OCGS Chemistry Modules

12
鄢市恩惠学校
Oro Christian Grace School
General Chemistry 2
LEARNING MODULE
Term 2, 2nd Semester, SY 2021 – 22

GENERAL CHEMISTRY – GRADE 12 STEM [DATE]
Table of Contents
MODULE 4: Chemical Thermodynamics............................................................................................... 1

LEARNING OBJECTIVES ...................................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................................... 1
DISCUSSION .......................................................................................................................................... 2
A. Overview of Chemical Thermodynamics .............................................................................. 2
B. Entropy ................................................................................................................................... 3
C. Gibbs Free Energy, G ............................................................................................................ 3
ASSESSMENT: ...................................................................................................................................... 7
MODULE 5: Chemical Kinetics .............................................................................................................. 8
LEARNING OBJECTIVES ...................................................................................................................... 8
INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................................... 8
DISCUSSION .......................................................................................................................................... 9
A. Collision Theory ..................................................................................................................... 9
B. Measuring Reaction Rate ...................................................................................................... 9
C. Rate Law ............................................................................................................................... 10
D. Reaction Concentration and Time ...................................................................................... 11
E. Catalysis ............................................................................................................................... 13
ASSESSMENT: .................................................................................................................................... 14
MODULE 6: Chemical Equilibrium ...................................................................................................... 15
LEARNING OBJECTIVES .................................................................................................................... 15
INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................... 15
DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................................................ 16
A. Chemical Equilibrium .......................................................................................................... 16
B. Equilibrium Constants ......................................................................................................... 16
C. Le Chatelier’s Principle ....................................................................................................... 20
ASSESSMENT ..................................................................................................................................... 21
MODULE 7: Acid-Base and Solubility Equilibria ................................................................................ 22
INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................... 22
DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................................................ 23
A. Acids and Bases .................................................................................................................. 23
OCGS SCIENCE MODULE i

B. Solubility Equilibria ............................................................................................................. 27

ASSESSMENT ..................................................................................................................................... 29
MODULE 8: Electrochemistry .............................................................................................................. 30
INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................... 30
DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................................................ 31
A. Oxidation and Reduction..................................................................................................... 31
B. Balancing Redox Reactions ................................................................................................ 31
C. Electrochemistry .................................................................................................................. 32
ASSESSMENT ..................................................................................................................................... 35
OCGS SCIENCE MODULE ii

Semester 2 Term 2
MODULE 4: Chemical Thermodynamics Feb. 16 – 24, 2022
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, a learner is expected to:
1. Define entropy
2. Predict the spontaneity of a process based on entropy
3. Explain the second law of thermodynamics
4. Use Gibbs’ free energy to determine the direction of a reaction
5. Calculate enthalpy, entropy, and/or Gibbs free energy using Gibbs-Helmholtz equation
6. Calculate the boiling/melting point of a substance using Gibbs-Helmholtz equation
VI: 1 Timothy 4: 12 NIV: Don’t let anyone look down on you because you are young, but set an example for
the believers in speech, in conduct, in love, in faith and in purity.
II: Physics – thermodynamics, entropy, Gibb’s free energy
Textbook: General Chemistry 2 – Chapter 4 pp. 101 – 118
Key Concepts: Entropy, Spontaneity of reaction, Second law of Thermodynamics, Gibbs free
energy, Gibbs-Helmholtz equation
INTRODUCTION
Pre-activity:
Class demonstration: Prepare 2 beakers containing dilute HCl, copper wire, and magnesium ribbon.
Ask the class what would happen if copper wire is dropped on a beaker with
HCl. Ask the class what would happen if magnesium ribbon is dropped on the
other beaker with HCl. What factor/s determine whether a reaction will happen
or not?
Analyzing Results: Copper did not give a visible reaction with HCl while Mg reacted with HCl as
evidenced by the formation of bubbles, which is actually hydrogen gas. The
deciding factor that will determine whether a reaction will happen or not is a
thermodynamic function called Gibbs Free Energy.
OCGS SCIENCE MODULE 1

DISCUSSION
A. Overview of Chemical Thermodynamics
• Branch of science that deals with heat and energy effects in a physical and/or chemical process
• Studies four state functions, which are path-independent functions that depend only on the initial and
final states of the system.
1. Enthalpy, H – Type of chemical energy, sometimes referred to as “heat content.”
2. Internal Energy, E – The energy on the microscopic scale of the system. It is defined as the
sum of the kinetic and potential energies of the particles that form the system.
3. Entropy, S – Often describes as a measure of disorder or randomness.
4. Gibbs Free Energy, G - For reaction taking place at constant pressure and temperature, G
represents that portion of the total energy change that is available (“free”) to do useful work.
• First Law of Thermodynamics - In any process, the total change in internal energy of a system,
E, is equal to the sum of the heat, q, and the work, w, transferred between the system and the
surroundings.
✓ Also known as the Law of Energy Conservation
✓ Mathematically expressed as: E = q + w
• Second Law of Thermodynamics - In a spontaneous process, there is a net increase in entropy,

taking into account both system and surrounding.
✓ Mathematically expresses as: SUNIVERSE = Ssystem + Ssurrounding > 0
✓ In principle, the second law can be used to determine whether a reaction is spontaneous or not;
however, in practice, this is not easy. For example, water will freeze spontaneously at
temperatures below 0oC even though the entropy of the system decreased (a solid is more
organized than a liquid). The reason is that the entropy of the surrounding increased because
freezing is an exothermic process, which released heat to the surroundings.
✓ A better method to determine the spontaneity of a process is to calculate the change in Gibbs
Free Energy, G, for a specific process.
• Third Law of Thermodynamics - A completely ordered, pure crystalline solid at 0 K has an entropy
of zero.
✓ This is the Third Law of Thermodynamics.
✓ This is the only time the entropy of a substance is zero.
✓ Absolute zero Kelvin has not been reached; it is still a theoretical limit.
• Standard Conditions in Thermodynamics - Processes often occur at standard conditions, which

are defined as the following:
✓ Substances (elements and compounds) are pure
✓ Solutions (homogeneous mixture) have a concentration of 1 M
✓ Gases are at 1 atm pressure
✓ Changes in state functions measured at standard conditions are indicated with a circular
superscript: Ho, Eo, So, Go

B. Entropy
• Read text pp. 102-107
• The standard molar entropy of a substance is given the symbol, S°.
✓ The standard molar entropy change for a process is given the symbol, ΔS°.
✓ Units may be J/mol-K or kJ/mol-K
✓ The defining equation for ΔS° is similar to that for ΔH°
𝑺𝒐 = 𝑺𝒐𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔 + 𝑺𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒔
✓ In calculating ΔS°, the coefficients of the balanced equation are taken in exactly the same way
as they are for ΔH°.
Sample Exercise
Calculate the change of entropy for the given process at 25 oC
CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
Given:
CaCO3 CaO CO2
So (J/K-mol) 92.9 39.9 213.6
Solution:
∆𝑆 𝑜 = [𝑆 𝑜 of CaO(s)(1 mole CaO) + 𝑆 𝑜 of CO2(g)(1 mole CO2)] – [𝑆 𝑜 of CaCO3(s)(1 mole CaCO3)]
∆𝑆 𝑜 = [(39.9 J/K-mol)(1 mol) + (213.6 J/K-mol)(1 mol)] – (92.9 J/K-mol)(1 mol)
∆𝑆 𝑜 = 160.6 J/K
Note: The reaction has a positive entropy change. Gas-forming reactions always have positive
entropy changes.
C. Gibbs Free Energy, G

• A thermodynamic function that represents the maximum available energy to do useful work at
constant pressure and temperature. This function relates the entropy (S), enthalpy (H), and
temperature (T) of a given system.
• The change in Gibbs Free Energy, G, for a process can be used to determine if a reaction is
spontaneous or not based on its value.
✓ If ΔG < 0, the reaction is spontaneous.
✓ If ΔG > 0, the reaction is nonspontaneous as written (the reverse reaction is spontaneous).
✓ If ΔG = 0, the system is in equilibrium. There is no net tendency for the reaction to occur in either
direction.
• If the reaction occurs at standard conditions, the change in Gibbs Free Energy can be calculated
using the standard Gibbs Free Energy of Formation, 𝐺𝐹𝑜 , expressed as:
𝑮𝒐 = 𝑮𝒐𝑭 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔 + 𝑮𝒐𝑭 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒔

Sample Exercise
Calculate Go for the dissolution of CaSO4(s) in water at 25.0oC. Is CaSO4(s) soluble in water at
that temperature?
CaSO4 (s) → Ca2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq)
Given:
CaSO4 (s) Ca2+ (aq) SO42- (aq)
𝐺𝐹𝑜 (kJ/mol) - 1321.8 - 553.6 - 744.5
Solution:
∆𝐺 𝑜 = [𝐺𝐹𝑜 of Ca2+(aq)(1 mole Ca2+) + 𝐺𝐹𝑜 of SO42-(aq)(1 mole SO42-)]
– [𝐺𝐹𝑜 of CaSO4(s)(1 mole CaSO4)]
∆𝐺 = [(-553.6 kJ/mol)(1 mol) + (-744.5 kJ/mol)(1 mol)] – (-1321.8 kJ/mol)(1 mol)
𝑜
∆𝐺 𝑜 = + 23.7 kJ
Conclusion: Go is positive; therefore, CaSO4 solid is NOT soluble in water at 25oC.
• If the reaction occurs at a temperature other than 25oC (not standard conditions), G can be
calculated using the Gibbs-Helmholtz equation expressed as:
G = H – TS
✓ To calculate ΔG at other temperatures, only the value for T needs to be known. To a good degree
of approximation, the standard values of ΔH° and ΔS° have negligible temperature variation.
Thus, we can use the Ho and So values to solve for G at non-standard temperatures.
✓ To a certain extent, the signs of ΔH° and ΔS° can be used to determine if the reaction will be
spontaneous or not at certain conditions (refer to Table 1).
✓ Note that the unit of T must be converted to Kelvin if S is in J/K or kJ/K.
Table 1. Conditions of Spontaneity based on thermodynamic functions

ΔH ΔS ΔG Remarks
– + – Spontaneous at all T; reverse reaction is non-spontaneous
+ – + Non-spontaneous at all T; reverse reaction is spontaneous
– high T
+ + Spontaneous at high T; Non-spontaneous at low T
+ low T
– low T
– – Spontaneous at low T; Non-spontaneous at high T
+ high T
• To calculate the temperature at which the spontaneity changes from spontaneous to

nonspontaneous and vice versa, we can find the temperature at which ΔG = 0 (equilibrium).
G = H – TS = 0
H = TS
T = ΔH/ ΔS

Sample Exercises
a) Iron, a large component of steel, is obtained by reducing iron (III) oxide in hematite ore with
hydrogen in a blast furnace. Steam is a by-product of the reaction. Calculate G at 230.0oC for
the reduction of one mole of Fe2O3. Is the reaction spontaneous at this temperature?
Strategy:
• Write the balanced equation for the reaction
• Calculate Ho value using Hof (standard enthalpy of formation) values – refer to handouts
• Calculate So using So (standard molar entropy) values – refer to handouts
• Calculate G at T = 503.15 K (230.0 + 273.15) using the Gibbs-Helmholtz equation
Solution:
Balanced reaction: Fe2O3 (s) + 3 H2 (g) → 2 Fe (s) + 3 H2O (g)
Calculate ΔHo
ΔHo = (ΔHof)products - (ΔHof)reactants
ΔHo = (-241.8 kJ/mol)(3 mol H2O) – (- 824.2 kJ/mol)(1 mol Fe2O3)
ΔHo = + 98.8 kJ
Calculate ΔSo
ΔSo = (So)products - (So)reactants
ΔSo = [(0.0273 kJ/K-mol)(2 mol Fe) + (0.1887 kJ/K-mol)(3 mol H2O]
– [(0.0874 kJ/K-mol)(1 mol Fe2O3) + (0.1306 kJ/K-mol)(3 mol H2)]
ΔSo = + 0.1415 kJ/K
Calculate ΔG
ΔG = ΔH – TΔS
ΔG = 98.8 kJ – (503.15 K)(0.1415 kJ/K) = 27.60 kJ
Conclusion: G is positive; therefore, the reaction is NOT spontaneous at 230oC.
b) At what temperature range is the reaction above spontaneous?
Solution:
Calculate the temperature value, T, at equilibrium by setting G = 0
ΔG = ΔH – TΔS = 0
98.8 𝑘𝐽
T = H/S = = 698.2 K
0.1415 𝑘𝐽/𝐾
Conclusion: Since both H and S are positive; therefore, the reaction is SPONTANEOUS
at T > 698.2 K and NON-SPONTANEOUS at T < 698.2 K.

• The Gibbs-Helmholtz equation can be converted to a linear equation form (y = mx + b) as follows:

ΔG = ΔH – TΔS
ΔG = (–ΔS)T + ΔH
✓ A plot of G vs T will be linear with a slope equal to –S and a y-intercept equal to H.
✓ Figure 1 gives the G vs T plot of the example above. Note that the line passes the x-axis (G
= 0) at 698 K where the system is at equilibrium and the reaction shifts from a nonspontaneous
process (T < 698 K) to a spontaneous process (T > 698 K).
Figure 1. Plot of G vs T for the reaction Fe2O3(s) + 3H2(g) → 2Fe(s) + 3H2O(g)
Self-Check 4-1
Problem Solving: Give your complete solution and observe correct significant figures.
a) Will iron(III) hydroxide, Fe(OH)3, dissolve in water at 30.0oC? Support your answer with
calculations.
Fe(OH)3 (s) Fe3+ (aq) OH- (aq)
𝐻𝐹𝑜 (kJ/mol) - 823.0 - 48.5 - 230.0
𝑆 𝑜 (kJ/K-mol) 0.1067 - 0.3159 - 0.0108
b) Using thermodynamic data, calculate the normal boiling point of hydrogen peroxide, H 2O2,
in oC.
H2O2 (l) H2O2 (g)
𝐻𝐹𝑜 (kJ/mol) - 187.8 - 136.3
𝑆 (kJ/K-mol)
𝑜 0.1096 0.2327

ASSESSMENT:
REFLECTION
Answer in 3-4 meaningful sentences

Comment on this quote from the article – “Entropy: The Hidden Force That Complicates Life”.
“Entropy is an important mental model because it applies to every part of our lives. It is
inescapable, and even if we try to ignore it, the result is a collapse of some sort. Truly
understanding entropy leads to a radical change in the way we see the world. Ignorance
of it is responsible for many of our biggest mistakes and failures. We cannot expect
anything to stay the way we leave it. To maintain our health, relationships, careers,
skills, knowledge, societies, and possessions requires never-ending effort and vigilance.
Disorder is not a mistake; it is our default. Order is always artificial and
temporary.”
(Source: https://fs.blog/2018/11/entropy/)
EXERCISES
Answer the Open-ended Questions pp. 112-113 #s 1-5
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY
One of the most important things we can do with heat is to use it to do work for us. A heat engine does
exactly this—it makes use of the properties of thermodynamics to transform heat into work. Gasoline
and diesel engines, jet engines, and steam turbines that generate electricity are all examples of heat
engines.
Explain how heat engines work using the laws of thermodynamics.

Semester 2 Term 1
MODULE 5: Chemical Kinetics February 28 – March 11, 2022
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Explain reactions qualitatively in terms of molecular collisions

2. Explain how various factors influence the rate of a reaction
3. Write the mathematical relationship between the rate of a reaction and concentrations of the
reactants
4. Differentiate zero, first, and second order reactions
5. Write the rate laws for zero, first, and second order reactions
6. Determine the rate law of a reaction from experimental data
7. Perform quantitative calculations using the rate law of a reaction
8. Explain activation energy and how a catalyst affects the reaction rate
9. Differentiate the types of catalysts
10. Investigate the kinetics of the reaction between sodium thiosulfate and hydrochloric acid
VI: Matthew 5:13-16: Be a catalyst that triggers the transformation of societal values from a materialistic
perspective into a Christian and humane perspective by being proactive in societal
issues and doing outreach activities
II: Biology – Catalyst (enzymes), Calculus – Derivatives and Integration
Key Concepts: Chemical Kinetics, Collision theory, Order of reaction, Half-life, Rate Law,
Activation energy, Catalyst
INTRODUCTION
Pre-activity:
Student Activity: Have students soaked pulverized and non-pulverized eggshells in sample jars
containing vinegar.
Processing Questions:
1. What is the visible sign that a reaction is happening?

2. Which eggshell sample produced bubbles faster?

DISCUSSION
A. Collision Theory
• The reacting particles must collide with each other.
• They must collide with a certain minimum amount of energy known (activation energy).
• They must collide with the proper orientation.
• Factors affecting the rate of reaction:
1. Nature of reactants
2. Concentration of reactants
✓ Pressure for gases
✓ Particle size for solids
3. Temperature
4. Presence of a catalyst
5. Reaction mechanism
B. Measuring Reaction Rate

• The rate of a reaction can be determined by measuring parameters that changes with time,
examples: intensity of color, turbidity / amount of solid product, volume, mass
For a balanced chemical equation: aA + bB → cC + dD

Rate can be expressed mathematically as:
[A] [B] [C] [D]
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = – = – = =
at bt ct dt
Example:
Given the balanced chemical equation: N2O5 (g) → 2NO2 (g) + ½O2 (g)
[𝑁2 𝑂5 ] [N𝑂2 ] [𝑂2 ]
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = – = = 1
t 2t t
2
If N2O5 is disappearing at 0.06 mol/L-min then:

a) What is the rate of reaction?
[𝑁2 𝑂5 ] 𝑴
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = – = 0.06 mol/L-min or 0.06 𝒎𝒊𝒏
t
b) What is the rate of appearance of NO2 gas?

[N𝑂2] 𝑀
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = = 0.06 𝑚𝑖𝑛
2t
[N𝑂2 ] 𝑀 𝑴
= (2)(0.06 𝑚𝑖𝑛) = 0.12 𝒎𝒊𝒏
t

c) What is the rate of appearance of O2 gas?

[N𝑂2] 𝑀
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 1 = 0.06 𝑚𝑖𝑛
t
2
[𝑂2 ] 𝑀 𝑴
= (1/2)(0.06 𝑚𝑖𝑛) = 0.03 𝒎𝒊𝒏
t
C. Rate Law
• The rate law expresses the relationship of the rate of a reaction to the rate constant and the
concentrations of the reactants raised to some powers.
• In general, for aA + bB → products
Rate = k[A]x[B]y
where k = rate constant

x = order of reaction with respect to A (xth order in A)
y = order of reaction with respect to B (yth order in B)
x + y = overall order of reaction
• Rate laws are always determined experimentally.

• Reaction order is always defined in terms of reactant (not product) concentrations.
• The order of a reactant is NOT related to the stoichiometric coefficient of the reactant in the balanced
chemical equation.
Example: Acetaldehyde, CH3CHO, occurs naturally in oak and tobacco leaves. It is also present
in diesel exhaust. The rate of decomposition of acetaldehyde at 600 0C was measured at a series
of concentrations with the following results:
CH3CHO(g) → CH4(g) + CO(g)
Experiment 1 2 3 4
[CH3CHO] 0.20 M 0.30 M 0.40 M 0.50 M
Rate (M/s) 0.34 0.76 1.4 2.1
Using these data, determine the following:

a) Order of reaction
Rate = k[CH3CHO]m
Solve for m = order of reaction by getting the ratio of any 2 rates
𝑀
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 2 = 0.76 𝑠 = 𝑘[0.30 𝑀]𝑚
𝑀
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 1 = 0.34 = 𝑘[0.20 𝑀]𝑚
𝑠
Note that the term 𝑘 will cancel in the numerator and denominator

0.30 𝑀 𝑚
2.2 = ( )
0.20 𝑀
log 2.2 = (m)(log 1.5)
log 2.2
m= = 𝟐 → reaction is 2nd order
log 1.5
Note: This means the reaction rate will quadruple if the initial concentration of acetaldehyde
doubles.
b) Rate constant
Solve for k = rate constant by direct substitution into any of the rate values above
𝑀
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 1 = 0.34 = 𝑘[0.20 𝑀]2
𝑠
𝑀
0.34 𝑠
𝑘 = = 𝟖. 𝟓 M-1s-1
[0.20 𝑀]2
D. Reaction Concentration and Time

• The rate expression can be integrated (using calculus) to produce a concentration-time relationship
✓ The relationship depends on the order of the reaction.
✓ A new term, the half-life, will also result.
• For a 1st order reaction: A → products:
−  dA / A = k  dt
• A summary of equations and linear plots for zero, 1st and 2nd order reactions are given in Table 2.

Example:
Table 2. Summary of equations and linear plots for zero, 1st and 2nd order Reactions

E. Catalysis
• A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a reaction without itself being consumed. It
provides an alternative pathway, with a lower activation energy, for the process to occur (refer to
Figure 2).
• Enzymes are naturally occurring catalyst responsible for many essential biochemical reactions.
Figure 2. A catalyzed reaction has

a lower activation energy (Ea)
1. Heterogeneous catalysis
✓ This involves the use of a catalyst in a different phase from the reactants. Typical examples
involve a solid catalyst with the reactants as either liquids or gases.
✓ Catalytic converters change poisonous molecules like carbon monoxide and various
nitrogen oxides in car exhausts into more harmless molecules like carbon dioxide and
nitrogen. They use expensive metals like platinum, palladium and rhodium as the
Alignment of heterogeneous catalyst.
bullets Pt
2CO + 2NO CO 2 + N2
2. Homogenous catalysis
✓ This has the catalyst in the same phase as the reactants. Typically, everything will be present as
a gas or contained in a single liquid phase.
✓ For example, the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide is very slow unless aqueous sodium iodide
is added as a catalyst.
H2O2(aq) → H2O(l) + O2(g)

ASSESSMENT:
REFLECTION

Matthew 5:13-16 Describes an authentic follower of Jesus Christ as the salt and light of the world.
Thus, like a catalyst, Christians should initiate and sustain the transformation of societal values from a
materialistic perspective into a Christian and humane perspective.
How can you be a catalyst of change in this pandemic times?
EXERCISES
Answer Chapter 5 Assessment #s 1-4 pp. 161-164
PERFORMANCE-BASED ASSESSMENT (PBA)
Kinetics experiment done as a class demonstration on camera. The students will use the data to make
a laboratory report. Experiment procedure will be uploaded online.

Semester 2 Term 2
MODULE 6: Chemical Equilibrium March 14 – 18, 2022
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Describe and explain the behavior of reversible reactions

2. Explain chemical equilibrium in terms of the reaction rates of the forward and the reverse reaction
3. Write expressions for the reaction quotient/equilibrium constants
4. Calculate equilibrium constant and the pressure or concentration of reactants or products in an
equilibrium mixture
5. Perform calculations involving equilibrium of gaseous reactions
6. Apply Le Chatelier’s principle to qualitatively describe the effect of changes in pressure,
concentration and temperature on a system at equilibrium
VI: 1 Corinthians 6: 19-20: Eat a healthy and balanced diet to maintain good body equilibrium because we
are temples of the Holy Spirit.
II: Biology - homeostasis
Key words: Chemical equilibrium, Reversible reaction, Equilibrium constant, Le Chatelier’s principle,
Common ion effect
Key Concepts: Chemical equilibrium, Reversible reactions, Equilibrium constant, Le Chatelier’s

principle, Common-Ion effect
INTRODUCTION
Pre-activity:
Watch the video: Introduction to Chemical Equilibrium

(URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_QnRt7PYzeY)
Processing Questions:
1. How will you know a chemical reaction is in equilibrium?

2. What type of reactions can achieve chemical equilibrium?

DISCUSSION
A. Chemical Equilibrium
• Equilibrium is a state in which there are no
observable changes as time goes by.
• Chemical equilibrium is achieved when:
✓ the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are
equal and
✓ the concentrations of the reactants and products
remain constant.
• Consider the reversible reaction:
N2O4 (g)  2NO2 (g)
✓ Chemical equilibrium is achieved when the
concentration of both N2O4 and NO2 becomes Figure 3. Concentration vs. time
constant with time (Figure 3). plot for the N2O4-NO2 system
B. Equilibrium Constants
• For any reversible reaction in chemical equilibrium, the Law of Mass Action holds true.
• Consider the hypothetical reaction below which is in chemical equilibrium at temperature T:
aA + bB  cC + dD
[𝐶]𝑐 [𝐷]𝑑
• The Law of Mass Action states that the ratio: is a CONSTANT which is called the
[𝐴]𝑎 [𝐵]𝑏
Equilibrium Constant (K) of the reaction at the specific temperature T.
✓ If K >> 1, the equilibrium favors product formation.
✓ If K << 1, the equilibrium favors reactant formation.
• Homogenous equilibrium applies to reactions in which all reacting species are in the same phase.
✓ Ex. N2O4 (g)  2NO2 (g)
✓ For the N2O4-NO2 system, the equilibrium constant can be expressed in terms of concentration,
KC, or in terms of the partial pressures, KP, of the gases involved:
[𝑁𝑂2 ]2 𝑃𝑁𝑂2 2
𝐾𝑐 = or 𝐾𝑝 =
[𝑁2 𝑂4 ] 𝑃𝑁2 𝑂4
• It is important to realize that the expression for K depends on the form of the chemical equation
written to describe the equilibrium system. To illustrate what this statement means, suppose the
N2O4–NO2 reaction is expressed as: ½ N2O4 (g)  NO2 (g).
✓ For this reaction, the equilibrium expression is expressed as:
[𝑁𝑂2 ] 𝑃𝑁𝑂2
𝐾𝑐 ′ = or 𝐾𝑝 ′ = 𝑃 1/2
[𝑁2 𝑂4]1/2 𝑁 2 𝑂4
✓ It is clear that 𝐾𝑐 ≠ 𝐾𝑐 ′ but 𝐾𝑐 ′ = √𝐾𝑐 (the same analogy holds for 𝐾𝑝 and 𝐾𝑝 ′).

✓ This illustrates a general rule, sometimes referred to as the coefficient rule:

If the coefficients in a balanced equation are multiplied by a factor n, the equilibrium
constant is raised to the nth power: 𝐾 ′ = 𝐾 𝑛
Sample Exercises
a) The equilibrium concentrations for the reaction between carbon monoxide and molecular
chlorine to form COCl2 (g) at 740C are [CO] = 0.012 M, [Cl2] = 0.054 M, and [COCl2] = 0.14 M.
Calculate the equilibrium constant, Kc.
Solution:
Write the balanced reaction: CO (g) + Cl2 (g)  COCl2 (g)
[𝐶𝑂𝐶𝑙2 ] (0.14 𝑀)
𝐾𝑐 = = = 𝟐𝟐𝟎
[𝐶𝑂][𝐶𝑙2 ] (0.012 𝑀)(0.054 𝑀)
Note: It is acceptable NOT to include units for the equilibrium constant, which can be considered
as a dimensionless quantity.
b) The equilibrium constant 𝐾𝑝 for the reaction: 2NO2 (g)  2NO (g) + O2 (g)
is 158 at 1000 K. What is the equilibrium pressure of O2 if 𝑃𝑁𝑂2 = 0.400 atm and 𝑃𝑁𝑂 = 0.270
atm?
Solution:
𝑃𝑂2 𝑃𝑁𝑂 2 𝑃𝑂2 (0.270 𝑎𝑡𝑚)2
𝐾𝑝 = = 158 =
𝑃𝑁𝑂2 2 (0.400 𝑎𝑡𝑚)2
(158)(0.400 𝑎𝑡𝑚)2
𝑃𝑂2 = = 𝟑𝟒𝟕 𝒂𝒕𝒎
(0.270 𝑎𝑡𝑚)2
Note: The usual method of cancelling units will NOT apply because we consider 𝐾𝑝 as
dimensionless but pressure should be expressed in the appropriate unit, in this case atm.
c) The equilibrium constant 𝐾𝑝 for the reaction: 2NO2 (g)  2NO (g) + O2 (g)
is 158 at 1000 K. What is the equilibrium constant for the decomposition of one mole NO2 gas?
Solution:
Write the decomposition reaction for one mole NO2 gas: NO2 (g)  NO (g) + ½ O2 (g)
Using the coefficient rule the new equilibrium constant 𝐾𝑝 ′ = (𝐾𝑝 )1/2 = (158)1/2 = 12.7
• Heterogenous equilibrium applies to reactions in which reactants and products are in different
phases.
✓ Ex. CaCO3 (s)  CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
✓ For this reaction, the equilibrium constant is expressed as: 𝐾𝑐 = [𝐶𝑂2 ] or 𝐾𝑝 = 𝑃𝐶𝑂2
✓ The concentration of solids and pure liquids are NOT included in the expression for the
equilibrium constant; only gaseous and aqueous reactants and products are included in the
expression.

• Rules in writing equilibrium constant expression

1. The concentrations of the reacting species in the aqueous phase are expressed in M. In the
gaseous phase, the concentrations can be expressed in M or in atm.
2. The concentrations of pure solids, pure liquids and solvents do NOT appear in the equilibrium
constant expressions.
3. The equilibrium constant is a dimensionless quantity.
4. In quoting a value for the equilibrium constant, you must specify the balanced equation and
the temperature.
5. If a reaction can be expressed as a sum of two or more reactions, the equilibrium constant for
the overall reaction is given by the product of the equilibrium constants of the individual
reactions.
Illustration:
[𝐶 ][𝐷]
A+B  C+D 𝐾𝑐′ = [𝐴][𝐵]
[𝐸 ][𝐹]
C+D  E+F 𝐾𝑐′′ = [𝐶 ][𝐷]
[𝐸 ][𝐹]
A+B  E+F 𝐾𝑐 = 𝐾𝑐′𝐾𝑐′′ = [
𝐴][𝐵]
• Chemical Kinetics and Chemical Equilibrium

✓ Consider the hypothetical one-step reaction below and relate the equilibrium constant to the
reaction rates of the forward and reverse reactions
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝐹 = 𝑘𝐹 [𝐴][𝐵]2
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑅 = 𝑘𝑅 [𝐴𝐵2 ]
At chemical equilibrium: 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝐹 = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑅

𝑘𝑅 [𝐴𝐵2 ] = 𝑘𝐹 [𝐴][𝐵]2
𝑘𝐹 [𝐴𝐵2 ]
𝑘𝑅
= [𝐴][𝐵]2
𝑘𝐹
𝐾𝑐 = 𝑘𝑐
• The reaction quotient (𝑸𝒄 ) is calculated by substituting the initial concentrations of the reactants
and products into the equilibrium constant (𝐾𝑐 ) expression.
✓ 𝑄𝑐 < 𝐾𝑐 , the reaction favors forward direction (product formation)
✓ 𝑄𝑐 > 𝐾𝑐 , the reaction favors reverse direction (reactant formation)
✓ 𝑄𝑐 = 𝐾𝑐 , the reaction is already in equilibrium
• Calculating the equilibrium constant

1. Express the equilibrium concentrations of all species in terms of the initial concentrations and a
single unknown x, which represents the change in concentration.
2. Write the equilibrium constant expression in terms of the equilibrium concentrations. Knowing
the equation of the equilibrium constant, solve for x.
3. Having solved for x, calculate the equilibrium concentrations of all species.

Sample Exercises
At 1280oC the equilibrium constant (𝐾𝑐 ) for the reaction: Br2 (g)  2Br (g)
is 1.1 x 10-3. If the initial concentrations are [Br2] = 0.063 M and [Br] = 0.012 M, calculate the
concentrations of these species at equilibrium.
Solution:
Solve for 𝑄𝑐 :
[𝐵𝑟]2 [0.012]2
𝑄𝑐 = = = 2.3𝑥10−3 > 𝐾𝑐
[𝐵𝑟2 ] [0.063]
Let x be the change in concentration of Br2
Br2 (g)  2Br (g)
Initial (M) 0.063 0.012
Change (M) +x -2x (𝑄𝑐 = 𝐾𝑐 )
Equilibrium (M) 0.063 + x 0.012 – 2x
Set-up the equilibrium constant expression in terms of x:

[𝐵𝑟]2 [0.012 + 𝑥]2
𝐾𝑐 = = = 1.1𝑥10−3
[𝐵𝑟2 ] [0.063 − 2𝑥]
Solve for x:
4𝑥2 − 0.048𝑥 + 0.000144 = (0.063 + 𝑥)(1.1𝑥10−3 )
4𝑥2 − 0.0491𝑥 + 0.0000747 = 0)
−𝑏±√(𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐)
Recall the quadratic formula: 𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 where 𝑥 = 2𝑎
Solving for x will give us two values: x = 0.0105 and x = 0.00178
Solve for the equilibrium concentrations of Br2 and Br using the two values of x to determine
which is the applicable x value:
x = 0.0105 x = 0.00178
[Br] = 0.012 – 2x – 0.0090 M 0.0084 M
[Br2] = 0.063 + x 0.074 M 0.065 M
(True values)
Self-Check 6-1
Answer Open-Ended Questions #s 1a, 2, 3b, and 3c pp. 203-204

C. Le Chatelier’s Principle
• If an external stress is applied to a system at equilibrium, the
system adjusts in such a way that the stress is partially offset as
the system reaches a new equilibrium position.
✓ Consider the reaction below which is initially in chemical
equilibrium: N2 (g) + 3H2 (g)  2NH3 (g)
✓ Addition of NH3 to the system shifts the equilibrium to the left
to counteract the increase in NH3 concentration (see Figure
4).
• Table 3 lists the effects of changing reaction conditions to a
system in equilibrium
Table 3. Effect of Changes in Reaction Conditions

Shift in Change in
Change
Equilibrium Equilibrium Constant
Concentration Yes No
Pressure Yes No
Volume Yes No Figure 4. Equilibrium shifts
Temperature Yes Yes to relieve the stress
Catalyst No No
Sample Exercise
Consider the exothermic reaction:
4NH3 (g) + 5O2 (g) ↔ 4NO (g) + 6H2O (l)
Predict what will happen to the equilibrium if the following conditions are changed:
Shift in
Change Reason
Equilibrium
Liquid water is NOT part of the equilibrium constant
Remove water No effect
expression.
Add O2 Shift right Shift to product formation to decrease [O2]
Remove NO Shift right Shift to product formation to increase [NO]
In order to maintain constant pressure even with the
Add an inert gas addition of an inert gas, the container must be
(Argon) at constant Shift left expandable. Since volume increases, the partial
pressure pressures of the gases in the reaction will decrease,
so shit to the side with more moles of gas.
Add an inert gas at The partial pressures of the gases in the reaction will
No effect
constant volume not change as long as volume is kept constant.
The reaction is exothermic which releases heat in the
Increase the
Shift left forward direction. Hence, reverse direction to counter
temperature
T increase.

Self-Check 6-2
Answer Check point 6.8 #s 1, 3, 4, and 5 pp.197-198
ASSESSMENT
REFLECTION

1 Cor. 6: 19-20 challenges us to glorify God in our bodies because we were redeemed by the blood of
Christ and our bodies are the temples of the Holy Spirit. Part of good health is having a good internal
body equilibrium. Give 5 practices for healthy living applicable for teenagers.
EXERCISES
Answer Chapter 6 Assessment #s 1-3 pp. 205-206
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY
In the human body, equilibrium plays a prominent role in regulating homeostasis. What reversible
chemical reaction in the bloodstream is used by the body to maintain the acid-base balance of the
blood? Explain how Le Chatelier’s principle is applied in the maintenance of blood pH using this
reversible reaction.

Semester 2 Term 2
MODULE 7: Acid-Base and Solubility Equilibria March 21 – 25, 2022
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Discuss three acid-base theories: Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry, and Lewis

2. Discuss the acid-base property of water
3. Define pH and calculate its value from the concentration of hydrogen ion or hydroxide ions in
aqueous solutions
4. Determine the pH of weak acids and bases
5. Explain the Common Ion Effect
6. Explain how a buffer solution maintains its pH
7. Calculate the pH of a buffer solution using the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation
8. Explain and apply the solubility product constant to predict the solubility of salts
9. Describe the common ion effect on the solubility of a salt
VI: Gen. 1:28: Practice good stewardship of God’s creation by decreasing your carbon footprint (ex. setting
gadgets on energy saving mode when left unattended for several minutes) to minimize
burning of fossil fuels that causes acid rain
II: Biology – biological buffers, Earth Science – weathering by acid rain
Key Concepts: Bronsted-Lowry acid/base, Conjugate acid-base pair, Ion product of water, pH,
Acid/Base dissociation constant, Buffer, Common-Ion effect, Henderson-
Hasselbach equation, Solubility product, Molar solubility
INTRODUCTION
Pre-activity:
Class demonstration:
Prepare a pH meter and some test samples (saltwater, vinegar, water with a dissolved antacid, milk,
soap solution, soda, apple juice, bleach, etc.). First let students predict if a sample is acidic, basic, or
neutral. Then determine the pH of the various samples.
Analyzing Results: Ask students why these samples are acidic or basic. What component in each
sample is responsible for its acidic/basic pH?

DISCUSSION
A. Acids and Bases
1. Defining Acids and Bases

• Read pp. 210-214
• Many theories on acids and bases have been proposed. The most useful are listed in Table 4.
Table 4. Theories of Acids and Bases
Theory Acid definition Base definition
Ionizes/dissociates in water to produce Ionizes/dissociates in water to produce
Arrhenius
the H+ or H3O+ ion the OH– ion
Bronsted-Lowry Proton (H+) donor Proton (H+) acceptor
Lewis Electron pair acceptor Electron pair donor
2. pH and pOH
• Read pp. 219-221
• Water is an amphoteric substance, which means it can act as both an acid and a base. It is a
very weak electrolyte that slightly dissociates or ionizes to form the hydronium ion (H3O+) and
the hydroxide ion (OH–) according to the reversible chemical equation:
H2O(l) + H2O(l) ↔ H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Usually simplified to: H2O(l) ↔ H+(aq) + OH-(aq)
• The ion-product constant (Kw) is the equilibrium constant of water. At 25oC, this value is equal
to:
Kw = [H3O+][OH-] = [H+][OH-] = 1.0 x 10-14
• The pH scale is derived from the ion-product of water according to the equation:
Kw = [H+][OH-] = 1.0 x 10-14
-log Kw = - log [H+] – log [OH-] = - log (1.0x10-14)
pKw = pH + pOH = 14
where pKw = - log Kw
pH = - log [H+]
pOH = - log [OH-]
✓ If [H+] = [OH-], then pH = pOH = 7 and the solution is NEUTRAL

✓ If [H+] > [OH-], then pH < 7 and the solution is ACIDIC
✓ If [H+] < [OH-], then pH > 7 and the solution is BASIC

Sample Exercises
a) What is the concentration of OH- ions in a HCl solution whose hydrogen ion concentration
is 1.3 M?
Solution:
𝐾𝑤 = [𝐻 +][𝑂𝐻− ] = 1𝑥10−14
1𝑥10−14 1𝑥10−14
[𝑂𝐻 −] = = = 𝟕. 𝟕𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟓 𝑴
[𝐻 +] 1.3
b) What is the H+ ion concentration of rainwater with pH = 4.82?

Solution:
𝑝𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔 [𝐻 + ] = 4.82
[𝐻 +] = 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔 (−4.82) = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟏𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝑴
c) The OH- ion concentration of a blood sample is 2.5 x 10-7 M. What is the pH of the blood?
Solution:
𝑝𝑂𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔 [𝑂𝐻 −] = −log (2.5𝑥10−7 ) = 6.6
𝑝𝐻 + 𝑝𝑂𝐻 = 14
𝑝𝐻 = 14 − 𝑝𝑂𝐻 = 14 − 6.6 = 𝟕. 𝟒
3. Strength of Acids and Bases

Read pp. 214-231
a. Strong Acids and Bases

• Strong acids and bases dissociate or ionize completely in water.
Sample Exercises
a) What is the pH of a 0.0020 M HCl solution?
Solution: HCl is a strong acid – 100% ionization / dissociation
HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
initial: 0.0020 0 0
final: 0 0.0020 0.0020
pH = -log (0.0020) = 2.7
b)What is the pH of a 0.0180 M Ba(OH)2 solution?

Solution: Ba(OH)2 is a strong base – 100% ionization / dissociation
Ba(OH)2(aq) → Ba2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
initial: 0.0180 0 0
final: 0 0.0180 (2)(0.0180)
pOH = -log (0.0360) = 1.4
pH = 14 – pOH = 14 – 1.4 = 12.6

b. Weak Acids and Bases

• Weak acids and bases do NOT dissociate or ionize completely in water. Instead, the
ionization is a reversible process and an expression for the equilibrium constant can be
determined.
• Consider the reversible ionization of acetic acid (CH 3COOH) in water:
CH3COOH(aq) ↔ H+(aq) + CH3COO-(aq)
[𝐻 +][𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂−]
𝐾𝑎 =
[𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻]
where Ka = equilibrium constant or acid dissociation constant
• Consider the ionization of the weak base ammonia (NH 3) in water:
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ↔ NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
[𝑁𝐻4+][𝑂𝐻 −]
𝐾𝑏 =
[𝑁𝐻3 ]
where Kb = equilibrium constant or base dissociation constant
• A conjugate acid-base pair arises when a substance can act as an acid or a base with the
loss and gain of a proton (H+) respectively. Consider the CH3COOH and CH3COO–
conjugate acid-base pair
CH3COOH(aq) ↔ H+(aq) + CH3COO-(aq)
acid conjugate base
CH3COO-(aq) + H2O(l) ↔ CH3COOH(aq) + OH-(aq)

base conjugate acid
✓ For a conjugate acid-base pair: Kw = KaKb
For the example above:
[𝐻 +][𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂−] [𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻][𝑂𝐻 −]
𝐾𝑤 = 𝐾𝑎 𝐾𝑏 = 𝑥 = [𝐻 +][𝑂𝐻 −]
[𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻] [𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂−]
Sample Exercises
a) What is the pH of a 0.50M HF solution at 25oC? Given Ka HF = 6.9 x 10-4
Solution:
HF(aq) ↔ H+(aq) + F-(aq)
initial: 0.50 0 0
final: 0.50 – x x x
[𝐻 +][𝐹 −] [𝑥 ][𝑥]
𝐾𝑎 = = 6.9𝑥10−4 𝐾𝑎 = = 6.9𝑥10−4
[𝐻𝐹] [0.50 − 𝑥]
since Ka << 1, then 0.50 – x ~ 0.50
𝑥2
𝐾𝑎 = = 6.9𝑥10−4
0.50
x = 0.019 M = [H+] → pH = -log (0.019) = 1.72

b) What is the pH of a 0.10 M NH 3 solution? Given Kb NH3 = 1.8 x 10-5

Solution:
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ↔ NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
initial: 0.10 0 0
final: 0.10 – x x x
[𝑁𝐻4+][𝑂𝐻 −] [𝑥 ][𝑥]
𝐾𝑏 = = 1.8𝑥10−5 𝐾𝑏 = = 1.8𝑥10−5
[𝑁𝐻3 ] [0.10 − 𝑥]
since Kb << 1, then 0.10 – x ~ 0.10
𝑥2
𝐾𝑏 = = 1.8𝑥10−5
0.10
x = 0.00134 M = [OH-]
pOH = - log (0.00134) = 2.9
pH = 14 – 2.9 = 11.1
4. Buffers
• Read pp. 234-237
• A buffer solution is a solution of:
✓ A weak acid and the salt of the weak acid. An example is acetic acid (CH 3COOH) and sodium
acetate (NaCH3COO).
✓ Alternative, a weak base and the salt of the weak base. An example is ammonia (NH3) and
ammonium chloride (NH4Cl)
• Why are buffers important?
✓ A buffer solution has the ability to resist changes in pH upon the addition of small amounts
of either acid or base.
✓ Important for vulnerable aqueous systems, such as the blood (H2CO3 and HCO3- buffer) to
prevent drastic changes in blood pH.
• How does a buffer work?
✓ Consider the CH3COOH and NaCH3COO buffer:
If you add a strong acid, it is neutralized by the acetate anion:
CH3COO-(aq) + H+(aq) → CH3COOH(aq)
If you add a strong base, it is neutralized by the acetic acid:
CH3COOH(aq) + OH-(aq) → CH3COO-(aq) + H2O(l)
✓ Consider the NH3 and NH4Cl buffer
If you add a strong acid, it is neutralized by ammonia:
NH3(aq) + H+(aq) → NH4+(aq)
If you add a strong base, it is neutralized by the ammonium cation:
NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq) → NH3(aq) + H2O(l)
5. Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation
• Read pp. 238-242
• Equation used to determine the pH of buffer solutions

• Derived from the Ka expression of a weak acid

Given the weak monoprotic acid, HA
HA(aq) ↔ H+(aq) + A-(aq)
[𝐻 +][𝐴−]
𝐾𝑎 =
[𝐻𝐴]
Getting the – log of the equation, results to:
+]
[𝐴−]
−𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝐾𝑎 = − log[𝐻 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔
[𝐻𝐴]
Let pKa = -log Ka
[𝑨 − ] [𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒋𝒖𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆]
𝒑𝑲𝒂 = 𝒑𝑯 − 𝒍𝒐𝒈 = 𝒑𝑯 − 𝒍𝒐𝒈
[𝑯𝑨] [𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅]
Sample Exercise
What is the pH of a buffer containing 0.30 M formic acid (HCOOH) and 0.52 M potassium formate
(HCOOK)? Given Ka HCOOH = 1.9 x 10-4
Solution:
HCOOH(aq) ↔ H+(aq) + HCOO-(aq)
initial: 0.30 0 0.52
final: 0.30 – x x 0.52 + x
pKa = - log (1.9 x 10-4) = 3.72

Assume:
since Ka << 1, then [HCOOH] = 0.30 – x ~ 0.30 and [HCOO-] = 0.52 + x ~ 0.52
therefore,
[𝐴−]
𝑝𝐾𝑎 = 𝑝𝐻 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔
[𝐻𝐴]
[𝐴−] 0.52
𝑝𝐻 = 𝑝𝐾𝑎 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 = 3.72 + log = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟔
[𝐻𝐴] 0.30
B. Solubility Equilibria
• Solubility equilibria refer to the reversible ionization of slightly soluble salts in water.
• Consider the slightly soluble AgCl which slightly ionizes in water according to the following reaction:
AgCl(s) ↔ Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
where the equilibrium constant called the solubility product constant, Ksp, is designated as:
𝐾𝑠𝑝 = [𝐴𝑔+][𝐶𝑙 −]
• Since the solubility of a slightly soluble salt is a reversible reaction, Le Chatelier’s principle can be
used to either to increase or decrease the solubility of a salt
✓ Consider the solubility equilibrium of Fe(OH)3:
Fe(OH)3(s) ↔ Fe3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq)

o Addition of a strong base, NaOH, which ionizes completely to form Na + and OH- ions will
shift the solubility of Fe(OH)3 to the left since the concentration of OH - ions increases.
o Addition of a strong acid, HCl, will shift the solubility of Fe(OH)3 to the right since the
concentration of OH- ions decreases since it will react with the H + ions from the acid to form
H2O.
• The molar solubility is the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 L of a saturated solution; it is
designated by the symbol S. It can be calculated from a given Ksp value at a specific temperature.
Sample Exercises
a) What is the molar solubility of silver chloride in water at 25oC?

Given Ksp AgCl at 25oC = 1.8 x 10-10
Solution:
AgCl(s) ↔ Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Change: -S +S +S
𝐾𝑠𝑝 = 1.8𝑥10−10 = [𝐴𝑔+ ][𝐶𝑙 −] = 𝑆 2
𝑆 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟒𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝑴
b) What is the molar solubility of lead(II) chloride in water at 25oC?

Given Ksp PbCl2 at 25oC = 1.7 x 10-5
Solution:
PbCl2(s) ↔ Pb2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)
Change: -S +S +2S
𝐾𝑠𝑝 = 1.7𝑥10 = [𝑃𝑏 ][𝐶𝑙 ] = (𝑆)(2𝑆)2 = 4𝑆 3
−5 2+ − 2
𝑆 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟔𝟏 𝑴

ASSESSMENT
REFLECTION

Reflect on Gen. 1:28. Combustion of fossil fuels is one of the main sources of sulfur and nitrogen oxide
emissions that results to acid rain that can increase weathering of man-made structures and pollute
ecosystems. Valuing our role as stewards of God’s creation, how can you help promote advocacies for
the reduction of carbon footprint as a simple student during this pandemic times?
EXERCISES
Answer the following:

• Open Ended Questions #s 3, 8a (i-ii), and 10a pp. 277-278
• Chapter 7 Assessment #s 5a p. 582, 7 p. 284, and 8 p. 285
PERFORMANCE-BASED ASSESSMENT (PBA)
Laboratory experiment: Studying the Acid-Base properties of Natural Products (refer to handouts)
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY
Aquatic organisms are vulnerable to changes in pH. Fortunately, natural buffer systems are found in
bodies of water, such as lakes and rivers. Give an example of a natural buffer system and explain how
it prevents drastic changes in the pH of the water.

Semester 2 Term 2
MODULE 8: Electrochemistry March 28 – April 1, 2022
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Define oxidation and reduction reactions

2. Balance redox reactions using the change in oxidation number method and ion-electron method
3. Write half-equations for the reactions occurring at the anode and cathode of galvanic cells
4. Define reduction potential, oxidation potential, and cell potential
5. Calculate the standard cell potential
6. Relate the value of the cell potential to the feasibility of using the cell to generate an electric current
7. Explain the electrochemistry involved in some common batteries or galvanic cells: dry cells, button
batteries, fuel cells and lead storage batteries
8. Cite ways to prevent corrosion using electrochemical principles
9. Write the reactions occurring at the electrodes of an electrolytic cell
10. Describe the reactions in some commercial electrolytic processes
VI: Gen.1:28: Practice good stewardship of God’s creation by switching to rechargeable batteries or
practicing safe disposal of used batteries to minimize heavy metal pollution from landfill
leachate
II: Physics – batteries, Earth Science – solid waste management
Key Concepts: Electrochemistry, Oxidation, Reduction, Galvanic cell, Anode, Cathode, Cell
potential, Electrolysis, Electrolytic cell
INTRODUCTION
Pre-activity:
Class demonstration: Assemble a fruit battery that can light-up a small LED bulb
Analyzing Results: Why can fruits act as a battery? What do batteries do?

DISCUSSION
A. Oxidation and Reduction

• Read text pp. 288
• Oxidation (electron loss) always accompanies reduction (electron gain).
• The oxidizing agent is reduced, and the reducing agent is oxidized.
• The number of electrons gained always equals the number of electrons lost.
B. Balancing Redox Reactions

• The oxidation number is the charge the atom would have in a molecule (or an ionic compound) if
electrons were completely transferred.
• Rules in determining oxidation number
1. Free elements (uncombined state) have an oxidation number of zero.
Ex. Na, Be, K, Pb, H2, O2, P4 = 0
2. In monoatomic ions, the oxidation number is equal to the charge on the ion.
Ex. Li+, Li = +1; Fe3+, Fe = +3; O2-, O = -2
3. The oxidation number of oxygen is usually –2.
Notable exceptions: Peroxide ion, O22-, it is –1.
4. The oxidation number of hydrogen is +1 except when it is bonded to metals in binary compounds.
In these cases, its oxidation number is –1.
5. Group IA metals are +1, IIA metals are +2 and fluorine is always –1.
6. The sum of the oxidation numbers of all the atoms in a molecule or ion is equal to the charge on
the molecule or ion.
Sample Exercises
a) What is the oxidation number of C in CH 4? B) What is the oxidation number of S in SO42-?
Sum of oxidation numbers: Sum of oxidation numbers:
(C)(1) + (H)(4) = 0 (S)(1) + (O)(4) = -2
(C)(1) + (+1)(4) = 0 (S)(1) + (-2)(4) = -2
C + 4 = 0 S – 8 = -2
C = -4 S = +6
• Rules in balancing redox reaction using the half-reaction method

1. Write the unbalanced equation for the reaction in ionic form.
Fe2+ + Cr2O72- → Fe3+ + Cr3+
2. Separate the equation into two half-reactions.
Oxidation: Fe2+ → Fe3+
Reduction: Cr2O72- → Cr3+
3. Balance the atoms other than O and H in each half-reaction.
Cr2O72- → 2Cr3+
4. For reactions in acid, add H2O to the side deficient in O and H + to the side deficient in H.
Cr2O72- → 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
14H+ + Cr2O72- → 2Cr3+ + 7H2O

5. Add electrons to one side of each half-reaction to balance the charges on the half-reaction.
Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e-
6e + 14H+ + Cr2O72- → 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
6. If necessary, equalize the number of electrons in the two half-reactions by multiplying the half-
reactions by appropriate coefficients.
7. Add the two half-reactions together and balance the final equation by inspection. The number
of electrons on both sides must cancel.
8. Verify that the number of atoms and the charges are balanced.
Oxidation: 6Fe2+ → 6Fe3+ + 6e-
Reduction: 6e- + 14H+ + Cr2O72- → 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
14H+ + Cr2O72- + 6Fe2+ → 6Fe3+ + 2Cr3+ + 7H2O

9. Verify that the number of atoms and the charges are balanced.
Self-Check 8-1
Balance this reaction in acidic medium: Br2 → BrO3- + Br -
Figure 5. Schematic of a
C. Electrochemistry Galvanic / Voltaic cell
1. Electrochemical processes are oxidation-reduction

reactions in which:
• the energy released by a spontaneous reaction is
converted to electricity (voltaic or galvanic cell),
• or electrical energy is used to cause a
nonspontaneous reaction to occur (electrolytic cell)
2. Galvanic Cell
• A galvanic cell is also called a voltaic cell or
electrochemical cell (Figure 5).
• It consists of two half-cells (anode and cathode)
immersed in a solution of ions that is joined by a salt
bridge.

• A galvanic cell is represented by a cell notation that is written as:
Anode (Oxidation half-cell) Cathode (Reduction half-cell)

Phase of lower Phase of higher Phase of higher Phase of lower
oxidation state oxidation state oxidation state oxidation state
Example: Zn(s) | Zn2+(1 M)  Cu2+(1 M) | Cu (s)
3. Standard Cell Potential

• Cell Potential refers to energy available to do the work of moving a charge between electrodes.
✓ SI unit is the volt (V)
• Standard Cell Potential is the potential at standard conditions (all aqueous solutions are at 1 M
𝑜
and all gases at 1 atm); denoted by 𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
• The standard cell potential can be calculated from tabulated 𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝑜
values.
𝑜 0 𝑜 0 0
𝐸𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑑/𝑐𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑒 − 𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑑/𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 = 𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑑/𝑐𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑒 + 𝐸𝑜𝑥/𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒
𝑜
✓ 𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑑 is the standard reduction potential, which is the voltage associated with a reduction
half-reaction at standard conditions. It is equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to the
standard oxidation potential 𝐸𝑜𝑥
𝑜 .
𝑜
✓ The more positive the value of 𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑑 , the greater the tendency for the substance to be
reduced.
✓ Changing the stoichiometric coefficients of a half-cell reaction DOES NOT change the value
𝑜
of 𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑑 .
Sample Exercise
Which combination of half-cell reactions would yield the maximum standard cell potential?
Write the redox reaction of this cell.
𝑜
Co3+(aq) + e- → Co2+(aq) 𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 1.82 𝑉
𝑜
Br2(l) + 2e- → 2Br-(aq) 𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 1.07 𝑉
𝑜
Pb2+(aq) + 2e- → Pb(s) 𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑑 = −0.13 𝑉
𝑜
Cd2+(aq) + 2e- → Cd(s) 𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑑 = −0.74 𝑉
Solution:
• The cathode should be the reduction half-reaction with the largest 𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑜
value.
• The anode should be the reduction half-reaction with the smallest 𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑑 value because when the
𝑜
half-reaction reverses (oxidation), it will have the largest 𝐸𝑜𝑥

𝑜 value.
• Make sure to balance the electron gain and lost when getting the net redox reaction. Recall that
𝑜
changing the coefficients will not change the 𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑑 values.
Cathode: [ Co3+(aq) + e- → Co2+(aq) ] x 2 𝑜

𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 1.82 𝑉
Anode: Cd(s) → Cd2+(aq) + 2e 𝑜 = 0.74 𝑉
𝐸𝑜𝑥
Net reaction: 2Co3+(aq) + Cd(s) → 2Co2+(aq) + Cd2+(aq) 𝑬𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟔 𝑽

4. Electrochemistry in Batteries and Corrosion

5. Electrolytic cell
• An electrolytic cell consists of two electrodes connected
to an external source of direct current and immersed in an
electrolyte (Figure 6).
• Electroplating is a commercial application of electrolysis; it
is the process of depositing a thin coat of a metal to an
object.
✓ Ex. silver plating of a spoon
Anode: silver electrode
Ag(s) → Ag+(aq) + e
Cathode: spoon
Ag+(aq) + e → Ag(s)
• The amount of substance deposited on an object (acting
as the cathode) can be calculated using Faraday’s first law
of electrolysis
mQ where m = mass of deposited substance
Q = quantity of charge Figure 6. Schematic of an
Q = It where I = current in amperes (A) electrolytic cell
t = time in seconds
• The quantity of electricity is often given in terms of
96500 𝐶
Faraday’s constant (F): 1 𝐹 =
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
Sample Exercises
a) How much Ca will be produced in an electrolytic cell of molten CaCl 2 if a current of 0.452 A is
passed through the cell for 1.5 hours?
Solution:
Anode: 2Cl- (l) → Cl2 (g) + 2e
Cathode: Ca2+ (l) + 2e- → Ca (s)
Ca2+ (l) + 2Cl- (l) → Ca (s) + Cl2 (g)
Therefore: 2 moles e- = 1 mole Ca
𝑠 𝐶 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑒 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑎
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝑎 = (1.5 ℎ𝑟) (3600 ) (0.452 ) ( )( ) = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎 𝒈
ℎ𝑟 𝑠 96500 𝐶 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑒

b) A technician is plating a faucet with 0.86 g of Cr from an electrolytic bath containing aqueous
Cr2(SO4)3. If 12.5 min is allowed for the plating, what current is needed?
Solution:
Cathode reaction: Cr3+(aq) + 3e- → Cr(s)

Therefore: 3 moles e- = 1 mole Cr
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑟 3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑒 96500 𝐶
(0.86 𝑔)( 52.0 𝑔 )(1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑟)( 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑒 ) 𝐶
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼 = = 6.4 = 𝟔. 𝟒 𝑨
60 𝑠 𝑠
(12.5 min)(1 𝑚𝑖𝑛)
ASSESSMENT
REFLECTION

We are like rechargeable batteries whose energy need to be constantly recharged. What situations
drain your energy? How do you recharge your energy?
EXERCISES
Answer the Open-Ended Questions

• # 1. a-c p. 324
• # 7. a-c p. 325
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY
What are rechargeable cell batteries? How different are they from one-use batteries?

OCGS Chemistry Modules

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12

Term 2, 2nd Semester, SY 2021 – 22

MODULE 4: Chemical Thermodynamics............................................................................................... 1

OCGS SCIENCE MODULE i

B. Solubility Equilibria ............................................................................................................. 27

OCGS SCIENCE MODULE ii

MODULE 4: Chemical Thermodynamics Feb. 16 – 24, 2022

At the end of the lesson, a learner is expected to:

II: Physics – thermodynamics, entropy, Gibb’s free energy

Textbook: General Chemistry 2 – Chapter 4 pp. 101 – 118

OCGS SCIENCE MODULE 1

A. Overview of Chemical Thermodynamics

• Second Law of Thermodynamics - In a spontaneous process, there is a net increase in entropy,

• Standard Conditions in Thermodynamics - Processes often occur at standard conditions, which

OCGS SCIENCE MODULE 2

C. Gibbs Free Energy, G

OCGS SCIENCE MODULE 3

Table 1. Conditions of Spontaneity based on thermodynamic functions

• To calculate the temperature at which the spontaneity changes from spontaneous to

OCGS SCIENCE MODULE 4

Conclusion: G is positive; therefore, the reaction is NOT spontaneous at 230oC.

b) At what temperature range is the reaction above spontaneous?

OCGS SCIENCE MODULE 5

• The Gibbs-Helmholtz equation can be converted to a linear equation form (y = mx + b) as follows:

Figure 1. Plot of G vs T for the reaction Fe2O3(s) + 3H2(g) → 2Fe(s) + 3H2O(g)

OCGS SCIENCE MODULE 6

Answer in 3-4 meaningful sentences

Answer the Open-ended Questions pp. 112-113 #s 1-5

Explain how heat engines work using the laws of thermodynamics.

OCGS SCIENCE MODULE 7

MODULE 5: Chemical Kinetics February 28 – March 11, 2022

At the end of the lesson, a learner is expected to:

1. Explain reactions qualitatively in terms of molecular collisions

II: Biology – Catalyst (enzymes), Calculus – Derivatives and Integration

Textbook: General Chemistry 2 – Chapter 5 pp. 119 – 164

1. What is the visible sign that a reaction is happening?

OCGS SCIENCE MODULE 8

B. Measuring Reaction Rate

For a balanced chemical equation: aA + bB → cC + dD

If N2O5 is disappearing at 0.06 mol/L-min then:

b) What is the rate of appearance of NO2 gas?

OCGS SCIENCE MODULE 9

c) What is the rate of appearance of O2 gas?

where k = rate constant

• Rate laws are always determined experimentally.

Using these data, determine the following:

OCGS SCIENCE MODULE 10

D. Reaction Concentration and Time

OCGS SCIENCE MODULE 11

OCGS SCIENCE MODULE 12

Figure 2. A catalyzed reaction has

H2O2(aq) → H2O(l) + O2(g)

OCGS SCIENCE MODULE 13

Answer in 3-4 meaningful sentences

How can you be a catalyst of change in this pandemic times?

Answer Chapter 5 Assessment #s 1-4 pp. 161-164

PERFORMANCE-BASED ASSESSMENT (PBA)

OCGS SCIENCE MODULE 14

MODULE 6: Chemical Equilibrium March 14 – 18, 2022

At the end of the lesson, a learner is expected to:

1. Describe and explain the behavior of reversible reactions

II: Biology - homeostasis

Textbook: General Chemistry 2 – Chapter 6 pp. 166 – 208