muds
Units conversion
1 psi 6894.76 Pa
1 rpm 1.7034 s−1
1 lb ft−3 16.0185 kg.m-3
1 in 0.0254 m
1 in-lb 0.113 N.m
[6,11].
Ghanbari et al. showed that the use of SiO2 nanoparticles enhances
the rheological properties of the mud and reduces the filtrate loss of the
water-based drilling fluid under low-pressure low-temperature (LPLT)
conditions [12]. Sadeghalvaad et al. revealed that the use of TiO2 na-
noparticles in water-based drilling fluids improves the rheological
properties and reduces the filtrate loss in LPLT conditions [13]. Song
et al. also utilized the cellulose nanoparticles in water-based fluids,
which resulted in increased rheological properties and a decrease in
filtrate loss in LPLT conditions [14]. Mao et al. claimed that the use of
SiO2 nanoparticles in water-based drilling fluids boosts their rheolo-
gical properties in LPLT conditions and their temperature stability at
high temperatures. Additionally, these nanoparticles can significantly
reduce the filtrate loss in both LPLT and HPHT conditions [15,16].
Abdo et al. in 2016 showed that drilling fluids containing nano-sepiolite
perform better than base-drilling fluids in HPHT conditions [17]. Clay
nanoparticles play a significant role in the performance of the proper-
ties of water-based drilling fluids and in maintaining the stability of
drilling fluids in HPHT conditions [11]. Several studies carried out by
other researchers also reveal that nanoparticles have a remarkable ef-
fect on improving the performance of drilling fluids in HPHT conditions
because suspension of nanoparticles in the fluid provides a favorable
and stable rheological property [18–22]. Parizad et al. demonstrated
that the use of TiO2 nanoparticles improves the rheological properties
of the water-based drilling fluid and significantly increases the viscosity
of the fluid at high temperatures [23].
The lubricity of drilling fluids considerably reduces torque and drag
force [11]. In addition, it also leads to cooling of the bit and downhole
equipment. Therefore, the lubricity characteristic is among the major
properties of a desirable drilling fluid [24]. With a continuous and thin
lubricating film formed in the wellbore-pipe interface, nanofluids can
considerably decrease the frictional resistance between the pipe and the
wall. Infinitesimal spherical nanoparticles, such as SiO2 nanoparticles,
can also create an extremely thin bed as a ball bearing type surface
between the pipe and the wellbore. These properties might give a sui-
table sliding state feature to the drill string [6,15]. In addition, the
samples containing the new clay (ATR) nanoparticles significantly re-
duce the torque, so these nanoparticles enhance the fluid drilling lu-
bricity [25]. Taha et al. investigated the effect of graphene nano-
particles in water-based drilling fluids on shale and showed that the use
of such particles resulted in a reduction in the friction between the
drilling string and the wellbore [26].
The mechanical and differential sticking of drill pipes is considered
as one of the major challenges in drilling operations. Water-based
drilling nanofluids create a very thin, non-adhesive film on the surface
E. Pakdaman, et al. Colloids and Surfaces A 582 (2019) 123930

of the drilling string which consequently reduces the adhesion of mud under differential pressure 500 psi by OFITE-HPHT filter press (mode
cakes [6,27]. Also, clay nanoparticles play an important task in di- 175 ml, USA). The HPHT filter cake thicknesses were immediately
minishing the pipe sticking problem [11]. In addition, ATR nano- measured at the end of the filtration period. The rheological behavior of
particles can reduce the problems of pipe sticking [25]. SiO2 nano- the mud samples were investigated by an OFITE viscometer (model
particles also represent acceptable stabilization and dispersion ability 800, USA) at six different speeds (600, 300, 200, 100, 6 and 3 rpm).
properties. They also preserve their stability features through tem- These analyses provided rheological parameters such as shear rate,
perature and time alteration. Additionally, they have a relative hy- plastic viscosity (PV), and yield point (YP) of the drilling fluid system
drophobic effect which significantly reduces the pipe sticking problem obtained by the following equations [31,32]:
in shale formations [28].
Shear rate = × 1.7034 (s 1) (1)
The purpose of this study is to use hydrophilic Gilsonite nano-
particles (HGNs) in a water-based drilling mud (WBM) as an en- PV = 600 300 (mPa. s ) (2)
vironmentally friendly fluid. The physicochemical properties of natural
Gilsonite and hydrophilic Gilsonite (HG) were reported previously [29]. YP = 0.511 × ( 300 PV ) (Pa) (3)
In this study, Gilsonite was initially made into hydrophilic, fine parti- where θ is the dial reading at the indicated rotational speeds (rpm).
cles, which were characterized using dynamic light scattering (DLS), Furthermore, the viscosity data of the mud samples at low shear rates (1
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and thermogravimetric to 150 s−1) were measured by a Brookfield LVII + Pro viscometer
and differential thermogravimetric analysis (TGA-DTG) techniques. (model LVDVII + P, Brookfield Engineering Laboratories, USA) at a
Then, the effects of adding HGNs as an additive to the water-based constant temperature of 29 °C.
drilling mud were evaluated to investigate the rheological properties
before and after the hot rolling, as well as the filtration loss and fluid 2.3. Lubricity evaluation
lubricity after the hot rolling. Moreover, the effect of adding these
nanoparticles upon the reduction of differential sticking related to the The lubricity of the mud samples after hot-rolling was examined
base fluid at ambient temperature was examined. using an OFITE EP (Extreme Pressure) and Lubricity Tester. This test
was designed to simulate contact between the drill string and the
2. Materials and methods wellbore. The measurements and calculations were performed ac-
cording to the procedure and methodology recommended by the OFITE
2.1. Characterization of HGN Lubricity Tester manual. The correction factor (CF), lubricity coefficient
(LC) and torque reduction percent were calculated using the Eqs. (4) to
Natural Gilsonite powder was provided from Kimia Bitumen Zagros (6), respectively [11,33]:
Co. (Iran) with a 200-mesh sieve. Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid
(HNO3) were purchased from Merck® and Aldrich® chemical compa- 34
CF =
nies, respectively. Doubled distilled water was used throughout the Water Reading (4)
synthesis procedure. Natural Gilsonite became hydrophilic by its reac- Mud Reading × CF
tion with a mixture of H2SO4 and HNO3 [29]. After that, the functio- LC =
(5)
100
nalized Gilsonite was collected and washed thoroughly with distilled
water until the pH was adjusted between 6 and 7, and then the sus- AL BL
% Torque Reduction = × 100
pension was filtered and ultimately dried. The HG was ground using a AL (6)
mechanical alloying process that was performed in a planetary ball mill
where in equation (4), 34 is the numerical value read by the torque
machine (NARYA-MPM-2*250H, Iran). The milling process was carried
meter in the standard reading mode for deionized water. The mud
out under argon atmosphere. The HG powder was placed in a cylind-
reading is the torque reading corresponding to the base and sample
rical stainless steel vial, and the vial was sealed. The weight ratio of
muds used in the lubricity test. Moreover, AL and BL indicate the
steel balls to the HG was set to 10:1, and the rotation rate of the vial was
reading of the torque associated with the base mud and the torque
set to 360 rpm. The milling time was 100 h. After the ball milling
reading for the sample mud, respectively.
process, the particle-size distribution (PSD) of HGNs was measured at
25 °C, using the DLS technique (Malvern, zetasizer μV). Also, FTIR
2.4. Determination of differential sticking
(Perkin-Elmer Spectrum 2 instrument, USA) analysis was used to
compare the chemical functional groups of HG and HGNs. The FTIR
The differential sticking of the drilling mud was determined with an
spectra were in the range of 4000-400 cm−1. In addition, TGA-DTG
OFITE Differential Sticking Tester, using the methodology re-
analyses were performed in order to understand the thermal behavior
commended by the manufacturer’s manual. The bulk sticking coeffi-
of the HG and the HGNs. This was carried out on a STA 1500 thermo-
cient (Ksc) and releasing percent were calculated by Eqs (7) and (8),
analyzer (Rheometric Scientific) under nitrogen atmosphere. Measure-
respectively:
ments started at 50 °C and continued up to 800 °C, with a heating rate of
10 °C min-1.
K sc =
Tu × 10 3 × ( )
500
477.5

2.2. Rheological and filtration loss tests (1 + 1.33×H) (7)

(KSC)Sample
To evaluate the performance of the HGNs’ thermal stability and Releasing Percent= × 100
(KSC)Base Fluid (8)
aging effect, some tests were carried out before hot rolling (BHR) and
after hot rolling (AHR). The mud samples were rolled in a FANN rolling where Tu is the average torque reading, and H is the cake height on the
oven (model 704 ET, USA) at 149 °C under a constant heating rate of edges.
40 rpm for 4 h. All testing procedures on mud samples and equipment
followed the American Petroleum Institute (API) standards [30]. The 2.5. Formulation of drilling muds
filtration volume characteristics of the mud samples were collected
using a standard LPLT filter press (OFITE testing equipment, Texas, A laboratory barrel, equivalent to 350 ml of aqueous base mud, was
USA) by applying a pressure of 100 psi at atmospheric temperature. prepared by adding sea water, caustic soda, soda ash, sodium chloride,
Moreover, the HPHT filtration loss tests were carried out at 149 °C and

3
E. Pakdaman, et al. Colloids and Surfaces A 582 (2019) 123930

potassium chloride, starch, PAC-LV,1 xanthan gum, and barite in order. Table 1
These constituents were mixed well using a commercial Hamilton beach Formulations of 80 lb ft−3 WBMs.
stirrer with 11500 rpm according to the following procedure. In the first WBM Composition Function Base mud Sample
step, 2 g of caustic soda was added to the 266.4 ml of seawater and
stirred for 3 min. This step was repeated for dissolving 2 g of soda ash, Sea Water (ml) Fluid Base 266.4 266.4
Caustic Soda (g) pH Control 2 2
46 g of sodium chloride, and 15 g of potassium chloride in the base mud
Soda Ash (g) Hardness Control 2 2
solution separately and in the above-mentioned order. In the second Sodium Chloride (g) Weighting Agent/ Inhibitive 46.0 46.0
step, 5 g of starch was added to the solution and mixed for 10 min. This Potassium Chloride (g) Shale Control 15 15
step was repeated for dissolving 2 g of PAC-LV and 1 g of xanthan gum HGNs (g) Thermal stabilizer – 10
in the base mud solution separately. Finally, 56 g of barite was added to Starch (g) Fluid Loss Control 5 5
PAC-LV (g) Fluid Loss Control 2 2
the mud solution and stirred for 15 min. In addition, in order to
Xanthan Gum (g) Viscosifier 1 1
homogenize the base mud, it was mixed for another 15 min. To prepare Barite (g) Weighting Agent 56 56
the sample containing nanoparticles, 10 g of HGNs was added to the
base mud solution after adding potassium chloride, and then the solu-
tion was placed in an ultrasonic apparatus for 20 min. Then, the other
constituents of the drilling-based mud were added step by step. Table 1
shows the formulations designed to achieve a weight of 80 lb.ft−3 of
WBMs.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Characterization of HGNs

Fig. 1 illustrates the results of particle size distribution of the HG
and HGNs. According to the results, the average particle size is reduced
from nearly 1125–2400 nm to 229–356 nm and the distribution curve
shifts to the left for the HG after 100 h of ball milling. In other words,
the results confirm that the average particle size of the produced na-
noparticles, HGNs, is around 300 nm. The particle size distribution
experiment was repeated after 6 h. The results showed that there were
no meaningful differences between the size distribution profiles and
that the solutions were stable during this time interval.
The FTIR spectra of the HG and HGNs are given in Fig. 2. The broad
absorption bands between 3100 and 3700 cm−1 in both samples are
due to the stretching vibration associated with the free, inter, and intra-
molecular bounds of OeH and NeH groups [34,35]. The two absorp-
tion bands at 2921 and 2850 cm−1 are due to asymmetric and sym-
metric CeH stretching which has been observed in both samples. Also,
the peak intensity at 2921 cm−1 is higher than the peak at 2850 cm−1
for both samples, indicating the presence of long aliphatic chains [35].
However, due to ball milling, the peak intensity is lower, though not
significant, in the HGNs. The absorption band at 1650 cm−1 in both
samples indicates the presence of a carbonyl group (NeC = O) of amide
contents. This issue proves the presence of oxygen containing func-
tional groups in both samples [35]. On the other hand, the peak at
1400 cm−1 is related to the CeO stretching band of phenolic OH [36].
However, the broad absorption bands at 1000 and 1300 cm−1 in both
samples are due to the CeO and C–N stretching bonds in Gilsonite
structures [35]. Additionally, the peaks between 600 cm−1 to
900 cm−1are due to aromatic compounds that are not significant for
either sample. Finally, it is concluded that the reduction in the size of
HG particles does not significantly affect its structure.
TGA-DTG analysis curves were carried out to find the decomposi-
tion pattern and the thermal stability of the HG and HGNs represented
in Fig. 3. Both samples included three weight loss ranges. In the first
range, for the temperature values of 50 °C and 150 °C, 14% and 9% of
weight loss were reported for the HG and HGNs, respectively. This
weight loss was due to the presence of adsorbed water and hydrophilic
groups in the molecular structure of both samples [37]. In the second
range, between 150 °C and 400 °C, the weight loss showed the values of
17.5% and 11.5% for the HG and HGNs, respectively. This weight loss
was due to the thermal decomposition of strong polar hydrophilic
groups such as amide groups and organic parts included in the
1
Polyanionic Cellulose-Low Viscosity
Fig. 1. Average particle size distribution analysis for HG (PDI = 0.485) and
HGNs (PDI = 0.205).
molecular structure of both samples [37]. Also, the largest weight loss
ratio for the HG was at the temperature around 213 °C, while the HGNs
at this temperature indicated the smallest weight loss ratio. In the third
range, 12.5% and 12% weight loss in the region of 400–600 °C were
reported for the HG and HGNs, respectively. Also, this weight loss is due
to the thermal decomposition of organic and inorganic groups in both
samples. It was the largest weight loss ratio of the HGNs recorded at a
temperature of about 422 °C. In other words, as perceived in Fig. 3, the
weight loss percentages of the HG indicate higher values compared to
the HGNs in all three temperature ranges. However, the weight loss of
both samples increased with increasing temperature, while the beha-
vior of the HGNs demonstrated slight changes in the weight loss at all
the downhole temperature conditions such as the high temperature
(HT) range (149 °C to 204 °C) and the ultra-high temperature (UHT)
range (204 °C to 260 °C) [21]. On the whole, this result confirms that
the size reduction of the HG from macro to nanoscale significantly
decreases the weight loss due to the increasing thermal stability of the
HGNs.
3.2. Rheological model and shear-thinning behavior
To understand the behavior of a drilling mud and its capability to
carry drilling cuttings, we need to know about the relationship between
shear rate and shear stress. Drilling fluids are non-Newtonian ones,
which means that there is a non-linear relation between shear rate and
shear stress [38]. As depicted in Fig. 4, the relationship between shear
stress and shear rate for the base and sample muds before the hot roll
process follows a non-linear pattern, and the maximum shear stress
difference between the sample and the base muds is 9%, indicating that
the addition of HGNs improves the rheological properties of the drilling
mud. However, the addition of these nanoparticles does not bring about
an important impact on the shear stress of the base muds before the hot
roll process. Meanwhile, regarding shear rates between 340.6 s−1 and
5011 s−1, the shear stress of the base mud after the hot roll process
illustrates a sudden decrease due to the high temperature effects.
Moreover, it does not have a trend similar to that of the non-Newtonian
fluids at higher shear rates, and this can be attributed to the degrada-
tion of the polymers existing in the base mud at 149 °C. Although the
shear stress of the sample comprising the HGNs illustrates a decreasing
trend after the hot rolling process, its behavioral patterns are the same

4
E. Pakdaman, et al.
Fig. 2. FTIR curves of HG and HGNs.
Fig. 3. TGA-DTG curves of HG and HGNs.
before and after the hot roll process, which indicates that the HGNs
stabilize the mud temperature and protect the inherent properties of the
polymers against the temperature variations. This can be due to the
high thermal conductivity of the HGNs (Fig. 3) in absorbing the am-
bient heat and also to its molecular structure.
5
Colloids and Surfaces A 582 (2019) 123930
Based on the drilling mud shear rate, the behavior of viscosity is
harmonic with the pseudo-plastic non-Newtonian fluid, which is known
as a shear-thinning trend and is totally favorable for fluid application in
wells [14]. High viscosity at low shear rates for carrying drill cuttings
from the bottom of the well to the surface and for the purpose of cut-
tings suspension, and, on the other hand, low viscosity at high shear
rates for facilitating mud pumping and releasing drilling cuttings are
essential [12]. Fig. 5 depicts the viscosity curves according to the shear
rate related to the base and sample muds, corresponding to the condi-
tions before and after the hot roll process. Regarding these results, it is
clear that the shear-thinning process of the base mud before and after
the hot roll process significantly diminishes, particularly at the lowest
shear rate, which indicates a 70% decrease. Therefore, the base mud
after the hot roll procedure does not have the capability to suspend the
cuttings at low shear rates and during the drilling process, which also
confirms the results of Fig. 4. This result also proves the deterioration of
Fig. 4. Shear stress vs. shear rate before hot rolling (
) and after hot rolling ( ).
polymers at a temperature of 149 °C. In addition, the shear-thinning
behavior of the sample mud is higher than that of the base mud before
the hot roll process, especially at the lowest shear rate, which shows a
50% increase, and this can increase the capability of cuttings suspen-
sion at low shear rates. Although the viscosity curve of the sample mud
E. Pakdaman, et al. Colloids and Surfaces A 582 (2019) 123930

Fig. 5. Viscosity vs. shear rate before hot rolling ( )

and after hot rolling ( ).

shows a decreasing trend after hot rolling, its shear-thinning approach cuttings from bottom hole to surface. Moreover, as far as the ability to
is remarkably consistent with the base mud, which absolutely confirms carry drilling cuttings is concerned, drilling fluids with higher yield
the temperature stabilization of the HGNs in maintaining the char- points are much better than those with lower yield points [21]. Ac-
acteristics of the polymers. Other researchers also agree on the con- cording to Fig. 6b, it is revealed that the yield point of the sample mud
tribution of shear-thinning behavior to transferring drill cuttings [11]. has diminished by 3.3%, compared to that of the base mud before the
hot roll process, which is considered as a negligible reduction. How-
3.3. Rheological properties and filtration loss ever, a 70% fall in the base mud yield point was observed after the hot
roll process. This results in a dramatic reduction in the drilling fluid
Fluid rheology is one of the significant factors affecting the perfor- ability to carry the cuttings. Also, it must also be noted that the mud
mance of drilling muds. Table 2 shows the calculated values of the sample yield point indicated only a 31% reduction. Therefore, the
rheological properties and filtration loss related to the base and sample HGNs can keep the rheological properties of the polymers and the gel
muds along with the HGNs before and after the hot roll process for 4 h forces after the hot roll process.
at 149 °C. The relationship between the yield point and plastic viscosity (YP/
Yield point and plastic viscosity are assumed to be the most sig- PV) is helpful in determining the efficiency of drilling mud through
nificant rheological parameters of drilling muds [39]. Fig. 6 shows the well-cleaning operations. A low plastic viscosity together with a high
effect of using HGNs on the rheological properties of drilling mud be- yield point shows an optimal efficiency [40]. In other words, the visc-
fore and after the hot roll process. As perceived in Fig. 6a, the base mud osity effect on the well-cleaning process is characterized by the ratio of
plastic viscosity is 23 mPa.s before the hot roll process, while the YP/PV, which is a characteristic of the shear rate for the Bingham fluids
sample mud plastic viscosity has increased to 27 mPa.s. This may be [41,42]. Also, the YP/PV ratio is a reflection of the flow pattern of
attributed to the use of HGNs with long molecular chains that can in- drilling fluids, and the high YP/PV ratio is required to increase the
crease the total mud viscosity. Also, an increase of about 17% in the pseudo-plastic properties of drilling muds, as well as the efficacy of
sample mud plastic viscosity before hot rolling could confirm a perfect carrying the drilling cuttings, which leads to enhancement in pumps’
dispersion of the HGNs, which consequently increases the mechanical performance and an increase in the optimum drilling rate [43,44].
friction between the solid particles and the fluids existing in the drilling Regarding the YP/PV values, Table 2 indicates that after the hot roll
mud. In addition, these particles carry the electric charge; hence, the process, this ratio was decreased by 67% for the base mud, while the
reduction in the particle size of the HG may result in an increase in the YP/PV of the sample mud increased by 9.5%. Therefore, the addition of
plastic viscosity. Although, an 8.7% decrease in the base mud and a the HGNs can improve the efficiency of the well-cleaning of the base
37% reduction in the sample mud plastic viscosity are reported after the mud after the hot roll process. Beg et al. showed that adding TiO2 to
hot roll process, these reductions are beneficial because high plastic water-based drilling fluids can reduce their PV, YP, and ratio of YP to
viscosity indicates high viscosity in the drilling bit, which can reduce PV by 13%, 24.2%, and 13%, respectively, after hot rolling [40]. The
the rotation speed of the drill string. Additionally, the high plastic
viscosity can cause many challenges, such as increasing the probability
of differential sticking of drill pipes, as well as Surge, and Swab pres- Table 2
Rheological and filtration loss characteristics of 80 lb ft−3 WBMS. (NC: Not
sures [21]. On the other hand, it should be noted that the PV is de-
calculated).
pendent on the shear rate. Therefore, this considerable reduction in the
plastic viscosity value of the sample mud proves that, with a tem- Rheology (49 °C) Base Mud Sample
perature rise, the HGNs cause a further reduction in the friction existing
BHR AHR BHR AHR
between the solid particles. In addition, through drilling operations, the
extreme heat produced by bit rotation and friction cannot be ignored. 600 rpm (mPa.s) 76 51 83 54
Thus, the sample mud, compared to the base mud, shows better efficacy 300 rpm (mPa.s) 53 30 56 37
in shear-thinning behaviour after the hot roll process. This is due to the YP/PV (1/s) 665.2 219 548 600
API FL (ml) NC 5 NC 3.2
presence of HGNs in the base mud, which agrees with the results ob-
HPHT filtration loss (ml) NC 98.2 NC 20.2
tained from Fig. 5. HPHT filter cake (in) NC 6/32” NC 3/32”
The yield point is the ability of drilling fluids to carry drilling

6
E. Pakdaman, et al.
Fig. 6. Rheological properties of the 80 lb/ft3 base mud and sample (a) PV and (b) YP.
results of our study show that the efficacy of HGNs is higher than TiO2
as a drilling fluid mud additive. Ultimately, the results confirm that the
addition of HGNs boosts and maintains the rheological properties of
drilling mud in high-temperature conditions.
The hydrostatic pressure of the drilling fluid column needs to be
higher than that of the formation pressure in order to prevent the blow-
out of hydrocarbon wells. As a result, the drilling fluid tends to invade
towards the wellbore permeable formations, which subsequently causes
drilling fluid loss and formation damage [21]. Hence, filtration loss is
one of the major factors that plays an important role in formation da-
maging [11]. As perceived in Table 2, the presence of HGNs reduces the
API filtration loss of the sample mud, compared to the base mud, by
36% after the hot roll process. In addition, under high-pressure high-
temperature conditions, these nanoparticles diminish the rate of fil-
tration loss of the sample mud, compared to the base mud, by 79.4%.
The thickness of the sample mud cake in comparison with the base mud
was decreased by 50%, in which a thinner mud cake was formed on the
wellbore. However, the addition of nano-sepiolite to the water-based
drilling fluid resulted in a decrease in filtration loss in LPLT and HPHT
conditions by 27.3% and 43.2%, respectively [17]. In comparison with
HGNs, the filtration loss of nano-sepiolite was higher in both condi-
tions. In other words, the HGNs interestingly blocked the filter paper
pores and hence lowered the value of filtration loss significantly. These
results prove that the HGNs maintain the properties of the added
polymers to control the filtration loss and thus cause improvement in
drilling mud efficiency after the hot roll process.
3.4. Lubricity measurements
Another significant functionality of drilling fluids is to decrease the
friction between the drilling string and the wellbore. In particular, in
the drilling of horizontal and directional wells, due to the continuous
contact between the drilling string and the wellbore, the drilling fluid
should have proper lubrication characteristics. Through the drill string
rotation, frictional resistance is referred to as “torque”, while it is called
“drag” through the hoisting and lowering of drill string [11]. While oil-
based drilling fluids provide more favourable lubricity properties than
water-based drilling fluids, the use of these fluids is prohibited because
of their negative effects on the environment [33]. Therefore, lubricants
in water-based drilling muds are applied to lower the friction between
the drill string and the wellbore, reduce the likelihood of differential
pipe sticking and, more importantly, increase the drilling rate [21].
The LC of drilling fluids is in the range of 0.01-0.5, and the lower
coefficient represents better lubrication characteristics of the drilling
fluids [45]. Based on the values of Table 3, after the hot roll process, the
LC values for the base and the sample muds are 0.178 and 0.1515,
respectively. In other words, the value of LC of the sample mud in-
dicates a 15% reduction compared to that of the base mud. Likewise,
the torque reduction for the sample mud has experienced a 13.63%
decrease. As a result, it is clear that due to the presence of HGNs, in
7
Colloids and Surfaces A 582 (2019) 123930
addition to improvement in rheological properties and a reduction in
the rate of filtration loss, the lubricity characteristics are enhanced and
the torque of the base mud decreased. Additionally, due to the fact that
the LC of the base mud is 0.026 greater than that of the base mud, it is
statistically significant that the presence of HGNs is totally effective in
improving the lubricity properties [46].
3.5. Differential sticking measurements
The main cause of differential sticking phenomenon is the higher
hydrostatic pressure of the mud, compared to the formation pressure,
especially in the high permeability formations [47]. However, the weak
characteristics of lubricity and thick filter cake can be reckoned as other
causes for this issue [47,48]. To evaluate the performance of HGNs in
reducing the differential sticking, mixtures of 350 ml saturated brine
with 22.5 g of bentonite with and without HGNs (10 g) were prepared.
Regarding the values of Table 4, the bulk sticking coefficient were
calculated as 0.226 and 0.139, respectively, corresponding to the so-
lution with and without the nanoparticles. Therefore, the presence of
these nanoparticles increases the release of differential sticking by
61.5%. This experiment confirms that the presence of HGNs in the
water-based drilling mud enhances the lubricity properties which
consequently decreases the mud cake thickness and the filtration loss.
4. Conclusion
In this study, synthesized HGNs were produced and characterized,
and their application as a drilling mud additive was examined. The
addition of HGNs improves the thermal and chemical stability of the
water-based drilling mud just as the yield point of the base mud de-
creases by 70% while the yield point of the sample mud decreases by
31% after the hot roll process. The results of adding HGNs demon-
strated that the rheological properties of the drilling mud before the hot
roll process were enhanced, and additionally the efficiency of the
drilling in the well-cleaning process was considerably maintained after
hot rolling. This is due to the fact that the YP/PV value for the sample
mud increased by 9.5% after the hot roll process, while the YP/PV value
for the base mud decreased by 67% after the hot roll process. The fil-
tration loss in both API and HPHT conditions after the hot roll process
also decreased strikingly. In addition, the thickness of the mud cake was
reduced under HPHT conditions, and the lubricity of the base mud was
Table 3
Parameters values, lubricity coefficient, and the percentage of torque reduction
in base and sample muds after hot rolling. (NC: Not calculated).
Water Mud CF LC Torque Reduction
Reading Reading (%)
Base Mud 33.6 17.6 1.012 0.178 NC
Sample Mud 34.1 15.2 0.997 0.1515 13.63
E. Pakdaman, et al.
Table 4
Values of differential pipe sticking parameters and the percentage of differential
sticking release at 25 °C and 500 psi. (NC: Not calculated).
(in) Tu(in-lb) KSC Releasing Percent
Base fluid 0.079 239 0.226 NC
Base fluid+10 g HGNs 0.315 188.33 0.139 61.5
improved after the hot roll process. Adding HGNs led to a decrease in
the LC and torque by 15% and 13.63%, respectively. On the other hand,
the addition of HGNs to the base fluid reduced the differential sticking
of the fluid at the ambient temperature. Therefore, HGNs can be re-
garded as an appropriate additive for water-based drilling muds in
order to improve rheological properties and lubricity and to reduce the
differential sticking at high temperature conditions. Also, due to the
abundance of natural Gilsonite mines in many regions of the world and
the convenient methods producing HG and HGNs, compared to the
synthesis of other nanoparticles such as SiO2 and TiO2, the cost of
production has diminished very much. Besides, HGNs act as a multi-
functional and competitive additive utilized to improve the properties
of water-based drilling fluids.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
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