Chemistry Module Second Quarter SY 2021 - 2022

12
鄢市恩惠学校
Oro Christian Grace School
General Chemistry 1
11
LEARNING MODULE
2nd Term 1st Semester, SY 2021 – 22

GENERAL CHEMISTRY – GRADE 12 STEM [DATE]
Table of Contents
MODULE 7: Electronic Structure of Atoms ........................................................................... 1

LEARNING OBJECTIVES .............................................................................................................. 1
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 1
DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................................ 1
A. Quantum Numbers ......................................................................................................... 1
B. Electronic Structure of the Atom .................................................................................... 2
ASSESSMENT .............................................................................................................................. 4
MODULE 8: Chemical Bonding – Ionic Bonding .................................................................... 5
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 5
DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................................ 6
A. Ion Formation ................................................................................................................ 6
B. Lewis Dot Symbols ........................................................................................................ 6
C. Ionic Bonding ................................................................................................................ 6
D. Properties of Ionic Compounds ..................................................................................... 7
ASSESSMENT .............................................................................................................................. 8
MODULE 9: Chemical Bonding – Covalent Bonding .............................................................. 9
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................... 9
DISCUSSION .............................................................................................................................. 10
A. Why Form Covalent Bonds? ........................................................................................ 10
B. Representing Covalent Bonds ..................................................................................... 10
C. Rules in Writing Lewis Structures ................................................................................ 10
D. Resonance Structures ................................................................................................. 11
E. Exceptions to the Octet Rule........................................................................................ 13
F. Molecular Geometry ..................................................................................................... 14
G. Polarity of Molecules ................................................................................................... 17
H. Properties of Covalent Bonds ...................................................................................... 18
ASSESSMENT ............................................................................................................................ 19
MODULE 10: Organic Compounds .................................................................................. 20
OCGS SCIENCE MODULE i

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................ 20

INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 20
DISCUSSION .............................................................................................................................. 21
A. Overview of Organic Compounds ................................................................................ 21
B. Families of Organic Compounds: Hydrocarbons ......................................................... 23
C. Other Organic Compound Families .............................................................................. 28
D. Polymers ..................................................................................................................... 29
ASSESSMENT ............................................................................................................................ 30
OCGS SCIENCE MODULE ii

Semester 1 Term 2
MODULE 7: Electronic Structure of Atoms October 4 – 15, 2021
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, a learner is expected to:
1. Use quantum numbers to describe the location of an electron in an atom

2. Perform exercises on quantum numbers
3. Explain the electronic structure of atoms in terms of main energy levels, sublevels, and orbitals, and
relate these to energy
4. Distribute electrons in the atomic orbitals using Aufbau’s Principle, Pauli’s Exclusion Principle and
Hund’s rule
5. Write the electronic configuration of atoms and ions
6. Draw an orbital diagram to represent the electronic configuration of an atom
7. Determine the magnetic property of the atom based on its electronic configuration
VI: 1 Cor. 14: 40: Value orderliness and organization; use a daily planner and schedule daily tasks to avoid
cramming and academic stress
II: Physics – Quantum mechanics
Textbook: General Chemistry 1: Chapter 5 – Atomic Structure pp. 119 –138
Key Concepts: Quantum numbers, Energy levels, sublevels, Orbitals, Electronic configuration,
Orbital diagram, Paramagnetic, Diamagnetic
INTRODUCTION
Pre-activity:
Hook Question: Do you know that an electron has a “postal code” that can be used to locate the
electron in an atom?
Answer: The postal code of the electron is a set of four numbers called the quantum numbers that
specify the electron’s energy level, sublevel, orbital, and spin. No two electrons can have
the same set of quantum numbers in an atom.
DISCUSSION
A. Quantum Numbers
• Similar to light, an electron is both a particle and a wave.
OCGS SCIENCE MODULE 1

• The existence and energy of an electron in an atom is described by its unique wave function, ,
which is a function of four variables called the quantum numbers.
Wave function:  = function (n, l, ml, ms)
• Pauli exclusion principle - no two electrons in an atom can have the same four quantum numbers.
1. Principal Quantum Number, n
- Denotes the energy level and distance of the electron from the nucleus
- As n increases, the energy and distance from the nucleus increases
- Takes on positive integer values: n = 1,2,3, …
2. Angular Momentum Quantum Number, l
- Describes the three-dimensional shape of the orbital occupied by an electron
- Values: l = 0,1, 2, …n-1
3. Magnetic Quantum Number, ml
- Describes the orientation of the orbital in space
- Values: ml = - l, …,0, …,+l
4. Spin Quantum Number, ms
- Describes the direction of the electron’s spin
- Values: ms = +½ or –½ (clockwise or counterclockwise spin)
Table 1. Relationship between the four quantum numbers
Energy Shell Subshell Orbitals
n l Notation ml # of Orbitals
1 0 1s 0 1
0 2s 0 1
2
1 2p -1, 0, 1 3
0 3s 0 1
3 1 3p -1, 0, +1 3
2 3d -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 5
0 4s 0 1
1 4p -1, 0, +1 3
4
2 4d -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 5
3 4f -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 7
B. Electronic Structure of the Atom
1. Overview
• Electrons occupy specific energy levels or shells, subshells,
and orbitals around the nucleus.
• Electrons fill-up orbitals from the lowest energy first
(Aufbau’s Principle).
• Electrons occupy degenerate orbitals (same energy) one at
a time with the same or parallel spin (Hund’s Rule),
• Order of orbital filling is given by Figure 1.
Figure 1. Order of orbital filling

2. Electronic Configuration
• Describes the distribution of electrons in the atomic orbitals of the principal energy shell and
subshells
• Depicted using the spdf notation or the orbital diagram
3. Magnetic Property of the atom

a. Paramagnetism
• Paramagnetism is a form of magnetism whereby materials are attracted by an externally
applied magnetic field.
• Paramagnetic materials can form an induced magnetic field aligned with the external
field.
• Results from the presence of unpaired electrons in the atomic orbitals
b. Diamagnetism
• Diamagnetic materials are repelled by the applied magnetic field.
• Diamagnetic materials have no unpaired electrons in their atomic orbitals. Each orbital
contains the maximum number of two electrons with opposing spin.
Demonstration: Consider Chlorine (Z = 17)
1. Draw the orbital diagram of the element and determine if Cl is paramagnetic or diamagnetic
1s
2s 2p
ml = -1 0 +1
Paramagnetic with 1 unpaired electron in
3s the last 3p orbital
3p
2. Determine the quantum numbers of the last entering electron
The last electron is a 3p5
The first quantum number is n = 3
The p orbital has l = 1
The electron occupied the 3rd p orbital with a ml = 1
The spin is ms = ½ (arrow up)
Thus, for a 3p5 the quantum numbers are as follows: 3, 1, 1, ½
3. Give the spdf electronic configuration Cl and Cl- ion

Cl = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
Cl- = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 (a charge of -1 means a gain of 1 electron)

Self-Check 7-1
Give the quantum numbers of the last Give the orbital designation of the electron
electron of the given orbitals: with the given quantum #s.
1. 4d4 6. (7, 0, 0, ½)
2. 3p3 7. (4, 3, 0, ½)
3. 5f10 8. (5, 1, 1, -½)
4. 6p1 9. (3, 2, 2, -½)
5. 2s2 10. (5, 3, -3, ½)
ASSESSMENT
REFLECTION
The four quantum numbers describe the electron’s location in an atom that is why no two electrons in
an atom can have the same set of quantum numbers. Just like an electron, God place us where we
are meant to be, where we can best grow, and where we can best thrive and live our lives to the
fullest. There are no accidents. Often, we wish for something different, something more, and while
that is not necessarily a bad thing; it is important to live in the HERE and the NOW and bloom where
we are planted.
EXERCISES
Answer Check Point 6.1 p. 148 Figure 2. Flame test of different metals
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY
Metal chloride salts when ignited in a Bunsen flame

imparts a characteristic color to the flame as shown by
Figure 2. What happened to the metallic ion when it
was heated in the flame? Why does each metallic salt
give off a characteristic color? Explain this
phenomenon using the concept of electronic structure
and electronic excitation.

Semester 1 Term 2
MODULE 8: Chemical Bonding – Ionic Bonding October 18 – 22, 2021
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Relate the stability of noble gases to their electron configuration

2. Determine and predict the charge of ions formed by elements in relation to their electronic
configurations, and positions in the periodic table
3. Use the Octet Rule in drawing Lewis structures of ions and ionic compounds
4. Predict the formula of the ionic compound formed by a metal and non-metal among representative
elements
5. Predict and explain the properties of ionic compounds based on their structures
VI: Isaiah 33: 6: Recognize that the desire for stability in humans is translated to a thirst for God who alone
can fill the void in our lives; thus, make sure to spend a quiet time with God each day
II: Math – balancing charges of ions in an ionic compound
Textbook: General Chemistry 1: Chapter 7 – Chemical Bonding pp. 189 – 197
Key Concepts: Ionic bonding, Ionic compound, Ions, Octet rule, Lewis structures
INTRODUCTION
Pre-activity:
Hook Question: Why do opposites attract?
Answer:
The old concept and expression "opposites attract" has been used for centuries. We are naturally
attracted to individuals who are different from ourselves - and therefore somewhat exciting. But it's not
just the exciting differences which attract us to our opposites; it is also a natural quest for completion.
We are naturally drawn towards individuals who have strengths which we are missing. When two
opposites function as a couple, they become a more well-rounded, functioning unit.
Ionic bonding is an attraction between opposites – a positive ion and a negative ion. This attraction
affects the physical properties of an ionic compound, such as its solubility, melting point, hardness,
and brittleness.

DISCUSSION
A. Ion Formation
• Atoms lose or gain electrons to become isoelectronic (the same electronic configuration) with the
nearest Noble gas element.
• Noble gas elements have completely filled orbitals in their outermost shells (valence shells), which
makes them stable and inert (unreactive).
• Metals have low ionization energies (energy required to remove an electron), which allow them to
donate their valence electrons (electrons in the valence shell) easily and form cations.
• Nonmetals have high electron affinities (measure of an atom’s tendency to attract electrons), which
allow them to accept electrons and form anions.
B. Lewis Dot Symbols

1. Main group or Representative elements (Groups 1,2, 13 to 18):
• The last digit of the group number is equal to the number of valence electrons.
• Place one dot per valence electron on each of the four sides of the element symbol.
• Pair the dots (electrons) until all of the valence electrons are used (see Figure 3).
Figure 3. Lewis symbols of main group elements
2. The Octet Rule

• Note that Group 18 Noble gas elements have 8 valence electrons; thus, other elements strive to
have the same number of valence electrons giving rise to the Octet Rule of chemical bonding.
• The Octet Rule can be used to predict the charges of the ions formed by representative
elements. For example, Group 17 elements form a -1 ion to have 8 valence electrons.
C. Ionic Bonding
• Chemical bonding most common between a metal and a nonmetal.
• Results from the transfer of electrons from a donor to a receiver giving rise to a cation and an anion
that are held together by a strong electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions.
• There are three ways to depict electron transfer using electronic configuration, orbital diagram, and
Lewis dot symbols.

Demonstration: Depict the ionic bonding between Li+ and F- through electron transfer
Electron configurations
Li 1s22s1 + F 1s22s22p5 Li+ 1s2 + F− 1s22s22p6
Orbital diagrams
Li Li+
1s 2s 2p 1s 2s 2p
+F + F-
1s 2s 2p 1s 2s 2p
Lewis electron-dot symbols
.
: :
Li . + : F : Li+ : F : -
:
Self-Check 8-1
Use electronic configurations, partial orbital diagrams (valence electrons only), and Lewis
symbols to depict the formation of the following ionic compounds:
1. Magnesium oxide
2. Calcium chloride
D. Properties of Ionic Compounds

1. Ionic compounds are:
a. Crystalline and brittle
b. Conductor of current in the molten state and when dissolved in water
c. Have high melting and boiling points
2. The properties of ionic compounds can be explained by two main factors:

a. they are composed of ions
b. these ions are held together by a strong electrostatic force of attraction

ASSESSMENT
REFLECTION
Atoms can give and receive electrons in order to achieve stability. Like an atom, we can give of our
blessings because we have received blessings, and received it abundantly, from God. No gift is too
little as long as it is sincerely given. Mark 12: 41-44 narrates the story of the widow’s offering, which
Jesus praised, because she gave from what little she possessed and not from her surplus wealth. May
this season of pandemic, when many among us have lost their jobs or have their livelihood seriously
affected, be a season of generosity as well.
EXERCISES
Answer Check Point 7.1 p. 197
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY
Why is it difficult to predict the charge of the cation of a transition metal?

Semester 1 Term 2
MODULE 9: Chemical Bonding – Covalent Bonding October 25 – November 5, 2021
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Explain covalent bonding in terms of electron sharing

2. Apply the octet rule in the formation of covalent compounds
3. Predict and write formulas of covalent compounds formed by non-metallic elements
4. Draw Lewis structures of covalent compounds
5. Determine the molecular geometry of simple molecules
6. Create molecular models of simple covalent compounds by applying the postulates of the Valence-
Shell-Electron-Pair-Repulsion, VSEPR, Theory
7. Determine the polarity of simple molecules
8. Relate the properties of covalent compounds to their structures and polarities
9. Determine and compare the properties (melting point, solubility and electrical conductivity) of
selected covalent compounds and relate them to their molecular polarities
VI: Deuteronomy 15: 7-8: Share resources with those in need like elements sharing electrons; save money
for school and/or church outreach activities
II: Biology – Biomolecules
Textbook: General Chemistry 1: Chapter 7 – Chemical Bonding pp. 197 – 246
Key Concepts: Covalent bonding, Octet rule, Lewis structures, Molecular geometry, VSEPR,
Molecular Polarity
INTRODUCTION
Pre-activity:
Hook Question: Do you know that atoms are communists?
Answer:
Communism is a political and economic doctrine that aims to replace private property and a profit-
based economy with public ownership and communal control of at least the major means of production
and the natural resources of a society. The production and distribution of goods would be based upon
the principle “From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs” (Encyclopedia
Britannica, 2020).

Atoms somewhat adhere to a communist doctrine of distributing resources, in this case electrons,
according to each atom’s ability and needs. In covalent bonding, an atom with a greater
electronegativity will have a larger share of the bonding electrons compared to the less electronegative
atom. This phenomenon gives rise to the concept of molecular polarity, which will largely determine
the physical properties of a material and its potential uses.
DISCUSSION
A. Why Form Covalent Bonds?

• A covalent bond is a chemical bond in which two or more electrons are shared by two atoms.
• Only valence electrons can be shared in covalent bonding.
• Atoms share electrons to have fully filled outermost shells (valence shells). This is sometimes known
as the Octet rule since a fully filled shell has 8 electrons except for elements in period 1.
• Period 1 elements (H and He) obey the Duet rule which states that stability is achieved when there
are two electrons in the valence shell; in this case the first shell which can only hold a maximum of
2 electrons.
B. Representing Covalent Bonds

1. Covalent bond can be represented by showing which valence electrons are shared (bonding
electrons) and which are unshared when two atoms form a covalent bond.
a. Valence electrons are depicted as dots around the element symbol.
b. The bonding electrons are drawn as dots between the two atoms or it can be depicted as a line
between two atoms.
2. Covalent bonds can be single, double or triple bonds.
a. Single bond – two atoms share a pair of electrons ex. H2 gas
b. Double bond – two atoms share 2 pairs of electrons ex. O2 gas
c. Triple bond – two atoms share 3 pairs of electrons ex. N2 gas

N + N N N or N N
C. Rules in Writing Lewis Structures
1. Draw the skeletal structure of compound showing what atoms are bonded to each other. Put the
least electronegative element in the center (except H).
• For representative elements, electronegativity values increase from left to right in a period
(except group 18). It decreases top to bottom in a group.
2. Count total number of valence electrons. Add 1 for each negative charge. Subtract 1 for each
positive charge.
3. After subtracting the electrons used for covalent bonding, distribute the remaining valence electrons
to complete an octet for all atoms (except H and B).

a. If available valence electrons are not enough to complete an octet, form double and triple bonds
on central atom as needed. If less by 2 electrons, form a double bond. If less by 4 electrons,
form a triple bond or 2 double bonds.
b. If valence electrons exceed the required number to make an octet, place the extra electrons on
the central atom.
4. Calculate formal charge of each atom
a. Formula of formal charge (FC)
Formal Charge = # valence electron – # unshared electrons – ½ (# bonding electrons)
b. The sum of the formal charges of the atoms in a molecule must be zero. The sum for an ion
must equal the charge of the ion.
Demonstration: Write the Lewis structure of Nitrogen Trifluoride, NF3
Step 1 – N is less electronegative than F, put N in center
Step 2 – Count valence electrons: 5 for N and 7 for F

5 + (3 x 7) = 26 valence electrons
Step 3 – Complete an octet for each atom by adding unshared electrons as dots
26 valence electrons – 6 bonding electrons = 20 unshared electrons
Step 4 – Calculate Formal charges for each atom

FC of N = 5 – 2 – 6/2 = 0
FC of F = 7 – 6 – 2/2 = 0
D. Resonance Structures
• A resonance structure is one of two or more Lewis structures for a single molecule that cannot be
represented accurately by only one Lewis structure.
• If there are resonance structures, the BEST Lewis structure can be determined by the following
guidelines:
1. For neutral molecules, a Lewis structure in which there are no formal charges is preferable to
one in which formal charges are present.
2. Lewis structures with large formal charges are less plausible than those with small formal
charges.
3. Among Lewis structures having similar distributions of formal charges, the most plausible
structure is the one in which negative formal charges are placed on the more electronegative
atoms.

Demonstration: Write the Lewis structure of the carbonate ion CO32-
Step 1 – C is less electronegative than O, put C in center
Step 2 – Count valence electrons: 4 for C and 6 for O and add 2 for the charge
4 + (3 x 6) + 2 = 24 valence electrons
Step 3 – Complete an octet for each atom
Problem! In order to complete an octet, you will need 26 electrons (6 bonding + 20 unshared
electrons) but ONLY 24 electrons are available. Apply rule 3a and form a double bond since its
less by 2 electrons.
Re-draw skeletal structure with 1 double bond
Complete an octet for all atoms:

24 valence electrons – 8 bonding electrons = 16 unshared electrons

FC of C = 4 – 0 – 8/2 = 0
FC of O with double bond = 6 – 4 – 4/2 = 0
FC of O with single bond = 6 – 6 – 2/2 = -1
This ion has 3 possible resonance structures
Notes:
• All 3 resonance structures are EQUIVALENT.
• The real structure of the carbonate ion is a hybrid of all three resonance structures. Studies
revealed that the carbon and oxygen bonds in this ion have the same bond length and bond
1
strength roughly equivalent to a 1 3 bond.

E. Exceptions to the Octet Rule

1. Incomplete Octet
Example: BF3 (B can only form 3 bonds since it only has 3 valence electrons)
Count valence electrons: 3 for B and 7 for F
3 + (3x7) = 24 valence electrons (6 bonding + 18 unshared electrons)
2. Expanded Octet – possible for elements belonging to the 3rd period and beyond due to the presence
of the d orbitals
Example: SF6 (Sulfur is in the 3rd period)
Count valence electrons: 6 for S and 7 for F
6 + (6x7) = 48 valence electrons (12 bonding + 36 unshared electrons)
Demonstration: Write the Lewis structure of Xenon Tetrachloride, XeCl4
Step 1 – Xe is less electronegative than Cl, put Xe in center
Step 2 – Count valence electrons: 8 for Xe and 7 for cl

8 + (4 x 7) = 36 valence electrons
Step 3 – Complete an octet for each atom.
Note that a complete octet only requires 32 valence electrons (8 bonding + 24 unshared electrons)
but there are 36 available valence electrons. According to rule 3b, the extra 4 valence electrons
should be placed in the central atom.

FC of Xe = 8 – 4 – 8/2 = 0
FC of Cl = 7 – 6 – 2/2 = 0

Self-Check 9-1
Draw the Lewis structure of the following ions and molecules:

1. H2CO
2. O3 (2 resonance structures)
3. NH4+
F. Molecular Geometry
1. Type of Covalent Bond Based on Orbital Overlap

a. Sigma Covalent Bond ()
• Head-on overlap of orbitals; overlap lies in the inter-nuclear
axis (see Figure 4)
• All single bonds are 
• In multiple bonds: only one bond is , the rest are pi bonds
Figure 4. Sigma bonds
b. Pi Covalent Bond ()
• Sideways overlap, does NOT lie in the inter-nuclear axis (see
Figure 5)
• Weaker bond
Figure 5. Pi bonds
2. Hybrid Orbitals
• Developed by Linus Pauling, the concept of hybrid orbitals was a theory created to explain the
structures of molecules in space.
• The theory consists of combining atomic orbitals (ex: s,p,d,f) into new hybrid orbitals (ex: sp, sp2,
sp3d)
Demonstration: Consider methane, CH4
Electron configuration of C Orbital diagram of C

C: 1s22s22p2
Based on the orbital diagram, theoretically C can only form 2 covalent bonds since it has 2 unpaired
electrons; however, it forms 4 covalent bonds in methane. How is this possible?
Answer: Hybridization allows C to have 4 unpaired electrons that can be used to form 4 covalent
bonds. Carbon hybridized the orbitals in the 2nd shell (valence shell), a single 2s and three 2p
orbitals to form four hybrid orbitals with 1 electron each.

Demonstration: Consider sulfur hexafluoride, SF6

Electron configuration of S Valence orbital diagram of S
S: [Ne]3s23p4
Based on the orbital diagram, theoretically S can only form 2 covalent bonds since it has 2 unpaired
electrons; however, it forms 6 covalent bonds in SF6. How is this possible?
Answer: Hybridization allows S to have 6 unpaired electrons that can be used to form 6 covalent
bonds. Sulfur belongs to the 3rd period, it hybridized a single 3s, three 3p orbitals, and two 3d
orbitals to form six hybrid orbitals with 1 electron each.
3. Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory

• VSEPR Theory states that orbital geometry determines molecular geometry.
• Hybrid orbitals are oriented in such a way as to minimize repulsion; in short, the orbitals are as
FAR AWAY from each other as possible (see Table 2).
• Strength of repulsion between electron pairs are as follows: lone pair-lone pair > lone pair-
bonding pair > bonding pair-bonding pair
Table 2. Hybrid orbitals and their orbital geometry
Hybrid Orbitals No. of orbitals Orbital Geometry
sp 2 Linear
sp2 3 Trigonal Planar
sp3 4 Tetrahedral (Td)
sp3d 5 Trigonal bipyramidal

Hybrid Orbitals # of orbitals Orbital Geometry Shape
sp3d2 6 Octahedral (Oh)
4. Steps in Determining Molecular Geometry

a. Draw the Lewis Structure.
b. Determine the number of lone electron pairs and  bonding pairs around the central atom to
determine the electron domain and molecular geometry of the molecule using Table 3.
Table 3. Electron and Molecular Geometry Based on Number of  Bonds and Lone Electron Pairs
Electron # # of Lone Electron
Molecular Geometry Bond Angles
Domain Bonds pairs Geometry
2 sp 2 0 Linear Linear 180o
3 0 Trigonal Planar 120o
3 sp2 Trigonal Planar
2 1 Bent / Angular <120o
4 0 Tetrahedral 109.5o
4 sp 3 3 1 Tetrahedral Trigonal Pyramidal <109.5o
2 2 Bent / Angular <109.5o
5 0 Trigonal bipyramidal 120o, 90o
4 1 Trigonal Seesaw / Irregular Td <120o, 90o
5 sp3d
3 2 Bipyramidal T-shaped 90o
2 3 Linear 180o
6 0 Octahedral 90o
6 sp d
3 2 5 1 Octahedral Square Pyramid <90o
4 2 Square Planar 90o
Demonstration: Determine the hybridization of the central atom, electron geometry, and
molecular geometry of NH3
Step 1: Draw the Lewis Structure of NH3
Step 2: Count the number of sigma bonds and lone pairs on the central atom
3 sigma bonds and 1 lone pair
From Table 3: Hybridization: sp3

Electron geometry: Tetrahedral
Molecular geometry: Trigonal Pyramidal

Demonstration: Determine the hybridization of the central atom, electron geometry, and
molecular geometry of XeCl4
Step 1: Draw the Lewis Structure of XeCl4
Step 2: Count the number of sigma bonds and lone pairs on the central atom
4 sigma bonds and 2 lone pairs
From Table 3: Hybridization: sp3d2

Electron geometry: Octahedral
Molecular geometry: Square Planar
Self-Check 9-2
Give the Hybridization, Electron Geometry, and Molecular Geometry of the following:
1. H2CO
2. O3
3. NH4+
G. Polarity of Molecules
1. Polarity of Covalent Bonds

a. Polar covalent Bond
• Unequal sharing (or a partial transfer) of electrons
• Occurs when elements with a considerable difference in electronegativity values are
covalently bonded to one another
b. Nonpolar Covalent Bond
• Equal sharing (no transfer) of electrons
2. Dipole Moment
a. Measures the polarity of a bond, denoted by a vector arrow (points from + to –)
b. Vector quantity
3. Determining Molecular Polarity

a. Determine the molecular geometry
b. A molecule is nonpolar if it has no polar bond and the central atom have no lone pairs
(Hydrocarbons are all nonpolar).
c. If a molecule has a polar bond:
i. the molecule is nonpolar if the polar bonds cancel each other
• Symmetrical geometry with identical terminal atoms
• Examples: BF3, CCl4, PCl5, SF6

ii. the molecule is polar if the polar bonds do not cancel each other
• Symmetrical geometries with different terminal atoms ex. CH2Cl2
• Non-symmetrical geometries such as bent, triangular pyramid, and T-shaped ex. NH3,
H2O
Demonstration: Determine the polarity of the following:

N
1. CO2 – Nonpolar 4. NH3 – Polar H
O C O H
H
H H H
2. H2CO – Polar C 5. H2O – Polar O
O H
Cl
3. BH3 – Nonpolar H H 6. CCl4 – Nonpolar
B Cl
C
H Cl
Cl
Self-Check 9-3
Give the Hybridization, Electron Geometry, and Molecular Geometry of the following:
1. SO3 2. AsF3 3. ClF3
H. Properties of Covalent Bonds
Table 4. Comparing Properties of Ionic and Covalent Compounds

Ionic Compounds Covalent Compounds
Crystalline solids Gases, liquids, or solids
Brittle and weak solids, or
Hard and brittle solids
soft and waxy solids
Very high melting points Low melting points
Very high boiling points Low boiling points
Good electrical conductor when molten or
Poor conductor of electricity and heat
dissolved in solution
Often soluble in water but not in organic
Often soluble in organic solvents but not in water
solvents (ex. alcohols)

Table 5. Comparing Properties of Polar and Nonpolar Covalent Compounds

Characteristic Polar Covalent Compounds Nonpolar Covalent Compounds
Bond length Typically, shorter Typically, longer
Stronger bonds due to higher ionic
Bond Strength Weaker bonds
character
Melting point Higher Lower
Boiling point Higher Lower
Solubility Soluble in polar solvents Soluble in nonpolar solvents
ASSESSMENT
REFLECTION
Atoms are driven to form chemical bonds until they attain stability and one method of doing so is by
sharing electrons; thus, forming covalent bonds. Like atoms, there is a restlessness in our spirits that
the world can never satisfy. As St. Augustine states, “You have made us for yourself, O Lord, and our
heart is restless until it rests in you.”
To rest in God means to follow His commandments of love of God and of one’s neighbor. May this
lesson in electron sharing resound in our lives as we share of ourselves and our resources to those in
need.
PERFORMANCE-BASED ASSESSMENT (PBA)
Assign molecules to students and let them do the following:

1. Fill-up the Molecular Modeling worksheets
2. Make 3D molecular models of their assigned molecules using clay and sticks

Semester 1 Term 2
MODULE 10: Organic Compounds November 8 – 19, 2021
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Explain the special nature of carbon

2. Describe the bonding in ethane, ethene (ethylene) and ethyne (acetylene); and explain their geometry
in terms of hybridization and sigma and pi carbon-carbon bonds
3. Discuss the different functional groups
4. Draw and give examples of structural isomers
5. Describe the preparation of simple organic compounds
6. Discuss some simple reactions of organic compounds: combustion, addition, elimination,
condensation, and saponification of fats
7. Describe the structure and explain the formation of polymers, and give examples
8. Relate properties of synthetic and natural polymers to their structures
9. Prepare bioplastics from plant starch
VI: Gen. 1:28: Practice good stewardship of God’s creation by being intentional in conserving water and
electricity at home knowing that fossil fuels are non-renewable resources.
II: Biology – Biomolecules
Textbook: General Chemistry 1: Chapter 8 – Organic Compounds pp. 261 – 336
Key Concepts: Organic compounds, Sigma bond, Pi bond, Functional groups, Isomers,
Polymers, Biomolecules
INTRODUCTION
Pre-activity:
Hook Question: With all the synthetic chemicals used in food production and added as additives in
food processing, it is no wonder that the organic bandwagon is in full swing. But
what does it really mean to go organic?
Answer:
To go organic is to only consume organic products, which are raised, grown, and processed without
the use of synthetic fertilizers, herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, antibiotics, or hormones. Organic
foods often have more beneficial nutrients, such as antioxidants, than their conventionally-grown
counterparts and people with allergies to foods, chemicals, or preservatives often find their symptoms
will lessen or go away when they eat only organic foods.

In chemistry, organic has a different meaning. It refers to a wide class of compounds containing carbon
covalently bonded to hydrogen.
DISCUSSION
A. Overview of Organic Compounds

• Organic chemistry is the study of organic compounds.
• Organic compounds contain carbon covalently bonded to hydrogen, and sometimes other elements.
1. Properties of organic compounds are largely determined by their polarity and size.
Table 6. Comparing Organic and Inorganic Compounds
Organic Compounds Inorganic Compounds
Bonding is almost entirely covalent Most have ionic bonds
Maybe gases, liquids, or solids with low melting Most are solids with high melting points
points (less than 360oC)
Most are soluble in organic solvents such as Many are soluble in water. Almost all are
ethers insoluble in organic solvents.
Aqueous solutions do not conduct electricity Aqueous solutions conduct electricity
Generally flammable Very few are flammable
Reactions are usually slow Reactions are often very fast
2. Hybridization of Carbon
Table 7. Hybridization of Carbon
Molecular Bond
Carbon Bonds Hybridization Example
Geometry Angles
sp3 Tetrahedral 109.5o

Single Bond
sp2 Trigonal Planar 120o

Double Bond
sp Linear 180o
Triple Bond

3. Molecular and Structural Formulas

Review pp. 263-265 on representing molecular and structural formulas of organic compounds.
Table 8. Representing Organic Compounds
Molecular Formula C8H18
Structural Formula CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
H H H H H H H H
Expanded Structural Formula H C C C C C C C C H
H H H H H H H H
Condensed Structural Formula CH3(CH2)6CH3

Skeletal Formula
Ball and Stick Model
Perspective Drawing
Self-Check 10-1
Answer Check Point 8.1 #s 2-3 p. 266
4. Functional Groups
• A functional group is the part of the molecule that gives it its particular properties and
chemical reactivity.
• Refer to Table 8.6 pp. 277-278 of the textbook for the common functional groups of organic
compounds.
• Simple molecules that contain the same functional group in their structure can be expected
to react in similar ways.
• More complicated chemical molecules may contain more than one functional group within
their structure, which can sometimes affect the chemical reactions they undergo.
• The names of organic molecules are systematic references to the functional groups within
the molecule, and can thus be used to identify these.

5. Naming Organic Compounds

• Use prefixes to denote the number of carbon atoms in the molecule. Affix the prefix to the
family name of the molecule.
• For example, CH4 is methane because it has 1 carbon atom (prefix meth-) and it is an alkane
(suffix -ane). CH3OH is methanol because it has 1 carbon atom and it is an alcohol (suffix -
anol).
Table 9. Prefixes donating the number of carbon atoms in an organic compound

Meth- Eth- Prop- But- Pent-
1 2 3 4 5
Hex- Hept- Oct- Non- Dec-
6 7 8 9 10
B. Families of Organic Compounds: Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons are nonpolar molecules held together by weak temporary or instantaneous dipoles, called
as London Dispersion Forces. This intermolecular force increases with size. Thus, the boiling point of
hydrocarbons increases with size or carbon number.
1. Saturated Hydrocarbons: Alkanes

a. Characteristics
• All single covalent bonds
• CnH2n+2 where n = 1,2,3, etc.
• Saturated hydrocarbons because they contain the maximum number of hydrogen atoms
that can bond with the number of carbon atoms in the molecule.
• Melting points and boiling points increase as the number of carbon atoms increases.
b. Structural Isomerism
• Structural isomers or constitutional H H H H H H H
isomers are molecules that have the
same molecular formula but different H C C C C H H C C C H
structures. H H H H
H H
• Straight-chain alkanes have higher H C H
boiling points than branched alkanes. Isomers C4H10 H
c. Naming and Drawing Skeleton Structures of Alkanes

IUPAC rules in naming alkanes
1) The parent name of the hydrocarbon is that given to the longest continuous chain of carbon
atoms in the molecule.
2) A carbon group side chain (an alkane less one hydrogen atom) is called an alkyl group.
3) Identify the carbon number where a hydrogen atom is replaced by a substituent. Number
the chain in the direction that gives the smaller number for the substituent.
4) Use prefixes di-, tri-, tetra-, when there are more than one alkyl branch of the same kind.
5) For multiple substituents that are not the same, name substituents alphabetically.

Demonstration: What is the IUPAC name of the given compound?

CH3
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH CH2 CH2 CH3
Step 1: The longest chain has 7 carbons - heptane.

Steps 2 and 3: There is a CH3 branch (methyl) in the 4th carbon.
IUPAC Name: 4-Methylheptane
Examples:
1. Give the IUPAC name and draw the skeletal structure of the given molecule
CH3 C2H5
CH3 CH CH2 CH CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
IUPAC name: 4-Ethyl-2-methyloctane
Skeletal Structure: 2 4 6 8
1 3 5 7
2. Give the IUPAC name and draw the skeletal structure of this substituted alkane (H is
substituted with halogens: Br = bromo, Cl = chloro)
Br Cl
CH3 C CH CH2 CH2 CH3

CH3
IUPAC name: 2-Bromo-3-chloro-2-methylhexane

Br
Skeletal Structure:
1 2 3 4 5 6
Cl
Self-Check 10-2
Answer Check Point 8.2 #s 1a and 2 p. 272
d. Chemical Reactions
1) Combustion
• Alkanes are primarily used as fuels ex. natural gas (mixture composed primarily of
methane with small amounts of ethane, propane, and butane).
C2H6(g) + 7O2(g) → 4CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)

2) Halogenation
• Reaction of alkanes with halogens (Cl2 or Br2) in the presence of light or heat to produce
an alkyl halide.
• Double substitution or replacement reaction where H is replaced by a halogen.
H Br
uv
CH2 CH3 + Br2 CH2 CH3 + HBr
• Can give rise to a mixture of products but the primary product (most stable) is the
replacement of a H in a more substituted carbon (3o > 2o > 1o).
CH3 CH3
CH3
4oC CH CH2 CH2 CH3
3o 2o 1o
CH3
Demonstration: What is the primary product when butane reacts with bromine, Br2, in the
presence of uv light (acts as a catalyst)?
Br
Br2
+
uv
Br
1-bromobutane 2-bromobutane
Primary product
2. Unsaturated Hydrocarbons: Alkenes and Alkynes

a. Alkenes
• Have the general formula CnH2n where n = 2,3, etc.
• Contain at least one carbon-carbon double bond
• Alkene names use the ending -ene.
• The parent chain is numbered in such a way that the first carbon containing the double bond
will have the lowest possible number.
• Multiple double bonds can occur – name with the use of prefixes (di, tri, etc.)
CH2 CH CH2 CH3 CH2 CH CH CH2
1-butene 1,3-butadiene
• Isomers due to a double bond: cis and trans isomerism

b. Alkynes
• Have the general formula CnH2n-2
• Contain at least one carbon-carbon triple bond
• Alkyne names use the ending -yne.
CH C CH2 CH3 CH3 C C CH3
1-butyne 2-butyne
c. Reactions of Alkenes and Alkynes
1) Addition of H2 to form Alkanes

H H H H
H2 H2
CH CH CH=CH CH–CH
H H
2) Addition of X2 (Cl2 or Br2) to form Alkyl halides

Br Br Br Br
Br2 Br2
CH CH CH=CH CH–CH
Br Br
3) Addition of HX (HCl or HBr) to form Alkyl halides

H Cl H Cl
HCl HCl
CH CH CH=CH CH–CH
H Cl
3. Arenes or Aromatic Compounds
a. Structure of Aromatic Compounds
• Organic compounds containing the benzene ring are called aromatic compounds or arenes.
• In these hydrocarbons, electrons in the double bonds are spread out (or delocalized) over
the entire ring structure (see Figure 6).
• Delocalization of electrons creates extra stability and a less reactive nature known as
aromatic character.
H H
H C H H C H
C C C C
C C C C
H H H C H
C
H H
Figure 6. Electron delocalization in benzene ring due to pi

bonding.
b. Reactions of Arenes
• Arenes do not undergo addition reactions like an alkene because it DOES NOT want to
destroy its aromatic character (stability due to delocalized electrons). Instead, these
compounds undergo substitution reactions in the presence of a catalyst (see Figure 7)
Br
+ Br2 FeBr3
+ HBr
Figure 7. Substitution reaction of benzene in the presence of FeBr3 catalyst
c. Naming Arenes
• The most common arenes are substituted benzene, where one or more hydrogens in
benzene (C6H6) are replaced with another atoms or groups of atoms.
• Monosubstituted Benzene – replacement of 1 hydrogen
- Affix the substituent name to the benzene parent name
CH2CH3 Cl NH2 NO2
ethylbenzene chlorobenzene aminobenzene nitrobenzene
• Benzene with 2 or more substituents

- Number the benzene ring and choose the direction (clockwise or counterclockwise) that
will result to the smaller combination of numbers.
Br Br
Br
Br
1,3-dibromobenzene 1,2-dibromobenzene
Self-Check 10-3
Answer Check Point 8.3 p. 276

C. Other Organic Compound Families
Table 10. Summary of other organic compound families and their characteristics
Family Characteristics Sample Reactions
• Functional group: - OH OH O
• Polar, can do hydrogen bonding [OA] [OA]
Alcohols
• 1o alcohols oxidize to aldehydes OH O
1-Butanol 2-Butanone
• 2 alcohols oxidize to ketones
o Butanal 2-Butanol
• Functional group: C-O-C

Ethers
• Less polar than alcohols, more volatile, and relatively unreactive
• Functional group: O
OH
[OA]
(R = H or alkyl group) R C H
Aldehydes
• Reduces to 1o alcohols O O
• Further oxidizes to carboxylic acids Butanal Butanoic acid
Ketones
• Reduces to 2o alcohols C C C
• Functional group: O • Condensation reactions of carboxylic acids with alcohols to form esters
Carboxylic Acids
• Polar and weak acids C OH
O
O
Esters CH3 C OH + HOCH2CH3 CH3 C OCH2CH3 + HOH
• Pleasant odors and flavors R C OR
• Functional group: O Ethanoic acid Ethanol Ethyl Ethanoate
Amides
• Found in amino acids R C N
• Functional group: R • Reactions of carboxylic acids with ammonia or amines to form amides
• Polar and weak based R N C O O H
H
• Derivatives of ammonia, NH3, with one
Amines CH3 C OH + H-N-CH3 CH3 C N-CH3 + HOH
or more hydrogen atoms replaced with
organic groups Ethanoic acid Methanamine N-methylethanamide
• Have a disagreeable fishy smell

D. Polymers
Polymers are large molecular compounds made up of many repeating units called monomers. They can
be natural or synthetic. They are sometimes called macromolecules because of their high molar masses.
1. Preparation of Polymers
The chemical reaction by which the monomers are linked together to form polymers is called
polymerization. There are several types of polymerization reactions. The basic types are the
addition polymerization and the condensation polymerization reactions.
a. Addition Polymerization
• A polymer is formed by chain addition reactions between monomers that contain a double
bond.
• Molecules of ethene can polymerize with each other under the right conditions to form the
polymer called polyethylene.
- Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE) is soft and waxy; it is used to make plastic bag and
film wraps.
- High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE) is a rigid translucent solid; it is used to make plastic
bottles and toys.
n CH2=CH2 → ---CH2—CH2---
n
b. Condensation Polymerization
• Condensation polymers are those formed through a condensation reaction; that is, where
monomers join together at the same time losing a small molecule like water as by-product.
• Adipic acid and Hexanediamine react to form a condensation polymer. Adipic acid is a
carboxylic acid with two carboxyl groups on either end of the molecule. Hexanediamine has
amino groups on either end of a six-carbon chain. When these molecules react with each
other, a molecule of water is eliminated, and a polyamide product called nylon-66 is formed.
- Nylon 66 is frequently used when high mechanical strength, rigidity, good stability under
heat and/or chemical resistance are required. It is used in fibers for textiles and carpets
and molded parts.

ASSESSMENT
REFLECTION
We are carbon-based lifeforms because the molecules making up our bodies (biomolecules) all have
carbon backbones. This means biomolecules are characterized by a long chain of carbon atoms
bonded to each other. No other known element has the ability and flexibility of carbon to form long
chains of carbon atoms that can be linear, branched, or cyclic. Carbon can form single, double, or triple
bonds. The ability of carbon to form connections is what makes it special. Like carbon, we also need
to form connections. God recognize this need to form connections. He could have saved us without
sending His only begotten Son but he recognized that only by becoming human and by living and dying
with us will He forge a connection that can bind all of humanity and bring them together into the fullness
of His grace and love through Jesus Christ.
Like carbon, may we form meaningful connections in our lives as we fulfill our mission to make a
difference for Christ.
EXERCISES
Answer Check Points 8.4 #s 1-3 p. 280
PERFORMANCE-BASED ASSESSMENT (PBA)
Prepare 2 bioplastics using different plant starch, liquid glue (Elmer’s) as binder, and sucrose (table
sugar) as plasticizer. Perform a comparative test of their tensile strength by stretching it using your
hand.

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12

2nd Term 1st Semester, SY 2021 – 22

MODULE 7: Electronic Structure of Atoms ........................................................................... 1

OCGS SCIENCE MODULE i

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................ 20

OCGS SCIENCE MODULE ii

MODULE 7: Electronic Structure of Atoms October 4 – 15, 2021

At the end of the lesson, a learner is expected to:

1. Use quantum numbers to describe the location of an electron in an atom

II: Physics – Quantum mechanics

Textbook: General Chemistry 1: Chapter 5 – Atomic Structure pp. 119 –138

OCGS SCIENCE MODULE 1

B. Electronic Structure of the Atom

Figure 1. Order of orbital filling

OCGS SCIENCE MODULE 2

3. Magnetic Property of the atom

Demonstration: Consider Chlorine (Z = 17)

3. Give the spdf electronic configuration Cl and Cl- ion

OCGS SCIENCE MODULE 3

Metal chloride salts when ignited in a Bunsen flame

OCGS SCIENCE MODULE 4

MODULE 8: Chemical Bonding – Ionic Bonding October 18 – 22, 2021

At the end of the lesson, a learner is expected to:

1. Relate the stability of noble gases to their electron configuration

II: Math – balancing charges of ions in an ionic compound

Textbook: General Chemistry 1: Chapter 7 – Chemical Bonding pp. 189 – 197

Hook Question: Why do opposites attract?

OCGS SCIENCE MODULE 5

B. Lewis Dot Symbols

Figure 3. Lewis symbols of main group elements

2. The Octet Rule

OCGS SCIENCE MODULE 6

D. Properties of Ionic Compounds

2. The properties of ionic compounds can be explained by two main factors:

OCGS SCIENCE MODULE 7

Answer Check Point 7.1 p. 197

Why is it difficult to predict the charge of the cation of a transition metal?

OCGS SCIENCE MODULE 8

MODULE 9: Chemical Bonding – Covalent Bonding October 25 – November 5, 2021

At the end of the lesson, a learner is expected to:

1. Explain covalent bonding in terms of electron sharing

II: Biology – Biomolecules

Textbook: General Chemistry 1: Chapter 7 – Chemical Bonding pp. 197 – 246

Hook Question: Do you know that atoms are communists?

OCGS SCIENCE MODULE 9

A. Why Form Covalent Bonds?

B. Representing Covalent Bonds

b. Double bond – two atoms share 2 pairs of electrons ex. O2 gas

c. Triple bond – two atoms share 3 pairs of electrons ex. N2 gas

C. Rules in Writing Lewis Structures

OCGS SCIENCE MODULE 10

Formal Charge = # valence electron – # unshared electrons – ½ (# bonding electrons)

Demonstration: Write the Lewis structure of Nitrogen Trifluoride, NF3

Step 1 – N is less electronegative than F, put N in center

Step 2 – Count valence electrons: 5 for N and 7 for F

Step 4 – Calculate Formal charges for each atom

OCGS SCIENCE MODULE 11

Demonstration: Write the Lewis structure of the carbonate ion CO32-

Step 1 – C is less electronegative than O, put C in center

Complete an octet for all atoms:

Step 4 – Calculate Formal charges for each atom

This ion has 3 possible resonance structures

OCGS SCIENCE MODULE 12